{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T13:39:08Z","timestamp":1774532348373,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,22]],"date-time":"2020-02-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1582329600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000968","name":"American Heart Association","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["16IRG26960017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["16IRG26960017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000968","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["K01HD091283"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K01HD091283"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Electroencephalography (EEG)-based brain\u2013computer interfaces (BCIs) for motor rehabilitation aim to \u201cclose the loop\u201d between attempted motor commands and sensory feedback by providing supplemental information when individuals successfully achieve specific brain patterns. Existing EEG-based BCIs use various displays to provide feedback, ranging from displays considered more immersive (e.g., head-mounted display virtual reality (HMD-VR)) to displays considered less immersive (e.g., computer screens). However, it is not clear whether more immersive displays improve neurofeedback performance and whether there are individual performance differences in HMD-VR versus screen-based neurofeedback. In this pilot study, we compared neurofeedback performance in HMD-VR versus a computer screen in 12 healthy individuals and examined whether individual differences on two measures (i.e., presence, embodiment) were related to neurofeedback performance in either environment. We found that, while participants\u2019 performance on the BCI was similar between display conditions, the participants\u2019 reported levels of embodiment were significantly different. Specifically, participants experienced higher levels of embodiment in HMD-VR compared to a computer screen. We further found that reported levels of embodiment positively correlated with neurofeedback performance only in HMD-VR. Overall, these preliminary results suggest that embodiment may relate to better performance on EEG-based BCIs and that HMD-VR may increase embodiment compared to computer screens.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20041204","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,24]],"date-time":"2020-02-24T03:33:43Z","timestamp":1582515223000},"page":"1204","update-policy":"https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":69,"title":["Embodiment Is Related to Better Performance on a Brain\u2013Computer Interface in Immersive Virtual Reality: A Pilot Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4513-2624","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julia M.","family":"Juliano","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Neural Plasticity and Neurorehabilitation Laboratory, Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA"}]},{"given":"Ryan P.","family":"Spicer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Creative Technologies, University of Southern California, Playa Vista, CA 90094, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9676-8599","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Athanasios","family":"Vourvopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neural Plasticity and Neurorehabilitation Laboratory, Division of Occupational Science and Occupational Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA"}]},{"given":"Stephanie","family":"Lefebvre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neural Plasticity and Neurorehabilitation Laboratory, Division of Occupational Science and Occupational Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA"}]},{"given":"Kay","family":"Jann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"USC Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Department of Neurology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5123-1226","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tyler","family":"Ard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"USC Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Department of Neurology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA"}]},{"given":"Emiliano","family":"Santarnecchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Berenson-Allen Center for Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation and Division of Cognitive Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA"}]},{"given":"David M.","family":"Krum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Creative Technologies, University of Southern California, Playa Vista, CA 90094, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/2.zoppoz.workers.dev:443\/https\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5935-4215","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sook-Lei","family":"Liew","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neural Plasticity and Neurorehabilitation Laboratory, Division of Occupational Science and Occupational Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA"},{"name":"USC Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Department of Neurology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.23879","article-title":"Brain-machine interface in chronic stroke rehabilitation: A controlled study","volume":"74","author":"Broetz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. 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