{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T19:30:19Z","timestamp":1783107019494,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"108","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[1989,4,1]],"date-time":"1989-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":607392000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["SIGART Bull."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1989,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Recognizing that the knowledge of experts is qualitatively and not just quantitatively different from the knowledge of novices is an important pre-requisite to conducting effective knowledge acquisition. This article reviews the current cognitive research on expertise and proposes seven ways in which the knowledge of experts is different from the knowledge of novices, including such aspects as underlying schema, goal-orientation, practical focus, categorical chunking, cognitive complexity, automaticity of expert problem solving, and finally, the episodic nature of expert memory. The paper concludes with an outline of several implications that follow from this research including showing why knowledge acquisition will remain problematic without knowledge of experts' knowledge, as well as making a number of specific suggestions for those who need to elicit expert knowledge for knowledge-based systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/63266.63267","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,1,17]],"date-time":"2007-01-17T18:32:02Z","timestamp":1169058722000},"page":"6-14","update-policy":"https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["The quality of expertise: implications of expert-novice differences for knowledge acquisition"],"prefix":"10.1145","author":[{"given":"Marianne","family":"LaFrance","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[1989,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03197568"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.10.3.483"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","volume-title":"Models of architectural knowledge","author":"Akin O.","unstructured":"Akin , O. Models of architectural knowledge . London : Pion . Akin, O. Models of architectural knowledge. London: Pion."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog0802_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01449298608914495"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-0394.1987.tb00138.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7373(85)80055-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.115.3.255"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.2.6.641"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0285(73)90004-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog0502_2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","first-page":"7","volume-title":"Advances in the psychology of human intelligence. (Vol. 1","author":"Chi M.T.H.","year":"1982","unstructured":"Chi , M.T.H. , Glaser , R. , &amp;amp; Rees , E. ( 1982 ). Expertise in problem solving . In R. Sternberg (Ed.), Advances in the psychology of human intelligence. (Vol. 1 , pp. 7 - 75 ). Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum . Chi, M.T.H., Glaser, R., &amp;amp; Rees, E. (1982). Expertise in problem solving. In R. Sternberg (Ed.), Advances in the psychology of human intelligence. (Vol. 1, pp. 7-75). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5371(79)90146-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0004-3702(79)90014-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.6340198"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","volume-title":"Chunking in recall of symbolic drawings. Memory and cognition, 7, 149-158","author":"Egan D.E.","year":"1979","unstructured":"Egan , D.E. , &amp;amp; Schwartz , B. ( 1979 ) Chunking in recall of symbolic drawings. Memory and cognition, 7, 149-158 . Egan, D.E., &amp;amp; Schwartz, B. (1979) Chunking in recall of symbolic drawings. Memory and cognition, 7, 149-158."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","volume-title":"Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data","author":"Ericsson K.A.","year":"1984","unstructured":"Ericsson , K.A. , &amp;amp; Simon , H. ( 1984 ). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data . Cambridge, MA : MIT Press . Ericsson, K.A., &amp;amp; Simon, H. (1984). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","volume-title":"Expertise and knowledge modification: When bridge isn't bridge anymore. Manuscript submitted for publication","author":"Frensch P.","year":"1988","unstructured":"Frensch , P. ( 1988 ). Expertise and knowledge modification: When bridge isn't bridge anymore. Manuscript submitted for publication . Frensch, P. (1988). Expertise and knowledge modification: When bridge isn't bridge anymore. Manuscript submitted for publication."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","volume-title":"The knowledge-based system: A tutorial","author":"Hayes-Roth F.","year":"1984","unstructured":"Hayes-Roth , F. ( 1984 ). The knowledge-based system: A tutorial . IEEE , September, 11-28. Hayes-Roth, F. (1984). The knowledge-based system: A tutorial. IEEE, September, 11-28."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog0503_3"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society","author":"Kay D.S.","year":"1985","unstructured":"Kay , D.S. , &amp;amp; Black , J.B. ( 1985 , August). The evolution of knowledge representations with increasing with increasing expertise in using a system . Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society . Irvine, CA. Kay, D.S., &amp;amp; Black, J.B. (1985, August). The evolution of knowledge representations with increasing with increasing expertise in using a system. Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. Irvine, CA."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7373(83)80068-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.1987.4309058"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","volume-title":"IJCAI: Proceedings of the Ninth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 1, 284-290","author":"Kolodner J.L.","year":"1985","unstructured":"Kolodner , J.L. , Simpson , R.L. , &amp;amp; Sycara-Cyranski , K. ( 1985 ). Process model of case-based reasoning in problem solving . IJCAI: Proceedings of the Ninth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 1, 284-290 . Kolodner, J.L., Simpson, R.L., &amp;amp; Sycara-Cyranski, K. (1985). Process model of case-based reasoning in problem solving. IJCAI: Proceedings of the Ninth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 1, 284-290."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7373(87)80094-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","first-page":"285","article-title":"Processing information of effective problem solving","volume":"70","author":"Larkin J.H.","year":"1979","unstructured":"Larkin , J.H. ( 1979 ). Processing information of effective problem solving . Engineering Education , 70 , 285 - 288 . Larkin, J.H. (1979). Processing information of effective problem solving. Engineering Education, 70, 285-288.","journal-title":"Engineering Education"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","volume-title":"Cognitive skills and their acquisition. Hillsdale","author":"Larkin J.H.","year":"1981","unstructured":"Larkin , J.H. ( 1981 ). Enriching formal knowledge: A model for learning to solve textbook physics problems . In J.R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition. Hillsdale , N.J. Erlbaum . Larkin, J.H. (1981). Enriching formal knowledge: A model for learning to solve textbook physics problems. In J.R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition. Hillsdale, N.J. Erlbaum."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","volume-title":"S.F. Chipman, J.W. Segal, &amp;amp","author":"Larkin J.H.","year":"1982","unstructured":"Larkin , J.H. ( 1982 ). Understanding problem representations, and skill in physics . In S.F. Chipman, J.W. Segal, &amp;amp ; R. Glaser (Eds.), Thinking and learning skills (Vol. III) . Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum . Larkin, J.H. (1982). Understanding problem representations, and skill in physics. In S.F. Chipman, J.W. Segal, &amp;amp; R. Glaser (Eds.), Thinking and learning skills (Vol. III). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.208.4450.1335"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0004-3702(83)80005-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2nd National Conference, the Canadian Society for Computational Studies of Intelligence","author":"McDermott J.","year":"1978","unstructured":"McDermott , J. , &amp;amp; Larkin , J.H. ( 1978 ). Representing textbook physics problems . In Proceedings of the 2nd National Conference, the Canadian Society for Computational Studies of Intelligence . Toronto, Canada : University of Toronto Press. McDermott, J., &amp;amp; Larkin, J.H. (1978). Representing textbook physics problems. In Proceedings of the 2nd National Conference, the Canadian Society for Computational Studies of Intelligence. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7373(80)80054-X"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.84.3.231"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.11.1.106"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_35_1","article-title":"This is like that: The use of earlier problems and the separation of similarity effects","author":"Ross B.H.","unstructured":"Ross , B.H. (in press). This is like that: The use of earlier problems and the separation of similarity effects . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. Ross, B.H. (in press). This is like that: The use of earlier problems and the separation of similarity effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition.","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_36_1","volume-title":"R. Spior, B. Bruce, &amp;amp","author":"Rumelhart D.E.","year":"1981","unstructured":"Rumelhart , D.E. ( 1981 ). Schemata: The building blocks of cognition . In R. Spior, B. Bruce, &amp;amp ; W. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum . Rumelhart, D.E. (1981). Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In R. Spior, B. Bruce, &amp;amp; W. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_37_1","volume-title":"NIE Milestone Report, Learning","author":"Schiano D.","year":"1984","unstructured":"Schiano , D. , Cooper , L.A. , &amp;amp; Glaser , R. ( 1984 ). Aptitude-related differences in strategies for the representation and solution of standardized figural analogy problems. Unpublished manuscript , NIE Milestone Report, Learning , Research and Development Center , Pittsburgh, PA . Schiano, D., Cooper, L.A., &amp;amp; Glaser, R. (1984). Aptitude-related differences in strategies for the representation and solution of standardized figural analogy problems. Unpublished manuscript, NIE Milestone Report, Learning, Research and Development Center, Pittsburgh, PA."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.8.5.484"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_39_1","volume-title":"The reflective practicioner: How professionals think in action","author":"Schon D.A.","year":"1983","unstructured":"Schon , D.A. ( 1983 ). The reflective practicioner: How professionals think in action . New York : Basic Books . Schon, D.A. (1983). The reflective practicioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7373(85)80064-X"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_41_1","volume-title":"R. Sternberg &amp;amp","author":"Scribner S.","year":"1985","unstructured":"Scribner , S. ( 1985 ). Thinking in action: Some characteristics of practical thought . In R. Sternberg &amp;amp ; R.K. Wagner (Eds.), Practical Intelligence : Origins of competence in the everyday world. New York : Cambridge University Press . Scribner, S. (1985). Thinking in action: Some characteristics of practical thought. In R. Sternberg &amp;amp; R.K. Wagner (Eds.), Practical Intelligence: Origins of competence in the everyday world. New York: Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7373(87)80055-X"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_43_1","volume-title":"A guide to expert systems","author":"Waterman D.A.","year":"1986","unstructured":"Waterman , D.A. ( 1986 ). A guide to expert systems . Reading, MA : Addison-Wesley . Waterman, D.A. (1986). A guide to expert systems. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_44_1","volume-title":"A practical guide to designing expert systems","author":"Weiss S.M.","year":"1984","unstructured":"Weiss , S.M. , &amp;amp; Kulikowski , C. ( 1984 ). A practical guide to designing expert systems . Totowa, NJ : Rowman and Allanheld . Weiss, S.M., &amp;amp; Kulikowski, C. (1984). A practical guide to designing expert systems. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Allanheld."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_45_1","volume-title":"Understanding computers and cognition: A new foundation for design","author":"Winograd T.","year":"1986","unstructured":"Winograd , T. , &amp;amp; Flores , F. ( 1986 ). Understanding computers and cognition: A new foundation for design . Norwood, NJ : Ablex . Winograd, T., &amp;amp; Flores, F. (1986). Understanding computers and cognition: A new foundation for design. Norwood, NJ: Ablex."}],"container-title":["ACM SIGART Bulletin"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/63266.63267","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/63266.63267","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T21:15:16Z","timestamp":1750281316000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/63266.63267"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[1989,4]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"108","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1989,4]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/63266.63267"],"URL":"https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/doi.org\/10.1145\/63266.63267","relation":{},"ISSN":["0163-5719"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0163-5719","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[1989,4]]},"assertion":[{"value":"1989-04-01","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}