V.

Beyond Inputs: Choosing and

Using the Right Model
Discounted Cashflow Valuation

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138

Summarizing the Inputs

In summary, at this stage in the process, we should have an estimate of

the
the current cash flows on the investment, either to equity investors
(dividends or free cash flows to equity) or to the firm (cash flow to the
firm)
the current cost of equity and/or capital on the investment
the expected growth rate in earnings, based upon historical growth,
analysts forecasts and/or fundamentals

The next step in the process is deciding

which cash flow to discount, which should indicate
which discount rate needs to be estimated and
what pattern we will assume growth to follow

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Which cash flow should I discount?

Use Equity Valuation

(a) for firms which have stable leverage, whether high or not, and
(b) if equity (stock) is being valued

Use Firm Valuation

(a) for firms which have leverage which is too high or too low, and expect to
change the leverage over time, because debt payments and issues do not
have to be factored in the cash flows and the discount rate (cost of capital)
does not change dramatically over time.
(b) for firms for which you have partial information on leverage (eg: interest
expenses are missing..)
(c) in all other cases, where you are more interested in valuing the firm than
the equity. (Value Consulting?)

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140

Given cash flows to equity, should I discount

dividends or FCFE?
n

Use the Dividend Discount Model

(a) For firms which pay dividends (and repurchase stock) which are close
to the Free Cash Flow to Equity (over a extended period)
(b)For firms where FCFE are difficult to estimate (Example: Banks and
Financial Service companies)

Use the FCFE Model

(a) For firms which pay dividends which are significantly higher or lower
than the Free Cash Flow to Equity. (What is significant? ... As a rule of
thumb, if dividends are less than 80% of FCFE or dividends are greater
than 110% of FCFE over a 5-year period, use the FCFE model)
(b) For firms where dividends are not available (Example: Private
Companies, IPOs)

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What discount rate should I use?

Cost of Equity versus Cost of Capital

If discounting cash flows to equity
If discounting cash flows to the firm

-> Cost of Equity

-> Cost of Capital

What currency should the discount rate (risk free rate) be in?
Match the currency in which you estimate the risk free rate to the currency
of your cash flows

Should I use real or nominal cash flows?

If discounting real cash flows
-> real cost of capital
If nominal cash flows
-> nominal cost of capital
If inflation is low (<10%), stick with nominal cash flows since taxes are
based upon nominal income
If inflation is high (>10%) switch to real cash flows

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142

Which Growth Pattern Should I use?

If your firm is
large and growing at a rate close to or less than growth rate of the
economy, or
constrained by regulation from growing at rate faster than the economy
has the characteristics of a stable firm (average risk & reinvestment rates)
Use a Stable Growth Model

If your firm
is large & growing at a moderate rate ( Overall growth rate + 10%) or
has a single product & barriers to entry with a finite life (e.g. patents)

Use a 2-Stage Growth Model

n

If your firm
is small and growing at a very high rate (> Overall growth rate + 10%) or
has significant barriers to entry into the business
has firm characteristics that are very different from the norm

Aswath Damodaran

Use a 3-Stage or n-stage Model

143

The Building Blocks of Valuation

Choose a
Cash Flow

Dividends
Expected Dividends to

Cashflows to Firm

Cashflows to Equity
Net Income

Stockholders

- (1- ) (Capital Exp. - Deprecn)

EBIT (1- tax rate)

- (Capital Exp. - Deprecn)

- (1- ) Change in Work. Capital

- Change in Work. Capital

= Free Cash flow to Equity (FCFE) = Free Cash flow to Firm (FCFF)
[ = Debt Ratio]
& A Discount Rate

Cost of Equity

Cost of Capital

Basis: The riskier the investment, the greater is the cost of equity.

WACC = ke ( E/ (D+E))

Models:
CAPM: Riskfree Rate + Beta (Risk Premium)

+ kd ( D/(D+E))
kd = Current Borrowing Rate (1-t)
E,D: Mkt Val of Equity and Debt

APM: Riskfree Rate + Betaj (Risk Premiumj): n factors

& a growth pattern

Stable Growth

Two-Stage Growth
g

Three-Stage Growth
g

|
t

Aswath Damodaran

High Growth

|
Stable

High Growth

Transition

Stable

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