{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,30]],"date-time":"2025-07-30T09:45:29Z","timestamp":1753868729049,"version":"3.41.2"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,7]],"date-time":"2021-09-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1630972800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/http\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Concurrency and Computation"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,25]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Summary<\/jats:title><jats:p>Bitcoin introduced blockchain which is the transparent and decentralized way of recording the lists of digital currency transactions. Bitcoin's blockchain uses Proof\u2010of\u2010Work as a Sybil control mechanism. However, PoW wastes energy since it uses hash computing competitions to find a block. Hence, various alternative mechanisms have been proposed. Among them, Proof\u2010of\u2010Stake, which is based on the deposit, has been spotlighted. As opposed to Proof\u2010of\u2010Work, Proof\u2010of\u2010Stake requires nodes to have a certain amount of tokens (stake) in order to qualify to validate blocks. The \u201cone\u2010sentence philosophy\u201d of proof of stake is not \u201csecurity comes from burning energy,\u201d but rather \u201csecurity comes from putting up economic value\u2010at\u2010loss.\u201d In this article, contrary to popular belief, we point out that this value\u2010at\u2010loss can be hedged by short selling or other financial products. We propose a \u201cshorting attack,\u201d which makes a profit by massive short selling and sabotage to a Proof\u2010of\u2010Stake\u2010based cryptocurrency. The shorting attack implies that the security of Proof\u2010of\u2010Stake\u2010based cryptocurrency can be vulnerable by a low stake ratio.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/cpe.6585","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,7]],"date-time":"2021-09-07T07:23:14Z","timestamp":1630999394000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Shorting attack: Predatory, destructive short selling on Proof\u2010of\u2010Stake cryptocurrencies"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"35","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1318-6612","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Suhyeon","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"ICSP (Institute of Cyber Security &amp; Privacy), School of Cybersecurity Korea University  Seoul Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Seungjoo","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ICSP (Institute of Cyber Security &amp; Privacy), School of Cybersecurity Korea University  Seoul Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_9_2_1","unstructured":"NakamotoB. A peer\u2010to\u2010peer electronic cash system; 2009. [Online. Accessed July 10 2020].https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/bitcoin.org\/bitcoin.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_3_1","unstructured":"KingS NadalS. Ppcoin: peer\u2010to\u2010peer crypto\u2010currency with proof\u2010of\u2010stake. self\u2010published paper; Accessed August 19 2012."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVCBT.2018.00015"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2901858"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_6_1","first-page":"19","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Financial Cryptography and Data Security \u2010 International Workshops, FC 2016, BITCOIN, VOTING, and WAHC","author":"Bonneau J","year":"2016"},{"volume-title":"Predatory Short\u2010Selling and Self\u2010Fulfilling Crises. Working Paper","year":"2010","author":"Liu X","key":"e_1_2_9_7_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.2014.1997"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/rof\/rft043"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_10_1","unstructured":"ButerinV.A next\u2010generation smart contract and decentralized application platform; 2020. Accessed July 10 2020.https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/github.com\/ethereum\/wiki\/wiki\/White\u2010Paper"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_11_1","unstructured":"ButerinV GriffithV.Casper the friendly finality gadget; 2017. arXiv preprint arXiv:171009437."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_12_1","unstructured":"EOSIO technical white paper; 2017. [Online. Accessed July 10 2020].https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/githubcom\/EOSIO\/Documentation"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_13_1","unstructured":"GoodmanL.Tezos\u2014a self\u2010amending crypto\u2010ledger White paper; 2014. https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/wwwtezoscom\/static\/papers\/white paper.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_14_1","first-page":"377","article-title":"Algorand agreement: super fast and partition resilient byzantine agreement","volume":"2018","author":"Chen J","year":"2018","journal-title":"IACR Cryptol ePrint Arch"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-63688-7_12"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_16_1","unstructured":"KwonJ.Tendermint: consensus without mining. Draft v 06 fall 1 (11); 2014."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_17_1","unstructured":"ButerinV. A proof of stake design philosophy; 2016. [Online. Accessed July 10 2020].https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/medium.com\/@VitalikButerin\/a\u2010proof\u2010of\u2010stake\u2010design\u2010philosophy\u20105%06585978d51"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/BLOC.2019.8751290"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_19_1","first-page":"203","article-title":"The Byzantine generals problem","volume":"1","author":"Lamport L","year":"2019","journal-title":"Concurrency: Works Leslie Lamport"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-45472-5_28"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_21_1","unstructured":"Proof of stake frequently asked questions; 2020. [Online. 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