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Dunlop

photovoltaics dunlop

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Fhotovalteic ‘Photovoltaic Systems contains procedures commonly practiced in industry and th trade. Specific procedures vary with each tusk and must be performed by a qualified person, For maximum safety, always efe to specific manufaeturer recommendations, insurance regulations, specific job site and plant procedures, applicable federal, state, and local regulations, and any authority ‘having jurisdiction. The material contained is intended to bean educational resource forthe user. Neither American Technical Publishers, Ie. nor the National Joint Apprenticeship and Training Committee forthe Electrical Industry is liable for any claims, losses, or damages, including propesty damage or personal injury, incured by reliance on this inform American Technical Publishers, Ine, Editril Staff Ealitor in Chief Jonathan F. Gosse Vice President-Production: Peter A. Zurlis Are Manager: James M. Clarke ‘Technical Editor: Julie M, Weleh Copy Editor: Valet A Cover Design: Jennifer M. Hines Iustation/Layout: Jeanifer M. Hines (CD-ROM Development ‘Carl R. Hansen Christopher J. Bell inger ‘Adobe, Acrobat, and Reader are either registered trademarks or trademarks of Adobe Systems Incorporate nthe United States andor ther ‘ounrles, ENERGY STAR isa registered trademark ofthe Unied Sues Erronmenal Protection Agen. nel and Pemum ave registered rademarks ff ne! Corporation or its subsidiaries the United States and ther counties, Internationa ling Code a Interatona Resident Coe are trademark of the Intemational Code Cowl Ine MlersoR, Windows, Windows NT, Windows XP, Excel, and Internet Explorer are her mst trademarks or rademars of Microsoft Corporation in he United States andor eter countries National Electrical Code and NEC ae trademarks ofthe National Fie Protection Assocttion Inc. Quiney MA 02169, Netscape i a registred trademark of Netscape Communications Corporation In the United States and her countries. Quick Quiz an Quick Quizes are registered trademarks af American Tetical Publisher, ne. Romer is ‘4 regitred rademark of General Cable Technologies Corporation. SlarPuiider ira rademark of Solr Patifinder Ui a reseed ceification smack of Underwriters Laboratries ne ‘© 2007 by National Joint Apprenticeship and Training Committee for the Electrical Industry All rights reserved 123456789-07-987654321 Printed in the United States of America ISBN 978-0-8269-1287-9 ‘National Joint Apprenticeship and Training Committee for the Electrical Industry Author Jim Dunlop, PE Technical Editor Todd W. Stafford, NJATC Statt Technical Reviewers Greg Creal, IBEW Local 280 (Tangent, OR) Brian Crise, NECA-IBEW Electrical Training Center (Portland, OR) John Hardwick, Sharp Etectronics Corp. Jerry Ventra,formerty of the Florida Solar Energy Center Case Studies Baltimore Electrical JATC Cleveland JATO Detroit Electrical JATC IN-TECH Electrical Training Center (Chicago, IL) IBEW Local 103 (Boston, MA) IBEW Local 363 (Harriman, NY) ‘San Diego Electrical Waining Center TiCity JATC (Latham, NY) ‘Companies and Organizations that Provided Technical Information and Photographs Daystar, Inc. Department of Energy National Renewable Energy Laboratory (DOENREL) Direct Power and Water Corporation East Penn Manufacturing Co,, Inc. Eppley Laboratory, Inc. Exeltech inc. Fluke Corporation Fronius USA LLC Kipp & Zonen, inc. Library of Congress LECOR Environmental Lucent Technologies Inc /Bell Labs ‘Meteocontrol GmbH ‘Morningstar Corp. NASAJIPL-Caltech National Fire Protection Association PY Measurements, Inc. Schott Solar Sharp Electronics Corp. SMA America, Inc ‘SMA Technologie AG ‘SOHO (ESA & NASA) Solar Pathfinder SolarWerld Industries America Southwest Technology Devolopment Institute/ New Mexico State University SPG Solar, Inc. ‘SunWize Technologies ‘Surrette Battery Company Uniac, Ine. United Solar Ovonic LLC Xantrex Technology Inc. a Introduction to Photovoltaic Systems Photovoltaics PV Applications PV Industry Solar Energy Technologies “fase Solor Radiation The Sun Solar Radiation ‘Sun-Earth Relationships Array Orientation Solar Radiation Data Sets BF sie Surveys and Preplanning Preliminary Assessment Site Surveys Preparing Proposals Installation Planning = System Components and Configurations Components Electricity Sources ‘System Configurations = 112 Cells, Modules, and Arrays * Photovoltaic Cells (Current-Voltage (I-V) Curve Device Response Modules and Arrays FE beter Battery Principles Battery Types Battery Systems Charge Controller Features Charge Controller Types Charge Controller Setpoints Charge Controller Applications ss Inverters AC Power Inverters Power Conditioning Units Inverter Features and Specifications *) System Sizing Sizing Methodologies Sizing Calculations 4) BB Mechanical integration Mechanical Considerations ‘Mounting Configurations ‘Mechanical Integration a Electrical Integration Electrical Integration Conductors and Wiring Methods Overcurrent Protection Disconnects Grounding Battory Systems Photovoltaic Systems ayaa =) Utility Interconnection Policies Building Codes and Regulations Permitting Inspection & fF Commissioning, Maintenance, and Troubleshootin, ae e : Commissioning Maintenance Monitoring Troubleshooting Incentives Cost Analysis Review Questions Answer Key Appendix — Glossary a 435 index a — 445 7, i PO? ee So isms Using the CD-ROM Sun Path Charts Quick Quizzes® Forms and Worksheets ilustrated Glossary Solar Time Caleulator Media Clips Relerence Material Solar Radiation Data Sets Photovoltaics, along with other renewable-energy technologies, is a rapidly growing sector of the energy market. Photovoltaic Systems is a comprehensive guide to the design, installation, and evaluation of residential and com- mercial photovoltaic (PV) systems. The textbook covers the principles of photovoltaics and how to effectively in- corporate PV systems into stand-alone or interconnected electrical systems. The content includes system advantages and disadvantages, site evaluation, component operation, system design and sizing, and installation requirements and recommended practices. Common scenarios and procedures are discussed throughout. Specified electrical require- ‘ments are in accordance with the 2005 edition of the National Electrical Code® Each chapter begins with an overview of the covered material, in the form of an introduction and chapter objec- tives. At the end of each chapter is a summary of key concepts, a listing of all definitions from that chapter, and review questions. Answers to odd-numbered review questions are included at the end of the book. Te Photovoltaic Systems CD-ROM included at the back of the book Features interactive resources for indepen dent study and to enhance learning, including Quick Quizzes®, an Ilustrated Glossary, Media Clips, several solar resources, and Reference Material. The Quick Quizzes" provide an interactive review of key topics covered in each chapter. The Tllustrated Glossary is a helpful reference to textbook definitions, with select terms linked to illustra tions and media clips that augment the definition provided. The solar resources are electronic resources for evaluating potential installation sites and for sizing PV systems, and include the following: + Solar Radiation Data Sets, which include the National Renewable Energy Laboratory's complete solar radiation data for 239 sites around the United States in easily printable PDF format + Sun Path Charts, which are printable PDF charts of solar positions for selected latitudes. The related sun path chart spreadsheet can calculate additional charts as needed. + Forms and Worksheets, including a sample site survey form and a set of sizing worksheets, all in PDF format The sizing worksheets are also included in a spreadsheet fie that automatically performs sizing calculations + Solar Time Calculator, which facilitates the conversion between standard time and solar time that is requited for some solar analyses. Reference Material provides access to Internet links to manufacturer, organization, government, and American ‘Tech resources. Clicking on the American Tech web site button ([Link]) or the American Tech logo ae: ccesses information on related electrical training products. ‘The Publisher + Photovoltaic Systems Vignettes supplement the text with additional technical, historical, or safety information. ‘System photographs | depict a variety af different PV-system tunes, sizes, and configurations. Summaries highlight Case studies spotlight unique or chapter-relevant aspects of installed PV systems, Review questions test for hapter comprehension. Mr. Jim Dunlop was encouraged early to pursue a career in the electrical field by his high school electrical shop teacher George Patrick Shultz (author of several early NJATC textbooks), and when he attended the University of Florida, he planned to study electrical engineering. Fim’s early experiences, however, led him into renewable energy systems, He was also influenced by courses on solar energy systems and direct energy conversion taught by renew= able energy pioneer Dr. Erich Farber, founder of the University of Florida's Solar Energy Research Park Beginning his career at the Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC), Jim became involved in the development and evaluation of photovoltaic (PV) systems, which had recently been included in the 1984 National Electrical Code®. Over his twenty +r a FSEC under Director Ferry Ventre, Jim was involved in developing curricula and delivering numerous training programs on PV systems. In 2001, he led FSEC’s efforts in attaining national accredi- tation for its PV training programs. From 2001 to 2002, Jim served as the charter technical committee chairperson for the North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners (NABCEP). As of 2005, Jim is again leading this committee. This position involves developing candidate entry requirements, ask analyses, examinations, and study guides for a national PV-installer certification program. In 2001, Jim became the first Master Trainer in PV systems certified by the Institute for Sustainable Power world- ‘wide, In addition to creating training manuals and instructor materials, he has published over fifty papers and technical reports on the design, testing, and evaluation of PV systems and equipment. Mr. Jim Dunlop currently serves as a Curriculum Specialist for the NIATC and is involved in developing the distributed-generation curriculum, Chapter Objectives Compare the advantages and disadvantages of installing a PV system. Understand some of the factors that have motivated the growth of PV technology worldwide. Evaluate the design priorities for PV systems in different types of applications. Describe the primary levels of the PV industry and how they interact. Understand why itis important for installers to be weil trained. Differentiate between flat-plate collectors and concentrating collectors. Understand how the different types of solar energy technologies utlize solar radiation. Photovoltaics isa solar energy technology that uses unique properties of semiconductors 0 directly convert solar radiation into electricity Photovoltaic (PV) systems use wafers ypical- ly made of erystalline silicon, that are sensitive to sunlight and produce a small direct current when exposed to light. When these PV cells, also known as solar calls, are combined into larger systems called modules. they produce aan appreciable amount of electrical power with no moving pars, noise, or emissions A photovoltaic (PV) system isan eletical system consisting of an array of one or more PY ‘modules, conductors, electrical components, and one or more loads. These components can be arranged in many ways to design PV systems for different situations, but the most common configuration is utlty-connected system ona residential building. See Figure 1-1. These PV systems may or may not include battery storage. The array is usually mounted on a rooftop or nearby on the ground, Electrical components, such as inverters, charge controllers, and disconnects, control and condition the DC power from the array and either direct it to DC loads or convert ito AC power for use by AC loads, Some of these ‘component functions may instead be com- bined together into one power conditioning unit (PCU).A load isa device that consumes electricity. Examples of loads include lights pumps, heaters, motors, and electronics ‘air Energy The most common type of PV system is a ulty-connected system on a Electricity supplied by a PV system displaces electricity from some other power-generating technology. Ifthe altemative is very expensive, such as utility connection toa remote location, then the PV system may great deal of money. However, many advan- tages and benefits of PV systems add value beyond the potential financial savings, Many PV system owners place a high importance on producing clean “green” energy, Photovoltaics is an environmentally friendly technology that produces energy with no noise or pollution. For some owners, operating a PV system makes a statement about protecting the environment and conserving nonrenewable energy sources, Also, PV systems are very flexible and can be adapted to many different applications. ‘The modular nature of PV arrays and other ‘components make systems easy (0 expand for increased capacity. Since there are no moving parts, PV systems are extremely reliable and lasta long time with minimal maintenance. PV systems also offer energy independence. A supplemental PV system reduces the consum- cr’s vulnerability to utility power outages, anda stand-alone system eliminates it, Furthermore, sunlight is a renewable energy source that is free and readily available, AS conventionally produced electricity isexpected to become more cexpensiveand PV system costs are generally de- creasing, PV systems can also be used to hedge against future energy rate increases. Wve the consumer a There are, however, some disadvantages to PV systems that have somewhat limited their use. Currently, the most significant issue isthe high initial cost of a PV system compared to prices for competing power-generating tech nologies (when available). PV systems also require a relatively large array area to produce ificant amount of power. The available solar radiation resource at a particular loca tion determines the feasibility of producing appreciable amounts of power. ‘There is also a lack of knowledge among some groups and in some areas about the potential of solar energy systems, particularly photovoltaics. Consumers may not know what types of systems are available, or even that a solar energy system could be successful for their application or location. Consumers who ‘wish to install a PV system may discover that the industry infrastructure in their area is not yet fully developed to support their instal- lation. It may be difficult to find a qualified installer in thei area, or their installation may be hindered by limited knowledge of PV sys- tems and their requirements among the local lites and code officials. Many leaders in the PV industry are ad~ ‘dressing these issues in an effort to promote PV systems. Public and private organizations, particularly state and federal governments, are subsidizing PV installations in an effort to offset the additional costs and promote the use of “green” electrical power. Research institutions and manufacturers are working on new PV technologies increase the ficiency ‘of cells and modules so that more energy ean bee produced by smaller arrays or in locations witha less favorable solar radiation resource. Typical PV System 1c POWER, Ro PV ARRAY De DISCONNECT BATTERY BANK (ommionat) Most importantly, the industry as a whole is involved in educating the public and related ‘organizations about solar energy, through pub- licty, training programs, cooperative projects, legislation, incentives, and other activites. “Mostelectrcity is distributed through an electr- cal utility arid to millions of customers from a relatively small number of large power plants. A wility is a company that produces and/or distributes electricity to consumers ina certain region or state. The grids the uility’s network of conductors, substations, and equipment that distributes electricity from its central generation point tothe consumer. See Figure 1-2. The grid fans out from the power plants to thousands of homes and businesses within a region, Blec tricity may travel hundreds of miles before it reaches the end user. The grid regions may be connected together so that consumers still have power if part of the distribution system breaks down, Outages, though rare, do still occur, often due to an overloaded system. \connecrion SoUmTY Gro (OPTIONAL) AC POWER FRoMUTLiTY ELECTRIC METER Figure 1-1. A utiliy-connected residential PV system is the most common system configuration. Vari- ‘ous electrical components control, condition, and aistriute the PV power fo DC andior AC loads. Chapter 1— Introduction to Photovoltaic Systoms_ 9 4 Photovoltaic Systems Centralized Electricity Distribution NUCLEAR ELECTRIC STATION, “00 ky TO 1200 KV ‘TRANSMISSION LINES ~ FOSSIL FUEL ELECTRIC STATION HYDROELECTRIC STATION s38Ky UNDERGROUND A ‘SERVICE CENTRAL, SUBSTATION \ saw 10 15x FEEDER UNE DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION sae to25y DISTRIBUTION LINE rPabaouye (TRANSFORMER COMMERCIAL, DistRIeuTION TRANSFORMER ~ BUILDING RESIDENTIAL BUILDING Figure 1-2. An elecirc uty produces elctcty at @ powerplant and cstibutes Ifo consumers through power nes, substations, and transformers Distribuied generation is a system in which many smaller power-generating systems create clectrical power near the point of consumption. ‘The electricity may travel only a few feet to the Toads Distributed generation systems can include PY systems, wind turbines, engine generators cor other relatively small-scale power systems See Figure 1-3. A distributed generation systern may serve as the only source of power for the ‘consumer (a stand-alone system), oras backup or supplemental power fora utility grid connection. If consumers are connected to the utiity grid, ‘excess power can be distributed to the grid if it Chapter 1 — Introduction to Photovlse Systems_ 5 Distributed Generation pv sysrem ~ COMMUNICATIONS. TOWER iy) -pvevstem A wo TURBINE [Link] RESIDENTIAL BUILDING RECREATIONAL Pv svSTEM one a UTILITY GRID as U7, NETWOR” py system Fon = a BURP cua — y Bowen PORTABLE APPLICATION Eo _ P1500 eres COMMERCIAL BUILDING Tah ESE, \ pistrieuTiON TRANSFORMER RESIDENTIAL BUILDING Figure 1-3. Disinbuted generation systems produce electricity close to where itis used. The resistance was inversely proportional to the intensity of the light. See Figure 1-4, ‘This observation of photoconductivity led to experimentation on how (0 use selenium to utilize solar energy PV technology has been developing for more than 160 years, but has progressed exponen- tially in the last few decades, Photovoltaics has only recently become a practical technology for power generation. Invention, Edmund Becquerel, a French physicist, is credited with discovering the Photovoltaic effect in 1839, The nineteen-year- old scientist observed an inerease in electron emissions Between a pair of electrodes sub- merged in a conductive solution when the ex- periment was exposed t light. However, there ‘vas little practical application for electricity at the time, and the discovery went unutlized In 1873, British engineer Willoughby Smith observed the light sensitivity of selenium while testing materials for underwater telegraph . cables. Inthe absence of lig, selenium ex- il hibited high resistance, but when exposed t0 DOLINRET Conynlands Nees Outpt light, selenium became highly conductive. Dstraved generation systems prove lecia power nromot locaton 6 Photovoltaic Systems h oom Power Generation Direct energy conversion systoms produce electrical power without any mechanical com ponents. For example, fuel cells use electrochemical processes to convert hydrogen and ‘oxygen into electrical energy, and photovoltaics use semiconductor properties to produce power from sunlight However, most power is gonerated by converting energy from one form to another until ituimately becomes useful eneray in the form of electricity. For example, coal-fired power plants change chemical energy (energy n the chemical bonds of coal) nto heat energy by burning. The heat energy is applied to water, which becomes steam, another form of heat energy. The steam is routed to turbines where it moves the blades, which rotate a shat producing mechanical energy. The shaft drives.a generator that uses the mechanical energy together with magnetic energy to produce electrcty. ‘Steam is the most common method of converting heat energy into mechanical energy and ultimately electricity and is used in many types of power plants. Nuclear power plants convert atomic energy into heat energy, which creates electricity by way of steam. Other fossi-fuel-powered processes also use steam for energy conversion, Energy sources that begin with mechanical energy, however, do not include steam or heat energy in the conversion cycle. In hydroelectrio plants, water pressure and flow drives the turbine-generators. Turbine-generators can also be driven by wind or tidal power, or ‘even the movement of lids in solar thermal systems. 'No eneray conversion is 100% efficient. That i, there is alvays some energy that does ‘ot convert fo @ new form or is lost through byproducts or waste heat. The energy is not ‘destroyed, butt escapes the system and does no useful work In 1954, Darryl Chapin and other researchers at Bell Laboratories were investigating the use of PV cells asa power source for remote telephone service stations, but theireffortsto improve sele- nium cells were unsuccessful. At the same time and independently, fellow Bell researchers Calvin Filler and Gordon Pearson were investigating silicon for use in transistors and rectifiers. They discovered that not only could adding certain impurities improve the desired electrical quali- ties forthe transistors and rectifiers, but that this ‘modified silicon rectifier produced an appreciable electric current when exposed to light. Fuller, Chapin, and Pearson subsequently collaborated. and improved the silicon cell into the first useful PY cell. See Figure 1-5. The first cells had ef- ficiencies of about 6%—unimpressive by today’s standards, but a significant improvement over se Jenjum, Bell called the inventiona“solar battery” and conservatively envisioned its application as Selenium Photoconductive Cells ee e ee ae Figure 1-4. Selenium photoconductive calls ‘eventually found uses in ight-sensing electronics, ‘such as exposure timing circuits in cameras. ‘The first true PV cells were developed by American inventor Charles Fritts in 1883, He covered. selenium wafer with transparent gold film, which produced a tiny current. However, its maximum efficiency never exceeded | so it was considered impractical for power generation. Also, selenium is a relatively rare clement, making the production of cells pro- hibitively expensive. powering small or remote electrical systems. Growth. The space race in the 1950s and 1960s spurred the development of space technologies, including photovoltaics. PV cells were ideal power generators for satellites and spacecraft because ofthe complexity of supplying power by other means and the abundant solar resource available outside Earth's atmosphere. Cells ‘were first developed for the Vanguard I satellite in 1958 and have been used on nearly every spacecraft and satelite since, Invention of the PV Cell Lucent Technologies IneJRell Labs Figure 1-5. The first practical photovoltaic cell was invented at Bell Laboratories in 1954 The first common Earth-based applications were in rural telephone systems and radio transmitters. See Figure 1-6, These systems brought communications to remote communi- ties, especially in developing countries where the lack of electrical infrastructure made solar nergy an ideal solution, Many applications of photovoltaics significantly improved life in developing countries, such as by providing power to pump water for sanitation and irtiga tion, iter water for drinking, light schools, and refrigerate medicines. Further improvements in cel efficiency and refinements in cell manufacturing made PV technology a viable option for larger systems. Off-grid homeowners living in remote areas began incorporating PV systems into their homes as a way to enjoy the convenience of modern appliances while maintaining their secluded lifestyle. There were also consum- crs who saw merit beyond financial factors in ‘green” PV electricity. These markets were relatively small, but fostered steady growth in PV technology for many years. Tncen Technoloies Ie Bell Labs Figure 1-8. Rural communications systems in the 1950s were the frst ferestria applications of PV technology Energy Crises. Oil shortages in the 1970s in- creased interest in terrestrial PV applications. The U.S. government initiated terrestrial PV research and development projects and estab- lished what would become the National Renew able Energy Laboratory (NREL). Significant developments were made in PV technology, ‘materials, inverters, and interactive systems, and federal legislation introduced tax credits to promote renewable energy production. Signifi- ccant financial incentive programs are available to consumers in the United States, Europe, and Japan to encourage use of PV technology. In 1960, solar cells were handmade and cost about $1000 per watt, Manufacturing improvements have reduced costs to less than 85 per watt, while production has grown ex- ponentially, See Figure 1-7. Meanwhile, fos- sil fuel costs have increased as finite supplies have dwindled or become more difficult (0 reach. The increasing costs for conventional electricity have helped the PV industry grow Chapter 1— Invoduetion to Photovoltaic Systems _ 7. 8 Photovoltaic Systems See Figure 1-8. Today, PV technology is used indiverse applications ineluding communica tions networks, grid-connecied homes and ‘commercial buildings, and rural and remote lighting and water pumping systems. ‘The earliest applications of PV systems were in situations where connections to the utility rid were unavailable or cost prohibitive. As PV efficiency has continued to improve and costs have fallen in recent years, more potential applications for PV technology have emerged. Greater demand and increasing production have accelerated the trend toward cost effec- tiveness in a wide range of applications. oc) kame ee Seen ae es Module Prices ———— | Boo | £ nice Pen wart oF i ERS RALNY Sto | A Be ; z | ‘ors | 1978 | 1980" 1082 ' 1884” 1886 ' 1988 1290 | Yo92 | 1904 1968 1088 | 2000” zone 2008 YEAR Source: US. Department of Energy Figure 1-7. Decades of development and manufacturing improvements have decreased the price per watt for PV systems. ‘Module Installation 8 Bus "REST OF WORLO 3 g 204 con 4 (CUMULATIVE INSTALLED PY POWER (MW) ase "1003 "109s "1985 " 1e96 "1697 " 1960 ' 1999 "2000" 2001 " 2002 aon " 2004 ” 2008 Yean Source: Internationa Energy Agency Figure 1-8. Production and installation of PV systems is growing rapidly. Chapter 1 — nod nfo Phololtae Systems _9 Today, PV systems can be used in almost any applic support DC loads, AC loads, or both, PV sys- tems may be as simple as a PV module directly connected to a load with no other components, cor as complex as a ullty-interconnected system ‘with multiple power sources. ion where electricity is needed and can ‘Space applications are extreme examples of off-grid remoteness, in that there is no possible ‘way {0 connect satellites and spacecraft t0 a steady source of terrestrial electricity. The only ase SolarMorld Industries America Games are used for ransportaton fo remote areas of some countries. Portable BV systems are used to power small etigeraion units fr medicines that must ‘options are to launch electricity, in the form of batteries, with the spacecraft, or to generate electricity in space. Fortunately, the available solar radiation outside Earth's atmosphere is even greater than on the ground. Satellites were the first practical applica- tions of PV technology and did much to in crease the public's knowledge of PV systems See Figure 1-9, However, space-hound PV systems are designed for high efficiency and low weight, with cost being less important. Since the priorities for space-bound PV sys- tems are different from those for Earth-based PV systems, the technol different applications have diverged somewhat Even so, the advanced technologies currently used in space applications, though currently ies used for these cost prohibitive, may someday progress to become practical for terrestrial applications, ace PY Applications DOBINKEL, NASWSmithsonian Iustiation! Lockheed Cor. Figure 1-9. Nearly every satlite and spacecratt since 1958 has relied on a PV system for power generation. be kept cold during a journey. Portable PV systems power mobile loads such as vehicles, temporary signs and lighti and handheld de jee Figure 1-10. The primary advantage of PV systems in these ap- plications is that the load is not permanently connected to a stationary power source and is free to move. Some portable applications require power when the sun is not available, requiring a battery as part of the PV system, Other portable applications, such as battery chargers for small electronics, are simpler systems that operate only under sunlight. Most portable PV systems are relatively small and ean power only modest loads. For ease of transportation, the systems should be relatively light, Portable systems also need to be repositioned each time they are relocated, They can usually be used while in motion but if not constantly facing the sun, the power output will be reduced Vehicles. Recreational vehicles (RVs) and boats can benefit greatly from PV systems. If the vehicle has many loads, such as the appli ances in an RY, the PV systemis best suited to be a backup to a primary power source, typi- cally an engine generator. A sailboat, however, may use a small, portable PV system as the primary method for charging the batteries for its relatively small number of loads, such as navigation lights and radios. DOEINREL, Warren Grete Temporary Signs and Lighting. Electronic construction signs cannot be connected (0 utility power, either because of remoteness or because of electrical construction hazards, and must be able to move between work areas at a construction site, Small PV systems with baiteries can be added to the signs to power them continuously. Temporary lighting for short-term projects or nighttime construction ‘work may be PV-powered because the short duration of the need may not warrant the time cor expense of connecting to utility power ‘Small Electronies. Small handheld PV sys- tems can be used to directly power or charge small electronic devices such as cell phones, culators, radios, GPS receivers, and lights, and are common accessories for campers, hikers, and military personnel. Manufseturers have developed these PV systems for ease of use, ruggedness, and portability, but power out: pputis limited by their small size. These arrays are rigid or flexible panels that are unfolded and laid out on a sunny patch of ground, Small arrays have even been sewn into backpacks and jackets. The electronic device to be charged is ‘connected to the PV system in the same way as the usual wall outlet charger. wergeney Power. During natural disasters ‘when the existing electrical infrastructure has been damaged and is off-line, portable PV power units can be brought in to supply criti cal services until the utility grid is repaired Individual emergency PV systems can provide SolerWorld Industries America Figure 1-10. Portable PV systems tend to be small and intended for specific loads. DOLINREL, United Solar Ovonic power for street and personal lighting, com munications equipment, warning and message igns, water purification, refrigeration of medi- cal supplies and food, or water pumping. Remote PV systems power loads that are permanently fixed but too distant to be con nected to the utility power grid. A large ‘number of applications require electricity in remote areas, making PV an ideal choice. See ‘igure 1-11. Off-Grid Residences. The mainstream consumer PV market essentially began with olf-grid residences, and this segment still ‘composes a significant portion of the market. Assystems have become more aifordable, this application has become increasingly common among homeowners who demand value be- ‘yond environmental benefits from the systems. PV systems can be sized to power an entire home, but off-grid residences often include other Sources of energy, such as wind turbines ‘orengine generators, to supplement or back up the PV system, ighting, The availability of low-power DC lamps makes PV energy ideal for remote light ing applications. Lighting needs are clearly greatest at night, making power storage (in the form of batteries) a necessary part of these systems, PV systems can be used to light bill- boards, highways, information sigas, parki Tots, and marinas Remote Applications me ‘DOEINREL, Dave Parsons Figure 1-11. Remote areas where conventional utilly-supolied power is out of reach are ideal for the application of PV technology. Communications. Radio, television, and tele phone signals transmitted over long distances ‘must be amplified by relay towers that are often located in areas inaccessible to utility power TThe best sites for communications stations are athigher elevations, making it difficult to pro- vide fuel and maintenance for generators. PV power is ideal for these stations, PV systems can also be used to power communication sig- nals from emergency call boxes and electronic information signs. Signage and Signals. Small PV systems can provide power for remote signage and signal devices, such as navigational beacons, siren highway warming signs, railroad ‘warning beacons, buoys, and lighthouses, Remote Monitoring. Data monitoring for scientific research or other purposes is often required at sites far from conventional power sources, PV systems can be used as a power source for remote station monitoring and for transmitting meteorological, seismic, struc: tural, or other data, ‘Water Pumping, Many water-pumping needs, such as livestock watering, are in remote areas ofa farm or ranch and require the most water during the hottest days, These systems can be directly coupled, with the PV system running Chapter 1— reduction to Photovetai Systems_14 DOEINREL, Minnesota Department of Commerce the pump during the sunniest times of day. PV- powered water pumping is also used to provide ‘water for campgrounds, irrigation, and remote village water supplies. i that are connected to the utility g and use PV energy as a supplemental source of power offer the greatest flexibility in pos sible system configurations. See Figure 1-12. This is because the size and type of system are not defined by the electricity demand. Being connected to the utility allows the consumer to choose how much supplemental power to derive from alternative sources such as PV systems. The supplemental power offsets a portion of the power needed from the utility, resulting in lower electricity bills. APY system may or may not save money in the short-term when competing against in expensive utility power. However, since install ing a PV system for supplemental power is a choice rather than a necessity, owners typically value the advantages of their system beyond purely financial factors. Since supplemental systems are the fastest-growing segment of the PV system market, the additional advantages are clearly very important. DOBINREL, Jerry Anderson, Northwest ‘Rural Pubic Power District 12_ Photovoltaic Systems PY System Applications 8 :. | SUPPLEMENTAL POWER APPLICATIONS — g OFF GRID” APPLIGATIONS vuruity APPLICATIONS US, CUMULATIVE INSTALLED. PV POWER (MB 3 YEAR Source: International Energy Agency “ncuses poole nd eat anpleaone Figure 1-12. Supplemental power systems, most often for single-family, hhomes, are the fastest-growing type of PV system installation PV systems can be used to provide supple- ‘mental power to any utility-connected building ‘or structure, including residences, commercial buildings, factories, and institutions. These ap- plications are all simitar, except thatthe systems vary in size Array mounting systems may also vary because of the differences in construction methods and design ofthese types of buildings. Uiilty-scale PV power plants consisting of thousands of modules are not yet common, but are currently being researched as av able renewable energy option for large-scale electricity generation. See Figure 1-13. nitial costs are high and power output varies with the weather, reducing reliability. However, PV systems produce power during daylight hours, \when electricity demand is greatest, increasing their valve to the wily PY technology, as opposed to conventional nuclear, coal-fired, or gas-fired power plan can provide additional advantages for uiity- scale power generation. Utilities can build PV power plants more quickly than conventional ower plants because a PV system is simpler and its components are easier to install than those used in other power-generating technolo gies. The only moving pats ofa PY system are in the tracking system, ifone isused, PV power plants can be located closer to populated areas than can conventional power plants because they do not involve hazardous materials or ‘cause air, water, or noise pollution, Also unlike conventional power plants, PV power pluntscan be easily expanded incrementally as demand increases. However, PV power plants require large area wherever they are located, Scale Applications ‘DOEINKEL, Warren Grts Figure 1-13. PV technology can be used for large-scale power production, but this application ‘snot yet common, Unfortunately, PV electricity still costs considerably more in the United States than electricity generated by conventional plants, and the additional cost must be offset by government subsidies or passed on t0 the consumer. Yet asthe technology continues to improve and fossil fuel costs rise, PV power becomes increasingly cost-effective. A diversity of knowledge, skills, and abilities are required to desig, install, and commission PV systems. The process involves a number of Qualified individuals and organizations, each ‘with an important role in ensuring the safe, reliable, and long-term performance ofthe PV power system. Like most industries, the PV industry has several levels of business. See Figure 1-14, These levels can include a variety of enter prises: large and small, domestic and foreign, and public and private. PV Industry Trane assooamons rv noone Sonor pnoanaa neseanen || staxonnos STTUTONS,‘ongaNzaTIonS CONSUMERS Figure 1-14. The PV industry is composed of ‘several levels of businesses and organizations. i World PV Industry In 1996, the U.S. had 81% of the world's Installed PV capacity, the largest share held by any country. By 2005, PY instal- lations in the United States had grown to more than six times the 1996 level, but accounted for only 12% of the world's in- stalled PV capacity. Some other countries have beoninstaliing PV systems ata much faster rate than the United States. Cur- ‘ently, the global PV industry is dominated by Japan and Germany. These countries produce and install most of the world's PV modules, REST OF / EUROPE TOTAL INSTALLED V POWER (2008 The strong growth overseas is driven by progressive incentive policies and high util rates. Germany currently consumes. about half of the worldwide production of solar modules, mostly for utilty-connected residences and commercial buildings. Chapter ‘There are more than 70 PV cell and module man- ufacturersin the world, representing hundreds of individual manufacturing sts. The equipment needed to fabricate and assemble the PV modules is adapted from the semiconductor electronics industry and specialized for PV manufacturing. Additonal manufacturers support the PV indus- try by supplying the other major components and equipment, such as inverters and mounting systems. These products are used in various types ‘of renewable energy systems. Electrical equipment manufacturers design, develop, and fabricate the balance-of-system (BOS) components. Balance-of system (BOS) components are the electrical and structural ‘components, aside from the major components, that are required to complete a PV system, BOS ‘componentsinclude the conductors, connectors, switehgear, fuses, and hardware that connect, Support, or interface between the primary devices such as the array, inverter, and battery system. Electrical BOS components are also common outside the PV industry, as they are used in nearly every electrical system PV manufacturers do not typically sell directly to consumers wishing to install a PV system. PV system components also are not commonly purchased through distributors or retailers that stock other electrical equipment or building hardware, In between PV manufacturers and consumers are integrators. An integrator is aa business that designs, builds, and installs complete PV systems for particular applica- tions by matching components from various ‘manufacturers. Integrators typically develop relationships with a small group of manufac- turers, who may then offer preferred pricing and referrals to the integrator ‘There are more than 170 integrators in the United States alone, Integrators work with homeowners, businesses, organizations, and Utilities to design, mount, monitor, and main- tain PV systems, They also work with builders and architects to create aesthetically-pleasing buildings using PV systems that meet local codes, standards, and regulations Irroducion to Photovltae Systers 13 14 _ Photovoltaic Systems rere nrnerrrinsnsentrese wise es Silicon Silicon isthe primary raw material for producing PV cells. Silicon makes up one-quarter of, Earth's crust and is found in many minerals, including sand, amethyst, granite, quartz, tint, opal, asbestos, and clay, Even so, silicon is difficult to process into a usable form because itis alvays combined with other elements. PV calls use many of the same process ing and manufacturing techniques as other semiconductor devices, such as computer chips, so the silicon processing and supply chain is well established. However, the two industries compote forthe same supply of processed licen andthe combined demand can exceedithe supply. Aftermany decades of progressively lower PV module prices per watt, increasing demand has put pres- sure on the refined silicon supply. The high demand and limited supply has stabilized or even slightly reversed the price trend For continued growth in both industries, the silicon supply chain will need to respond with significant capacity increases. Sharp Elecvonies Corp. Quartz mining sa sinicant source at siicon forthe PV indus. Installers may be directly employed by an integrator, or by an electrical contractor who specializes in PV installations, Safe and qual- ity PV system installations are essential for the success and acceptance of this emerging technology. Installers, both the contractors and the individual electricians, have impor {ant roles in ensuring quality PV installations. See Figure 1-15. Installers should exhibit quality electrical craftsmanship and, because of the unique aspects of the equipment and interfacing of PV technology, they should be qualified specifically for installing PV systems. All PV system installers should meet the following criteria + Complies with applicable building and electrical codes and standards, + Applies for permits and approvals from local building and utility authorities as required + Knows his orher capabilities and limitations, and seeks outside expertise as required + Selects and sizes systems and equipment to ‘meet performance expectations + Recommends well-engineered, quality components. + Ensores equipment is properly labeled and safety hazards are identified + Locates and orients array to maximize per- formance and accessibility + Mounts array with strong, weather-sealed attachments + Uses accepted utility-interconnection practices and obtains utility approvals as required + Completes work in a timely manner while practicing safe and onderly work habits + Employs safe and accepted methods in the installation and use of PV equipment + Completes inspections, commissioning, and acceptance tests + Provides owner/operator with appropriate documentation, instructions, and training + Provides follow-up service for completed work 2s required ‘An experienced installer also has consider- able design knowledge and familiarity with many types of PV systems and components nl can diagnose and troubleshoot even complex systems effectively. Installers are perhaps the ‘most visible members of the PV industry to the consumers, making it vital that installers bee professional and qualified individuals Skilled Installers ‘DOEINREL Craig Miler Productions Figure 1-18. Skiled and weltrained installers are needed to ensure quality PV system installations. The consumer, or end user, is the owner of the building or structure powered by the PV system Consumers include homeowners, developers, and businesses. In some cases, integrators and installers work with agents of the consumer such as architects, engineers, general contrac: tors, or managers. Consumers drive the growth of the PV industry but may ormay not be knowl- edgeable about PV systems, including the types of features that are available, the advantages and disadvantages of PV power, or ow to finance & system. Therefore, much of the marketing effort by the PV industry is aimed toward educating potential consumers about various PV options ‘and incentives. ‘Numerous not-for-profit organizations work to promote and furtherthe PV industry, includi organizations involved in research, marketing, installer training, and standards development. ‘These organizations also aim to make systems safer for the installer and the owner/operator. Research Institutions. In the United States alone, more than 70 universities and three national laboratories are working to further de- velop the PV industry. Research is also under way in Europe, Japan, and other parts of the ‘world, Research institutions are the underlying force to improve existing PV manufacturing techniques and develop the next generation of technologies. These institutions also educate and train the leaders and high-tech workforce of the future PV industry. ‘Trade Associations, Businesses within an industry, even competitors, often join together to form trade organizations in order to support each other and promote the industry to the consumer, in an effort to inerease the market forall involved, Manufacturers, integrators, and ‘ther groups in the PV industry have formed alliances including the Solar Energy Industries ‘Association (SEIA) and Solar Electric Power Association (SEPA), These organizations host trade shows and conferences to facilitate indus- try contacts and educate the public. Not all busi- nesses belong to trade associations, bat most find them to be mutually beneficial alliances. Installer Training. Training programs on the installation and operation of PV systems are organized by manufacturers, schools, or trade unions. These programs promote quality installations but can vary widely in length and scope, which can make it difficult for consumers to choose a skilled integrator or installer for a desired system. The North American Board of Certified Energy Practi- tioners (NABCEP) is an organization seeking (o standardize installer qualifications. "DOEINREL, Ajeet Rohe Universities and research institutions are investigating ways lo improve the offoleney of PV lechnaiogis tems Location: Alsip, IL (41.7°N, 87.8°W) ‘Type of System: Uilly-interactive Peak Array Power: 1.1 kW DC Date of Installation: Winter 2004-2005 (original installation) Installers: Apprentices and journeymen Purpose: Training ‘The IBEW-NECA Technical Institute (IN-TECH) uses a mixture of permanent and temporary PV systems to train apprentices and Journeyman, each with its own strengths, The two permaner installations include a rooftop rack array and an awning-type array cantilevered off a wall. These systems feed into the building's elec. trical system and serve as ongoing monitoring and maintenance learning tools for commercialtype PV systems, Two temporary systems are based on residential-type sloped single roofs and provide hands-on installation experience. One of the temporary roof systems Is unique for two reasons. First, the system Is indoors. The training center is located in a former high school, with a gymnasium that provides a large area to accommodate a section of a residential raot. The roof is ped about 25°, Although itis only afew feet off the ground, the idents work as ifitwere an actual roof and follow all applicable rules, including the use of fall protection harnesses, ‘The system provides a complete training exercise, including routing electrical conduit and connecting the system tothe utility. At the back of the roof isa framed wall that supports an electrical panel, inverter, and electric ‘meter. The meter is pre-wired into the building's electrical system with a standard electrical service entrance, as if the PV eystern was on a detached building with a typical utility connection. The first part ofthe training exercise includes configuring the mounting system, attaching the PV modules, wiring the modules together into an atray, bending conduit and routing wires from the roof to the electrical pan fs, connecting the inverter and other components, and tasting the system. A row of 12 HID lights mounted to the celling and aimed toward the roo! simulates sunlight so that the system can be tested under typical outdoor conditions. Loads can be powered from the system for demonstration, For the second part of the exercise, the instructors test the students’ troubleshooting and problem-solving skils. The instructors intentionally create a small problem with the system, such as by disconnecting a conduclor or changing the settings on the inverter, and challenge the students to find the problem. The students use test instruments and their knowledge of the system and its ‘operation to determine the cause of the problem and provide the remedy, The other unique aspect of this system is that the PV installations are infinitely repeatable. After one class has completed training, the system is disassembled for the next class. The modules, mounting system, conductors, ‘conduit, and connectors are compiately removed. Oniy the TREWNECA Technical Intute ‘Students receive raining on every partotinstaling a PV system, including connecting fo uty power. TBEW-NECA Technical natitte ‘The finshed PV system can be tested for performance and used fortroubleshooting excises. roof attachment points, empty electrical enclosures, and service entrance remain, and the training exercise begins again for a new class, NABCEP is composed of representatives, from throughout the renewable energy indus- tty and works withthe renewable energy and energy efficiency industries and professionals to develop and implement quality credentialing and certification programs for practitioners NABCEP certification for PV installers, in- cluding contractors, supervisors, and journey- ren, requires both experience and education, ensuring that certified professionals mect minimum levels of expertise in PV systems and installation. Cemification is awarded upon successful completion of an exam. Standards. Many organizations that develop standards and safety guidelines forthe electri- cel industry are also involved, directly or in- directly, in the PV industry, Several standards. ‘organizations publish standards and guidelines related to photovoltaics, including the Insti tute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), ASTM International, and the Inter- ational Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) These documents cover standard terminology, rmodale test procedures and conditions, solar radiation measurement, electrical connections, performance, power conditioning, and many ‘other topics. ‘The National Electrical Code? (NEC*), developed by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), is a set of rules on safe practices for the installation of electrical equipment. The NEC* applies to jurisdictions (municipalities, counties, or states) that have adopted it as their governing electrical code, which includes most of the United States and some other countries. The code applies to all electrical systems, including both uttity-con- nected and stand-alone PV systems. Article 690 of the NEC® specifically addresses the design and installation of PV systems and equipment. Article 690 includes definitions, requirements for sizing conductors and circuit protection, disconnecting means, wiring meth- ‘ods, grounding, marking, and connections to other systems. Produtt listing organizations test products for safety and conformity to standard require- ments. Products that pass are certified, or “listed” as being quality products that match the manufaeturer’s specifications and fulfill Chapter — ineoducson to PhotvokalsSystens_17 the requirements for safety. These products may then bear the listing organization's mark, Which is considered a symbol of quality. Un derwriters Laboratories Inc.® (UL*) is the most prominent listing organization and publishes safety and quality standards against which products are ested. See Figure 1-16. Product Listing Organizations xantrex Dus USTED 41XM. cane Congo tox coat Figure 1-16. The official mark of a listing or ganization signifies that a product meets the ‘organization's standards for safety and quality. eee fy millions of years ago. The burning of fossil fuels joxide and other toxic substances that ons keene Sfels aie linited and it's becoming increasingly ditfioutt to Cas Uiilities have a unique place inthe PV industry. ‘They are the primary producers ofthe conven- tionally generated electricity that PV-generated electricity aims (0 replace, so they compete with PV installations. Utilities operate large, expensive power plants designed for specific generating processes, such as nuclear reactions Or burning coal, so they are typically slow to change, However, progressive utilities are also potential PV system owners, as they adopt PV and other renewable energy sources for future growth and eventual phase-out of existing power plants. Either way, utilities are a major part of the PV industry. 18 Photovotic Systems ‘To establish an energy portfolio that is sustain- able for future growth, state and federal govern- ‘ments, and governments of ether counties, have ‘enacted various energy polices. This will be- ‘come increasingly important as more countries develop and industrialize, Energy demand is ‘expected to continue growing exponentially and new technologies must be available tohelp meet the demand. See Figure 1-17. These policies are rimauily aimed a reducing dependency on fos- sil fuel energy, mandating efficient energy use, and encouraging the development of renewable energy resources. The primary ways in which federal, state, and local govemments encourage renewable energy, including photovoltaics, is through incentives and quotas Fulure Energy Development v0 wo) Buenas: 0 cement # Sd « es EG e 58 » somone cure YEAR Source: World Energy Counc + ptimaiy wood combs, nina pone, and human omer * prmaiy wna power Figure 1-17. Renewable energy is expected to compose an increasingly larger portion of energy production. Incentives. Incentive programs include grants rebates, renewable energy eredits,low-inerest ‘or no-interestJoans, sales and property tax ‘exemptions, income tax credits or deductions for individuals and corporations, and cash payments based on energy production. Federal programs are avilable throughout the United States, while state programs vary widely. Even some utilities offer incentive programs in their areas, Online databases of various incentive programs help consumers research available programs for their area, Quotas. The quota mechanisin isa state policy and is typically called a renewables portfolio standard (RPS). An RPS places an obligation on either the state’ utilities or the consumers to source a specified fraction of their elec- tricity from renewable energy sources by a certain deadline. For example, California has ‘committed to producing 20% ofits electricity needs with renewable energy by 2010. See Figure 1-18. Utilities that fail to meet their obligation are required to pay a penalty fee for each unit of electricity short of the goal. ‘This quota mechanism creates or expands the market for renewable energy systems, which dives competition and is expected to lower «costs to the consumer. Photovoltaics is only one of many technologies for uilizing solar energy, Many other methods can make use of solar energy to produce heat, electricity, light, and even cooling. Some tech- niques have been used by humans since ancient times, For instance, the sun baked bricks into strong building materials, and dried foods for preservation. Wind, a product of solar energy. ‘moved people across oceans. The modern ‘world has built on these technologies to utilize this abundant resource in more efficient and ditect ways ‘SMA Tecnologie AG Combinations of eneray sources, such as potovataics _and whd turines, provide a balanced supply of energy. (Chapter | —Intoducton to Photovoltse Systems Renewables Portfolio Standards and Goals atrd Teele BERETS? § SE : (2 STATE RPS: Neo eeraar y Source: DSIRE, November 2006 Figure 1-18. Renewables porttlio standards and goals vary by state, Most solar energy technologies involve special ‘equipment that is added to orincorporated imo a structure £0 collect, convert, and distribute the energy gained from the sun. A solar en- ergy collector is a device designed to absor’ solar radiation and conver it to another form, usually heat or electricity, Collectors are also sometimes called receivers. Solar collectors are classified into fatplate and concentrating collectors acconding to their ability t0 utilize the different types of solar radiation. Flat-Plate Collectors. A flat plate collector is a solar energy collector that absorbs solar energy on a lat surface without concentrating it, and can utilize solar radiation directly from the sun as well as radiation that is reflected of scattered by clouds and other surfaces. Flat-plate collectors may be installed in a fixed orientation or on a sun-tracking mount Neaely all commercial and residential solar energy installations use fat-plae collectors See Figure 1-19. Concentrating Collectors. A concentrating collector is a solar energy collector that en- hances solar energy by focusing iton a smaller area through reflective surfaces or lenses. The high-intensity sunlight is focused onto high- efficiency solar cells or working fluids that transfer thermal energy. Since concentrating collectors utilize only radiation directly from the sun, they must continually track the sun. Concentrating collectors have increased ef- ficiency and reduced size because of the abil- ity to channel more solar radiation onto the desired surface. See Figure 1-20, SG hese a ene acer ai care Flat-Plate Collectors RADIATION ~~ Director PROM SUN souan \ COLLECTOR \-SoLAR RADIATION SCATTERED SY cLOUDS OF. STHER SURFACES Figure 1-19. A flat plate collector can utilize any solar radiation, direct or reflected, that strikes its surface, 20 Photovoltaic Systems Concentrating Collectors RADIATION DIRECTLY FROM SUN — aussson_- pats \ 7 4 aneaor seco concentanton-” EB

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