Igneous Rocks and

the Rock Cycle

Designed to meet South Carolina
Department of Education
2005 Science Academic Standards

Table of Contents

What are Rocks? (slide 3) (Standard: 3-3.1 (covers slides 3-39))

Major Rock Types (slide 4)
The Rock Cycle (slide 5)

Igneous Rocks (slide 6) (3-3.1)

What happens to molten rock as it cools? (slide 7)

Crystal size and Cooling Rates (slide 8)

Texture (slide 9-10)

Igneous Rock Textures: (slide 11-20)

Phaneritic (12) , Aphanitic (13) , Porphyritic (14) , Glassy (15) , Pegmatitc (16),
Pyroclastic (17 - 18), Aa Lava (19) , Pahoehoe (20)

Igneous Rocks Mineral Composition (slide 21)

Magma and Bowens Reaction Series (slide 22 - 23)

Mineral Composition and Magma (slide 24)

Ferromagnesian Silicates (slide 25)

Non-Ferromagnesian Silicates (slide 26)

Igneous Rock Categories: Granitic, Basaltic, Andesitic (slide 27)

Igneous Rocks: (slide 28 - 38)

Granite (29) , Rhyolite (30) , Pumice (31) , Obsidian (32) , Gabbro (33) , Basalt (34) , Diabase (35) ,
Andesite (36) , Diorite (37) , Tuff (38)
Igneous Rocks in the Landscape (slide 39)
Igneous Rocks in South Carolina (slide 40)
South Carolina Science Standards (slides 41)

Resources and References (slide 42)

What are Rocks?

Most rocks are an aggregate of one or more minerals and

a few rocks are composed of non-mineral matter.
There are three major rock types:
1. Igneous
2. Metamorphic
3. Sedimentary

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Major Rock Types

Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of molten

magma or lava near, at, or below the Earths surface.
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the lithification of
inorganic and organic sediments deposited near or at
the Earths surface.

Metamorphic rocks are formed when preexisting rocks

are transformed into new rocks by heat and pressure,
usually below the Earths surface.

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The Rock Cycle

The Rock Cycle graphic is available from the SCGS website: [Link] 5
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Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of molten rock.

There are two major states of molten rock: Magma and Lava.
Magma is a form of molten rock that exists below the Earths
surface.
Lava is the term given to magma once it reaches the Earths
surface, usually in the form of a volcanic eruption.
There are two major classifications of igneous rocks: Intrusive and
Extrusive.
Intrusive igneous rocks are formed by magma that cools below
the Earths surface.
Extrusive igneous rocks are formed by lava that cools at the
Earths surface.
Intrusive igneous rocks generally cool very slowly deep below the
earths surface or as the magma is rising to the earths surface.
Extrusive igneous rocks generally cool quickly when they reach the
earths surface usually through volcanoes or fissure.
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What happens to molten rock as it cools?

When the temperature of molten rock begins to drop there is a loss of energy that
causes ions to slow down. As the ions slow down, they group together and arrange
themselves into orderly crystalline structures. This process is referred to as
crystallization.
During crystallization, the silicon and oxygen atoms are the first to link together
forming silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons, which are the building block of all silicate
minerals.
As crystallization continues, these individual silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons join
with one another, and other ions, to form the basic structure of most minerals and
igneous rocks.
Environmental conditions including temperature and the presence of water or
gases during crystallization affect the composition, the size, and the arrangement
of the mineral grains.
The size and arrangement of mineral crystals, also referred to as grains, define the
texture of the rock.

Geologists use mineral and textural classifications to infer information about the
environmental setting in which different igneous rocks are formed.
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Crystal Size and Cooling Rates

Slower cooling rates produce larger individual crystals in the rock

Faster cooling rates produce smaller individual crystals in the rock

Intrusive igneous rocks generally cool very slowly and tend to have large
crystals that produce a course-grained rock.
Phaneritic rocks are coarse-grained rocks which contain individual crystals
that are relatively even in size and large enough for scientists to identify the
different mineral grains that compose the rock.

Extrusive igneous rocks tend to cool quickly and are characterized by smaller
grains that produce a fine-grained rock.
Aphanitic is the term used to describe very fine grained rocks.

Porphyritic textured rocks contain both a coarse and fine-grained texture.

The coarse grains in a porphyritic rock begin to develop as the magma is

cooling below the surface of the earth. Following eruption or exposure to
lower temperatures, the remaining magma or lava cools very quickly and
forms minerals with fine-grained textures. As a result, porphyritic textures
contain both coarse- and finegrained minerals.

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Texture

Texture is a term used to describe the size, shape, and

arrangement of interlocking crystallized mineral grains
in an igneous rock.

Two major factors affect the size of crystal grains in an

igneous rock:

1) Rate at which molten rock cools; slow or fast

2) Amount of dissolved gases or fluids in the magma.

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Texture

Igneous minerals vary greatly in grain size. Grain-size

classes are similar to the sedimentary scale, but there are
fewer divisions with a greater range of size.
Phenocrysts are grains in an igneous rock that are larger
than the other grains that make up the rest of the rock.
Grain Size
Categories

Grain Size Divisions

fine grained

< 1 mm

medium grained

1 mm < 5 mm

coarse grained

5 mm < 3 cm

very coarse-grained

> 3 cm

Phenocrysts Texture
microphenocrysts

0.03 mm 0.3 mm

phenocrysts

0.3 mm 5 mm

megaphenocrysts

> 5 mm

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Igneous Rock Textures

Phaneritic (Intrusive)
Aphanitic (Extrusive)
Porphyritic (Intrusive and Extrusive)
Glassy (Extrusive)
Pegmatitic (Intrusive)
Pyroclastic Materials (Extrusive)
Aa Lava (Extrusive)
Pahoehoe Lava (Extrusive)

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Phaneritic Texture

Phaneritic (Intrusive)

Phaneritic rocks are coarse-grained rocks which form below the Earths surface.
The individual crystals are relatively even-sized and large enough for scientists
to identify the different mineral grains that compose the rock.

Granite rock with a phaneritic texture

Quartz Crystals:
(White)

Feldspar Crystals:
(Pink)

Biotite Crystals:
(Black)
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Copyright Dr. Richard Busch

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Aphanitic Texture

Aphanitic (Extrusive)

Aphanitic rocks are very fine-grained and contain

crystals that are too small to distinguish without the
aid of a magnifying lens.
Aphanitic rocks are often described by how light or
dark the rock appears. Lighter colored aphanitic
rocks contain mostly non-ferromagnesian silicate
minerals. Darker colored aphanitic rocks contain
mostly ferromagnesian silicate minerals.
Aphanitic rocks may also contain vesicles of remnant
gas that give the rock a vesicular texture. Vesicles
form when the rock cools very quickly and preserves
the openings formed by the expansion of trapped gas
bubbles.

Basalt rock with an aphanitic

and vesicular texture

Copyright Dr. Richard Busch

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Porphyritic Texture

Porphyritic (Intrusive and Extrusive)

Porphyritic rocks contain both coarse- and

fine-grained textures indicating different
environmental conditions which formed the
rock.
The coarse grains in a porphyritic rock
develop as the magma is cooling below the
surface of the earth.
The fine-grained component of a porphyriic
rocks forms when the magma or lava cools
faster.
The large coarse-grained crystals are referred
to as phenocrysts.
The small fine-grained crystals are referred to
as groundmass.

Rhyolite rock with

porphyritic texture containing
phenocrysts of olivine and
pyroxene and a gabbro
groundmass.

Copyright AGI

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Glassy Texture

Glassy (Extrusive)

Glassy textured rocks are formed by very rapid

Obsidian rock with a glassy
cooling of magma.
texture and conchoidal fractures
Glassy rocks often form from magmas with
high silica content that arranges into long
chainlike structures before crystallization
occurs. These silica chains increase the viscosity
of the magma and it once it eventually cools it
forms a glassy textured rock.
Glassy rocks can be considered amorphous
because they have no crystalline structure.
Glassy rocks are classified by the amount of
glass contained by the rock:

Glass-bearing: 0-20% glass

Glass-rich: 20-50% glass
Glassy: 50 100% glass

Copyright Dr. Richard Bush

Obsidian is a common glassy rock.

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Pegmatitic Texture

Pegmatitic (Intrusive)

Pegmatitic rocks contain large interlocking

crystalline grains > 1-2 centimeter in diameter.
Pegmatites are commonly composed of quartz,
feldspar, and mica minerals.
Pegmatities form from a combination of
hydrothermal and igneous processes; and is
dependant on the presence of fluids and
volatiles such as water, chlorine, bromine,
sulfur, and fluorine.
Pegmatites form late in the crystallization
process when there are a lot of fluids present in
the molten rock. The fluids enable individual
ions to move around more freely, ultimately
bonding to form very large and sometimes
exotic crystals.
Pegmatitic dikes form around the margins of
intrusive plutons, or occasionally as veins of
rock which extend into the pluton.

Examples of pegmatitic veins

extending through rock

Copyright Albert Copley

Copyright Marli Miller

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Pyroclastic Materials

Pyroclastic (Extrusive)

Pyroclastic materials form when

individual rock fragments are ejected
during a violent volcanic eruption and
consolidate into larger rock composites
when they deposit on the surface.
Pyroclastic rocks contain at least 75%
pyroclastic fragments with the
remainder consisting of other inorganic
sediments or organic materials.
Pyroclastic rocks contain a mixture of
different types of particles that are not
cohesively joined by interlocking
crystals, but instead are consolidated
masses of multiple rock fragments.
Tephra is the term used to describe
pyroclastic sediments.

Tuff rock with pyroclastic material.

Copyright Dr. Richard Busch

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Pyroclastic Fragments

Pyroclastic materials do not conform well to igneous grain size classifications.

Instead, geologists use the following terms to describe pyroclastic fragments:

Juvenile fragments: volcanic rocks formed from cooled magma before it is deposited.
Cognate fragments: volcanic rocks which formed during previous volcanic activity
and are ejected by a later eruption.
Accidental fragments: rocks which are disrupted, dislodged, and possibly even
ejected by the volcano, but are not of volcanic origin (although they may be igneous).
Bombs: fragments with a mean diameter > 64 mm, and a rounded shape.
Blocks: fragments with a mean diameter > 64 mm, and a blocky, angular shape.
Lapilli: fragments in any shape with a mean diameter of 2-64 mm.
Ash: grains of pyroclastic fragments with a mean diameter < 2 mm. This includes
coarse ash grains (0.032 -2 mm) and fine ash grains (< 0.032 mm).

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Aa Lava

Aa Lava (Extrusive)

Aa is a basaltic lava flow that has a rough

surface, characterized by sharp, jagged
blocks and protruding spines of volcanic
rock.
Aa flows move slowly (5-50 meters per
hour) and are often several meters thick.
As aa lava flows, the outer surface and
advancing edge cools first. The molten
material pushes through the cooled rocks
and breaks the fragments even more. As a
result the lava flow appears more like a
mass of advancing rubble as apposed to a
viscous flow.
Aa lava flows are common on the Hawaiian
Islands. The aa flows move so slowly that
tourists can walk up to them and take
pictures.

Aa lava in Hawaiis
Volcanoes National Park.

Copyright Bruce Molina, Terra Photographics

Photo Courtesy USGS Hawaiian Volcano Observatory

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Pahoehoe Lava

Pahoehoe Lava (Extrusive)

Pahoehoe (pronounced pah-hoy-hoy) is

a basaltic lava flow that has a smooth
and twisty, rope-like surface.
The characteristic ropy texture forms as
the surface lava cools while the molten
material beneath it is still moving. The
tension formed by the cooling lava
causes it to wrinkle as the subsurface
lava continues to flow. As a result the
surface cools in a series of overlapping,
ropy lobes.
Pahoehoe lava flows move slow enough
(5-50 meters per hour) for observers to
watch the cooling lava as it advances
forward.

Pahoehoe lava flows in Hawaii.

Photo Courtesy USGS

Copyright Bruce Molina, Terra Photographics

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Igneous Rocks Mineral

Composition

The chemical composition of the magma during cooling determines the

mineral composition of the crystallized rocks.
98% of all magma is composed primarily of silicate (SiO2) ions joined
with aluminum (Al), calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K),
magnesium (Mg), and iron (Fe) ions.
Magma may also contain trace amounts of other elements such as
titanium (Ti), manganese (Mn), gold (Au), silver (Ag), and uranium (U).
During crystallization the minerals combine to form two major groups
of silicate minerals, these include the dark-colored ferromagnesian
silicates which crystallize at high temperatures and the light-colored
nonferromagnesian silicates which crystallize at lower temperatures.
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Bowens Reaction Series

In the early 1900s N.L. Bowen and other geologists conducted a series of experiments to
determine the order at which different silicate minerals crystallize from magma. Their
results produced a generalized mineral crystallization model that is recognized as Bowens
Reaction Series, and it states that mineral crystallization will occur in a predictable manner.
Bowens Reaction Series is a model that describes the formation of igneous rocks with an
emphasis on the effect of temperature changes, melting points, and cooling rates, on the
types of minerals crystallizing and their resultant rock compositions.
Once crystallization begins, the composition of the liquid magma changes.
Minerals with higher melting points will begin to solidify leaving behind a liquid from
which minerals with lower melting temperatures will eventually solidify.
An ideal discontinuous crystallizing series progresses from the minerals olivine pyroxenes - amphiboles biotite.
An ideal continuous series progresses from calcium to sodium-rich plagioclase feldspar.
Both series merge and are followed by orthoclase feldspar, muscovite, and quartz, with
quartz exhibiting the lowest crystallization temperature.

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Bowens Reaction Series

Discontinuous Series

Continuous Series

1400 C

Calcium rich

Olivine

Mafic

Crystallization
Temperature

Pyroxene

800 C

Amphibole
Biotite

Sodium rich

Orthoclase Feldspar
Muscovite mica
Quartz

Intermediate

Felsic
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Classification of Igneous Rocks by Mineral

Composition and Texture
Chemical Composition

T
e
x
t
u
r
e

Felsic
(Granitic)

Intermediate
(Andesitic)

Mafic
(Basaltic)

Ultramafic

Amphibole,
Sodium-and
calcium-rich
plagioclase
feldspar

Pyroxene,
Calcium-rich
plagioclase
feldspar

Olivine,
Pyroxene

Dominant Minerals

Quartz,
Potassium
Feldspar,
Sodium-rich
plagioclase
feldspar

Accessory Minerals

Amphibole,
Muscovite,
Biotite

Pyroxene,
Biotite

Amphibole,
Olivine

Calcium-rich
plagioclase
feldspar

Rock Color
(% of dark minerals)

0-25 %

25 45 %

45 85 %

85 100 %

Phaneritic (coarse-grained)

Granite

Diorite

Gabbro

Peridotite

Aphanitic (fine- grained)

Rhyolite

Andesite

Basalt

Komatiite

Porphyritic

Porphyritic used to describe abundant presence of

phenocrysts in Granite, Diorite, Gabbro, Peridotite,
Rhyolite, Andesite, and Basalt

Glassy

Obsidian (compact) and Pumice (frothy-like)

Pyroclastic

Tuff (fine grained) and Volcanic Breccia (coarse grained)

Modified from Lutgens and Tarbuck 2003

Uncommon

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Ferromagnesian Silicates

Ferromagnesian silicates crystallize at higher temperatures than nonferromagnesian silicates.

Ferromagnesian silicates contain greater amounts of iron (Fe) and
magnesium (Mg) and less silica (Si O2) than non-ferromagnesian
silicates .
Ferromagnesian minerals are generally dark in color and can be
greenish, black, or dark grey.
Common ferromagnesian silicate minerals include olivine, pyroxene,
amphibole, biotite, hornblende, augite, and peridote.
Gabbro rock with olivine (yellowish crystals) and
Pyroxene (darker crystals) phenocrysts

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Copyright Mark Milling, AGI

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Non-Ferromagnesian Silicates

Non-ferromagnesian silicates crystallize at lower temperatures that

ferromagnesian silicates.
Non-ferromagnesian silicates contain greater amounts of potassium (K),
sodium (Na), and calcium (Ca) in combination with more silica (Si O2)
than ferromagnesian silicates.
Non-ferromagnesian minerals are generally light colored, and may be
white, pink, or light grey.
Common non-ferromagnesian silicate minerals include quartz,
muscovite, and feldspars.

Granite composed of nonferromagnesian

silicates including feldspar
(pink crystals) and quartz
(white crystals).

Copyright Dr. Richard Busch

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Igneous Rock Categories:

Felsic to Mafic

Felsic

Igneous rocks are divided into three broad groups Granitic, Basaltic,
and Andesitic depending on their proportion of felsic (light-colored)
to mafic (dark-colored) minerals.
Granitic rocks contain more light-colored feldspars and silica than
dark- colored minerals. Because of the high feldspar and silica
content of Granitic rocks, geologists refer to them as being felsic (fel
for feldspar and si for silica).

Basaltic rocks contain mostly darker silicate minerals and calciumrich plagioclase feldspar and little quartz. Because of the high
percentage of ferrromagnesian minerals in basaltic rocks, geologist
refer to them as mafic (ma for magnesium and f for ferrum).

Mafic

The primary minerals in granitic rocks include quartz, feldspar, biotite,

and amphibole.
Granitic rocks make up about 70% of the Earths crust.

Basaltic rocks are dark colored and tend to be more dense than granitic
rocks.

Andesitic rocks have a composition between granites and basalts.

They generally contain about 25% dark silicate minerals (amphibole,

pyroxene, and biotite mica) with the remaining 75% consisting of
plagioclase feldspar.

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Igneous Rocks
Extrusive Igneous Rocks in North America

Granite
Rhyollite
Pumice
Obsidian
Gabbro
Basalt
Diabase
Andesite
Diorite
Tuff

Intrusive Igneous Rocks

in North America

[Link]

[Link]

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Granite

Granite is a felsic intrusive igneous rock and has either a phaneritic or porphyritic texture.
Granite cools very slowly and often forms large masses of rock that are referred to as
plutons or batholiths.
Granite usually contains about 20-50% quartz, 30-60% feldspar, and the remaining 5-10%
darker minerals such as biotite.
The quartz grains are usually spherical in shape and are a white to grayish color.
The feldspars grains are mostly potassium and sodium rich varieties with individual
rectangular shaped grains. The feldspars are often white, grey, or pinkish in color
depending on the chemical composition.
The remaining darker minerals usually consist of muscovite, biotite and amphibole
and are generally black.

Coarse-grained granite

Fine-grained granite
Quartz

South Carolina Geological Survey

Kershaw Pink Granite, South Carolina

Feldspar
Biotite

South Carolina Geological Survey

Winnsboro Blue Granite, South Carolina

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Rhyolite

Rhyolite is a felsic, extrusive igneous rock and usually has an aphanitic

texture with glassy fragments and phenocrysts depending on the rate of
cooling. Glassy fragments form from rapid cooling and phenocrysts
form from slower cooling rates.
Rhyolite forms very rapidly from lava flows on the Earths surface.
Rhyolite contains mostly light colored quartz and feldspar minerals.
These minerals generally give the rock a pink or grayish color.

Fine-grained rhyolite

Copyright Dr. Richard Busch

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Pumice

Pumice is a felsic, extrusive igneous rock with a glassy, vesicular texture

formed from a combination of rapid cooling and a high gas content.
Pumice forms in similar condition as obsidian, and the two can often be
found in close proximity.
Pumice is so light from the presence of lots of gas bubbles pockets that
it often floats when placed in water.

Pumice with a vesicular texture

Copyright 2006 Andrew Alden, [Link],

reproduced under educational fair use."

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Obsidian

Obsidian is a felsic, extrusive igneous rock with a glassy texture.

Obsidian forms very quickly from the rapid cooling of silica-rich lava.
Unlike other minerals and rocks, the ions that form obsidian are
unordered, or amorphous, meaning they have no structure, and as a
result it produces a conchoidal fracture when broken.
Thin sections of obsidian appear translucent and it is the presence of
various metallic ions that give it an overall dark appearance.

Obsidian

Copyright 2006 Andrew Alden, [Link],

reproduced under educational fair use

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Gabbro

Gabbro is a mafic, intrusive medium to coarse-grained igneous rock

with a phaneritic texture.
Gabbro is composed primarily of pyroxene, with calcium-rich
plagioclase feldspar and small amounts of olivine and amphibole.
Large gabbro intrusions are often sources of economically valuable
nickel, chromium, and platinum.

Medium-grained gabbro

Copyright Dr. Richard Busch

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Basalt

Basalt is a mafic, extrusive fine-grained dark green to black volcanic

rock with a porphyritic texture.
Basalt is composed primarily of pyroxene, and calcium-rich plagioclase
with small amounts of olivine and amphibole.

Copyright Dr. Richard Busch

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Diabase

Diabase is a medium to fine-grained mafic, intrusive igneous rock.

Diabase consists primarily of iron-rich pyroxenes and plagioclase
labradorite.
It is often very dark colored, but can be mottled with lighter colors.
Diabase dikes are tabular intrusions of diabase that fill fractures below
the Earths surface.

[Link]/wiki/Image:Diabas_1.jpg

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Andesite

Andesite is an intermediate, extrusive igneous rock with a

predominantly fine-grained porphyritic texture that forms during
volcanic eruptions.
Andesite main contain phenocrysts which are usually large-grained
feldspar or amphibole minerals.

Andesite with amphibole phenocrysts

Copyright Dr. Richard Busch

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Diorite

Diorite is an intermediate, intrusive igneous rock with a predominantly

coarse-grained phaneritic texture .
Diorite is composed of quartz, sodium-rich plagioclase, and amphibole
or biotite.
The composition of diorite looks similar to granite, except that diorite
contains a greater concentration of darker mafic minerals.

[Link]

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Tuff

Tuff is an extrusive, pyroclastic rock composed of an aggregate of tiny ash

fragments ejected during volcanic eruption.
A mixture of various other extrusive rock fragments may weld with tuff
making a cemented mass of ash and other rock/mineral fragments.
Tuff may also be used as a descriptor along side other rocks depending on
the relative concentration of rock to ash ratio, for example a rhyolite tuff.

Copyright Dr. Richard Busch

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Igneous Rocks in the Landscape

Mount Rushmore in the Black Hills of South Dakota
is a Precambrian igneous, granitic batholith.

Devils Tower at Devils Tower National

Monument in Wyoming is an intrusive
igneous rock formation that is exposed from
millions of years of weathering and erosion of
the surrounding landscape.

Copyright David Spear

Copyright Louis Maher University of Wisconsin

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Igneous Rocks in South Carolina

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South Carolina Science Academic

Standards: Grade 3
1) Earths Materials and Changes:
Standard 3-3:
The student will demonstrate an understanding of Earths composition and the changes that occur to the features of
Earths surface. (Earth Science).
Indicators:
3-3.1: Classify rocks (including sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic). (slides: 3-26 )

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Resources and References

Christopherson, R. W. ,2002, Geosystems (4th ed.): Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, Prentice Hall.

Christopherson, R. W., 2004, Elemental Geosystems (4th ed.): Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, Prentice Hall.
Gillespie, M. R., 1999, BGS Rock Classification Scheme, Volume 1, classification of igneous rocks: British Geological
Survey Research Report (2nd Edition) RR 99-06.
Keller, E. A., 2000, Environmental Geology (8th ed.): Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, Prentice Hall.
Lutgens, F. K., and Tarbuck, E. J., 2003, Essentials of Geology (8th ed.): Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, Prentice Hall.

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