Translation, Transcreation and Culture: The Evolving Theories of Translation in Hindi and Other Modern Indian Languages G.

Gopinathan Translation theory in the Indian languages has always been something inherent in practice. In the ancient period, no specific theory of translation was recorded since creative writing and translation were never considered as two separate process in India. But the modern period has shown some difference as many individual translators have recorded their experiences and reflections. The development of theory literature as part of the translators training and higher studies in translation introduced in some of the academic institutions in India after the seventies, have also contributed for a change in the attitude. Even then, very few attempts have been made to churn out the theories of translation in India, since the theories are embedded in the practice itself. In the ancient period, much

translation was done between allied classical languages like Sanskrit and Prakrits. These translations were called to chaya chaya or translation as shadow of the original text was practiced during this period. This theory has three implications (Gopinathan, 2000). 1. A translation should follow the original text exactly like a shadow, which follows the original object. 2. As a shadow can differ from its original object, depending on the intensity and the angle of light falling on it, a translation may also have a different form

depending on the nature of light thrown on it by the translator by his interpretation. However, with the emergence of the modern Indian languages, translation activity became intensified and the theory of translated text following the original like a shadow, was not strictly adhered to. The contact with western languages like English, French, German, etc also has influenced the theoretical stand point of the translators to a greater extent. As a result of these historical changes, translation theory has also been evolving along with the developments in the creative writing and the changing tastes and socio-cultural situations. The evolution of translation theory in Hindi and other modern Indian languages can be traced as follows: 1. The tradition of Transcreation: The people oriented and the time oriented creative translations of the ancient Sanskrit spiritual texts are generally termed as Transcreation. Transcreation has been the general mode of translation in modern Indian languages from the olden days. This term originally used by contemporary writers like P. Lal for his English translation of the Shakuntala and Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (1974), is applicable for the whole tradition of creative translation of great classics like Ramayana, Bhagarata and Mahabharata in the regional languages from Sanskrit. Mukherji (1981) prefers to call it Translation as New writing. Sujeet But

Transcreation seems to be a better word to express this literary tradition of India.

Transcreation can offer the best possible solution for the problems of culturally oriented literary texts. Transcreation in this context can be understood as a rebirth or incarnation (Avatar) of the original work. In a general sense, it can be defined as an aesthetic re-interpretation of the original work suited to the readers/audience of the target language in the particular time and space. This re-interpretation is done with a certain social purpose and is performed with suitable interpolations, explanations, expansions, summarising and aesthetic innovations in style and techniques. Usually such texts, like the Ramayana of Tulasidas, in Hindi, and that of Kamba in Tamil, are used as meta texts in the religious and spiritual fields. These translators had the aim of spiritually educating the people of their time who were separated from the ancient age by the time factor and also by language factor since they were ignorant of the Sanskrit language. According to the traditional Indian concept of word or veda as Brahman or God (Sabda Brahman), these texts being the revelation of vedic truth through the stages like valmiki and vyasa, reincarnate in the regional languages for giving emancipation to the common folk who were deprived of learning the vedic texts directly. Since they are the vedas for the common man speaking these languages, they became their book for everyday reading and spiritual discourse. Hence the theory behind these transcreations has got great sociological bearing. In fact, the tradition of transcreation in India goes back to the Chakyars and Katha vacaks who still interpret creatively the ancient texts to their audience in the

most effective and aesthetic manner. The medieval transcreators like Tulsidas in the introduction of his Ramayana states that he is writing his Ramayana in the Regional language on the basis of famous Ramayanas in Sanskrit and taking materials from elsewhere for his own mental gratification and pleasure. Ezhuthachan, in his introductory statements of the Atyatma Ramayanam in Malayalam is saying that he is writing his Ramayana for enlightening the people who are ignorant about the great Ramayana and its message. In the modern period also poets like Tagore, Sri Aurobindo, A. K. Ramanujan, Haribaresh Rai Bachan, Agneya, Vallathol and many others have and this technique of transcreation. A modern poet Vennikulam has again transcreated the Ramayana of Tulasidas from Hindi to Malayalam using the traditional poetic style called Kilippattu (parrot song) and it could become a popular translation too. The relevance of transcreation is universal since it can be used as a device to break the myth of untranslatability. In fact it is a holistic approach in which all possible techniques like elaboration, interpolation, image transpolation, explaining the cultural value of the original text, image change, image recreation, translative explanations and elucidations, are possible. In such texts, the translator enters into the sole of the original author and then he himself becomes creator. In the postcolonial situation, Haribaresh Rai Bachan, Agneya and Dharamvir Bharati have used the transcreation techniques for translating the western and eastern poetry in Hindi. It certainly demands an intuitive and aesthetic recreation and the application

of creative imagination. Transcreation is not all together a new creation because there is always a logical relationship between the original and the translated text. At the same time it reads like a new creation. 2. The Nationalistic Theory of Translation: During the freedom movement, the spirit of Nationalism was kindled by the renaissance in Indian culture and literature. The translation of Bible in Indian languages proved to be a good model of modern prose. At the same time it could also pose some challenging before the nationalist Indians who wanted to regenerate the cultural values of ancient India. Many of the translations done by the social reformers and national leaders should be interpreted in the light of this cultural crisis. Ram Mohan Roy (1774-1833) was perhaps the first writer in India to create a revolution by translating two vedanta treatises (1815) and the upanishads in to simple modern Bangali Prose. Afterwards Dayananda Saraswathy wrote Satyarth Prakash (1974) as a summary translation and interpretation of the vedic truth for the common man. This trend can be seen throughout India. Bhagavad Gita was translated with a political orientation by leaders like Tilak and Gandhi. The literary and social leaders like Bharatendu in Hindi and Bharati in Tamil wanted to develop their mother tongues by translating all best works from other languages.

Bharatendu translated from Sanskrit, Prakrit, Bengali and English and Bharati translated from Sanskrit and English. These translators were doing translation for enriching their language concerned. So Bharati has advocated Tamilizing the

foreign works and Bharatendu while translating Merchant of Venice into Hindi, Completely changed the cultural atmosphere by Indianising the proper names and place names and changing the cultural atmosphere. As a yard stick of translation, Bharati suggested that first of all you read out your sentence to a Tamilian who does not know English. If he understands it without any difficulty, you use that sentence. Then only your writings will be of use to Tamilnadu. Otherwise it simply means that you are troubling yourself as well as the readers (Jeya, 1988). A good example of creating the national spirit by changing the total atmosphere of the poem can be seen in the Hindi translation of Thomas Greys Elegy written in a country church yard by Kanta Prasad auru. He brings Indians heroes in the place of Hampden, Milton and Cromwell. Some village Hampden, that with dawnless breast. The little tyrant in his fields withstead, Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest, Some Cromwell, guiltless of his countrys blood (Grey) Koyi Ayodhyanath Sadrsa Nijdesupasi; Siva Prasad Sam Koyi des adhikar udasi Inme hote vir koyi Rana Pratap Sam Athava koyi Magan Singh hi se bhupadham. (Gramina vilap, Saraswati, 1908).

The motive of these translations was to develop the Swadesi idea, to bring out the merits of the land and to resist the cultural infiltration from the west and to bring the best from other literatures. 3. The psycho-spiritual theories of Translation The psycho spiritual theories of translation developed by Sri Aurobindo are very important in the context of modern Indian languages. Sri Aurobindo (1892-1950), a philosopher, poet, spiritualist and one of the greatest translators of India, has recorded the theoretical framework of his own translations in his articles like On translating Kalidasa, On translating the Bhagavad Gita, On translating the Upanishads, The interpretation of scripture, Freedom in translation, Importance of turn of language in Translation, Translation of Prose into poetry, and Remarks on Bengali translations. Since these theories have emerged from his own practice of translation, they have a sound basis of cognitive philosophy and psychology. His own philosophy is based on the psychospiritual interpretations of the ancient Indian thinking in the Upanishads. He seems to have been especially influenced by the cognitive philosophy of ancient India, the tradition of which goes back to the pre-Buddhist and the Buddhist period. Some of the theories put forward by him as the following. 3.1. Translation and the levels of consciousness

About the cognitive process of translation like analysis and comprehension of the literal and the suggested meaning of the target text and finding of suitable equivalence in the target language, Sri Aurobindo (1972(3):115) has mentioned three basic things in his essay, The interpretation of Scripture. They are name (nama), form of meaning (rupa) and the image of the essential figure of truth (svarupa). Here, Sri Aurobindo indicates the different levels of consciousness and the role of intuition in grasping the meaning at the higher levels. He is mentioning three levels of the text, which are like the three levels of language mentioned by the fifth century philosopher-grammarian Bhartrhari, in his work Vakyapadiyam,

namely pasyanti, the highest or the deepest level of consciousness, madhyama or the intermediate common mental level and vaikhari, the spoken-linguistic level (Kunjunni Raja 1963: 147-148). Sri Aurobindo, gives a further psycho-spiritual division of the levels of consciousness at the physical, mental and the supra mental levels. According to him Our ordinary human mind is only a fraction of our entire consciousness, which ranges from the mind levels to the superconscient above and the subconscience below. . . Our mind is only a middle term in a long series of ascending consciousness (Olsson, 1959: 12). In the light of this view of Sri Aurobindo, it can be said that a text can be analysed linguistically and intellectually at the two levels of word and its form of meaning, but at the highest level, the

analysis can be done only intuitively and perhaps at this level, the actual translation takes place. Some cognitive linguists consider that translation equivalence is possible at the level of imagery (Tabakowska 1993: 30). This idea seems to be very near to the level of the Essential Figure of Truth mentioned by Sri Aurobindo. In translation, the process of text analysis, comprehension of the literal as well as the suggested meaning, and the process of decision making will also have three levels. The flashes from the Supermind through the medium of intuition will be of great help for the translator. The use of the mechanical mind of the translator will produce only a mechanical type of translation, whereas a translation made by the proper use of the intuition will produce better results. Translator, in the search for effective equivalent goes through an inner struggle like the scientist in his experiments. Like the discovery which often comes to the scientist from above as a flash and not as a result of mere intellectual search, a translator also often gets insights into the possible equivalence like a flash from his Supermind through his intuition. According to Sri Aurobindo, consciousness can ascend or descend at the various levels and can integrate the lower one to the higher. The lower stages do not disappear, but are transformed, and continue under new conditions. This he calls the principle of integration (Olsson 1959: 14). In the light of this view, we can say that the decision making process in translation starts from the superconscious level of the image or the essential figure of truth. Then the

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mental level of the figure of meaning or rupa, and the physical or material level of nama, or word are also integrated. It is the finding of the appropriate expression at the surface level which can suggest the meaning. This extends its dimensions towards the third level of consciousness. Then translation becomes more communicative, especially when the higher meaning of the text is significant. About this kind of cognitive process, the ancient Indian thinkers had two divergent views. Some scholars like Bhartrhari believed that all cognition, perception included, is linguistic at all levels. But according to the Nyaya theories, perceptual cognition is initially non-linguistic and non-conceptual, but this initial phase is soon replaced by a linguistic and conceptual cognition, which is still perceptual (Mohanti 1994: 197). The latter view seems to be more relevant in the context of translation. The translation of any text is taking place at the three levels, as Sri Aurobindo indicates. At the super conscious level, it may not be purely linguistic, but soon at the mental and the physical level, it becomes linguistic and conceptual. He refers to supreme level by the ancient term Sabdabrahman, word as God, which is defined by Monier-Williams (1899:1053) the Veda considered as a revealed sound or word and identified with the Supreme. Translation scholars like Hans G. Honig (1991: 78) call this level the uncontrolled work space in the mental mapping of translation. In the light of these views, it can be said that while analysing and comprehending the meaning, the translator should reach the mental level (or the

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deep level of the modern linguistics) from the surface linguistic level and then to the highest (or the deepest) level where the text exists in a language without language form. While finding the equivalent, the translator will have to go to this language without language form first and then opt for appropriate name and form in the TL. Hence the process of translation can be said to be linguistic, intellectual and intuitive at the same time. Comparison also will be going on in the translators human translating machine, consciously and unconsciously at all the three levels. Therefore, the empirical methods for analysing and evaluating these processes also should be three dimensional, linguistic, intellectual and intuitive. 3.2. The Problem of knower, knowledge and the known in translation Sri Aurobindo (1972(3);118) writes that in the interpretation of the Scripture, the standards of truth are three, the knower, knowledge and the known. He explains that the known is the text itself that we intend to interpret (translate). The knower in the case of texts like the Upanisads is the original drasta or seer of the hymn. In the case of other key texts, he will be the author. The ancient Indian scholars of cognitive philosophy discussed basic problem of the unity of knower, knowledge and the known under the technical name of triputi or triad. Surendranath Dasgupta explains the interpretation of the unity of this triad by the Vedanta school of philosophers as follows:

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According to Sri Aurobindo, the translator ought to be in spiritual contact with the original seer (author). He represents the logical basis of the empathy of the translator with the author. He says that if knowledge is a perishable thing in a perishable instrument, such a contact is impossible but in that case the scripture itself must be false and not worth considering. If there is any truth in what the scripture says, knowledge is eternal and inherent in all of us and what another say I can see, what another realised I can realise. The drasta was a soul in relation with the infinite spirit and I am also a soul in relation with the infinite spirit. We have a meeting place, a possibility of communication (Sri Aurobindo 1972(3): 118). In effect, this communion between the original author, the translator and the knowledge which is revealed by the text form the triangular cognitive basis of translation. This will again continue as the triad of translator (who by the perceptive process identifies with the original author), knowledge revealed by the target text and the reader of the target text who will have a communion with the two. According to Sri Aurobindo, knowledge is the eternal truth, part of which the author expresses to us. He says that not only words, but also ideas are no more than symbols of a knowledge which is beyond ideas and words (1972 (3): 115). Therefore he instructs that the translator must transgress limits and penetrate to the knowledge behind. This knowledge must be experienced before it can be known, and the realisation in the self of things is the only knowledge. Text alone should be the guiding factor for the translator. The translator of the Vedas should prefer to

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know what the Veda has to say for itself (1972(3):117). At the same time, out of the two main instruments of cognition suggested by the ancient Indian philosophers, namely the authority of word and direct perception, Sri Aurobindo prefers perception in understanding the true meaning of the text (1972(3):116). In his essay, The foundations of a the psychological theory (1972(10):31), he advocates for finding out the right psychological function of the symbols which should be founded on good philosophical justification and fitting naturally into the context wherever it occurs. Sri Aurobindo (1972 (3):118) says that the translator should exceed the scriptures (texts) in order to be master of their knowledge. He also says that the capacity of man is unlimited, and if we can get rid of our ahankara or ego, if we can put ourselves at the service of the infinite without any reservation or predilection or opinion, there is no reason why our realisation should be limited. He is of the firm conviction that to understand the scriptures, it is not enough to be a scholar, one must be a soul. This is a hint on the ideal nature of the impersonality of the translator about which Sri Aurobindo has commented at various occasions. He has practiced this impersonality as a translator himself in the translations of so many spiritual texts and great authors. Kandaswamy (1993:34) writes that the kind of integral personality and the integral insight Sri Aurobindo brings to bear upon his translations is not merely a surrender to the original work and continual extinction of self on the part of the translator, but a kind of sahrdayatvam, a kind of

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identity in which the entire being of the translator throbs with a glow and brilliance of the original. In the light of the above discussion it can be concluded that through such an identity of the original author, translator and the text, the unification of knower, known and the knowledge becomes possible. This can be the cognitive basis of not only the scripture translation but of any kind of translation of literature or a work of spiritual nature. 3.3. The problem of communicating new concepts through translation Sri Aurobindo in his preface to the translation of the Upanisads (1972(12):58) writes: The mind of man demands, and that demand is legitimate, that new ideas shall be presented to him in words which convey to him some associations with which he should not feel like a foreigner in a strange country where no one knows his language, nor he theirs. The new must be presented to him in terms of the old, new wine must be put to some extend in old bottles. This statement is of great cognitive significance since the problem of translating the cultural terms from other cultures has been a crucial one before the translators all over the world. Sri Aurobindo does not advocate for total

replacement by the available target terms. On the basis of cognitive philosophy and psychology, and also based on his own experience as a translator, he is suggesting a more natural and psychological method of approaching the problem. The Nyaya

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philosophers of ancient India had accepted analogy (Upamana) as one of the valid sources of cognition. It is a concept of associating a thing unknown before with its name by virtue of its similarity with some other known thing (Dasgupta 1951: 354). A famous example given by them is that a man of the city who has never seen a wild ox goes to the forest, asks a forester -- what is a wild ox?, and the forester replies -- oh, you do not know it, it is just like a cow. Afterwards when he finds a wild ox, he compares it with a cow and understands that it is a wild ox. Similarly when a new concept or new cultural term which is unknown to the reader of the target language can be made familiar to him through the existing terms, although there can be limitations. This is in fact a psychological method of making use of the images already existing in the minds of the target reader. For example, in the translation of the Upanisads, Sri Aurobindo says that the use of the world God will be better in the target text, even though the Sanskrit language always employs the neuter gender when referring to the Supreme being. He is of the opinion that if the new ideas are presented with force and power through the already existing similar terms, a reader of intelligence will soon come to understand that something different is meant by god (1972(12):58). This approach seems to be more natural and psychological. This can be tested by comparing two different versions in which the terms have been translated by using the familiar terms in one and by unfamiliar new terms in the other. The empirical basis of this theory seems to be quite sound.

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3.4. The problem of word value and image transformation In his essay On translating Kalidasa, Sri Aurobindo suggests that the translator of aesthetically important text must give preference to closeness of word value and not closeness of meaning (1972(3):241. The problem discussed here is of utmost importance in the context of cognition of the culturally dissimilar items in translation. Sri Aurobindo is of the opinion that what is perfectly familiar in the original language must not seem entirely alien to the foreign audience. There must be some toning down of strangeness, an attempt to bring home the association to the foreign intelligence, to give at least some idea to a cultured but not orientally erudite mind (1972(3):237). In this context he suggests two devices which he himself adopted in his translations. One way is to discard the original image and replace it by a more intelligible image in the target language, when it is indispensable (1972(3): 240). This is a creative deice and it calls for the application of translators creative intelligence. In replacing the image, the aesthetic and cultural value of the original image may be taken into account. The second technique suggested by him is to render the word or image by some neologism which will help to convey any prominent characteristic of idea associated with the thing it expresses. Blossom of ruby may render, for instance bandhoula, a flower associated with its redness. Or else a word itself may be dropped and the characteristic may be brought into prominence. For instance, instead of saying that a woman lipped like a ripe bimba fruit, it will be a fair translation to write that her

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scarlet mouth is ripe fruit and red (1972(3):237). Such a device is expressingly declaring the characteristics which the source text only indicates. The process of these two devices is a kind of demetaphorisation or decoding of the images and then finding a suitable equivalent which can communicate the value of the images. Sri Aurobindos theories of translation and philosophy have influenced many translators like Sumitranandan Pant, Vyohar Rajendra Singh and Vidyapati Kokil in Hindi and Subramania Bharati in Tamil. 4, The Indian poetic theories and their application: In the contemporary period, Indian poetic theories like Dhvani (suggestive meaning and Auchitya - appropriateness) have been applied as critical yardsticks of translation. In the Western world there had been a continuous controversy whether a word was to be translated literally or if its sense was to be translated (i.e. word for word vs. sense for sense, or literal vs. free). The notion prevailing in India from the Vedic times was that over and above the literal meaning, there is a suggestive meaning in the word used in a text. In the Rgveda Samhita (687),it is said that a man who sees only the literal meaning of a poem sees, but does not see; he hears but does not hear. For the one who goes beyond and looks into the inner meaning, the speech reveals itself completely as a loving wife does to her husband. Anandavardhana, a ninth century critic, calls this theory of poetic suggestion

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dhwani. Dhvani is defined by Anandavardhana as the capacity of a word to suggest a charming sense other than its literal and expressed meaning. This suggested sense is like the grace or charm of beautiful maiden, which is different from the beauty of her limbs (1965)> Anandavardhana establishes the theory that dhvani is the soul of poetry. The fundamental problem of translation can be seen as the problem of how to communicate the suggestive meaning in the target text. As Anandavardhana says, suggestive meaning is the soul of poetry, thus making literal translation of poetry rather impossible. Hence, rather than talking about the impossibility of translation, we should talk about the impossibility of translating poetry literally. The difficulty is intensified by the fact that usually we can reach the suggestive meaning only through the literal meaning. Such poetry, in which the words and their literal meaning occupy a subordinate position and suggest some charming sense (an idea, a figure of speech or an emotion) is called dhvani (Kunjunni Raja, 1997). The suggestive meaning depends mainly on three factors. First, it depends on the peculiar expression of the word in the text with a particular motive, second on its shades of meaning, and third on its socio cultural context. Whenever only literal translation is needed, a translator can follow a mechanical method meaning but where communicating the suggestive meaning, the translator will need to adopt a more creative technique by using scientific imagination. The significance of the theory of suggestive meaning in translation has been an important matter of

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discussion in recent years and the studies by Gopinathan (Gopinathan and Kandaswamy 1983) and Niranjan Mohanty (1994) have attracted the attention of translation scholars concerning the need to apply the theory of dhvani in studying the problems of translation (Gopinathan, 2000). In the introduction to his book Translation Its theories and practices, Avadhesh K. Singh (1996) has focussed on the relevance of Auchtya theory for translation. According to him, Auchitya is translation, without moving too far from its meaning in India poetics, should mean propriety in the selection of a text for translation, of methodology and strategy used for translation; and of placing the translated text in proper perspective, so that the source writers/texts intended, not merely articulated meaning finds its proper expression in the target text. He has related auchitya to the social responsibility of the translator and has expressed the views that its negligence may lead to misinterpretation, distortion, over under interpretation and even to much social disservice. He is of the opinion that the western poetics is silent about this social appropriateness or propriety in translation. 5. The Synthesis of Western and Eastern Ideas: The contemporary theory literature in Hindi and other Indian languages presents a synthesis of the western and Indian ideas. The western linguistic models of Catford, Nida, Jacobson etc. have influenced many writers in Hindi like Bholanath Tiwari (1972), Ravindranath Shrivastava (1985), Suresh Kumar (1986),

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Bhatia Kailashchandra (1985) and others. Gopinathan (1985, 1993) has interpreted the translation process as a metaphychosis by bringing a synthesis of Indian and western ideas. His model of the process of translation is as follows:

According to him, meaning or the soul of the text is transferred whereas the style or body of the text is replaced at various linguistic levels. Conclusion Concluding the above discussion on the theories of translation in the modern Indian languages we can reach the following conclusion: The theories of translation in Hindi and other modern Indian languages are only evolving through the process of critical analysis and evolution which has started only recently. The tradition of transcreation has its roots in Indias very ancient culture and it is still influencing the writers. The nationalist theory of enriching the regional languages through translation and the idea of swadeshi and Indianisation is part of the vibrant historical consciousness. The psychospiritual theories of Sri Aurobindo have deep impact on many modern Indian writers and translators and is futuristic in nature. Dhvani or the theory of suggestive meaning and Auchitya (appropriateness( are being applied and yardsticks of translation.

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Indian poetics and linguistics can contribute much for the development of translation theory. Even the computer translation theories in India like Anusaraka show a kind of synthesis of the western and eastern ideas in the contemporary period. This synthesis will be more useful for developing the Indian theories of translation in the global perspectives. References Anandavardhana. Dhvanyaloka. Bhattacharya, Bishnupad (ed.) Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyaya, 1965. Avadhesh, K. Singh (ed.) Translation, Its theory and practice. New Delhi: Creative Books, 1996. Bholanath Tiwari. Anuvad vigyan. Delhi: Kitab Ghar, 1972. Das Gupta, Surendranath. A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol.I, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951. Gopinathan, G. The Nature and Problems of Translation. The Problems of Translation. G. Gopinathan and S. Kandaswamy (eds.) Allahabad: Lok Bharati Prakashan, 1993. Gopinathan, G. Ancient Indian Theories of Translation. In. Translation perspectives XI, New York: Binghamton University, 2000.

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Gopinathan,G. Anuwad Siddhant Anuprayog. Allahabad: Lokbharati Prakashan, 1985. Honig, Hano G. Holnes Mapping Theory and the Landscape of Mental

Translation process. In Van Lenven Zwart, Kitty M.X. Nacaijkens, ton (eds.) Translation studies: the State of the Art. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1991. Jeya, V. Bharathis Concept of Translation from the point of view of language and social development in Translation As Synthesis, Karunakaran, K. and Jayakumar (eds.). New Delhi: Bahri Publications, 1988. Lal, P. Brhadaranyaka Upanishad. Kolkatta: Writers Workshop, 1974. Mohanti, I.L. Indian Epistemology. In Daney, Jonathan and Sosa, Ernest (eds.) A companion to Epistemology. London: Blackwell, 1994. Monter Williams, Monier. The Sanskrit English Dictionary. Second Edition. Oxford: Clarenden Press, 1899. Mukharjee, Sujit. Translation As Discovery. New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1981. Olsson, Eva. The Philosophy of Sri Aurobindo in the Light of the Gospel. Madras: The Christian Literature Society, 1959. Raja,Kunjunni. The Indian Theories of Meaning. Madras: The Adayar Library and Research Centre, 1977.

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Ravindranath Srivastava and Krishnakumar Goswami (eds.) Anuvad Siddhant Aur Praradhi. Delhi: Alekh Prakashan, 1985. Sri Aurobindo. Collected works. Aurobindo Ashram, 1972. Suresh Kumar, Anuvad Siddhant ki Roop Rekha. New Delhi: Vani Prakashan, 1986. Taba Konska, Edzbeeta. Cognitive Linguistics and Poetics of translation. Tubingen: Gunter Noarverlag, 1973. Volumes, 3, 9, 10, 12. Pondicherry: Sri