Name fours Formation ofthe Solar System) A Solar System Is Born National science Pema Education Standards After you read this section, you should be able to answer 53a 3h 36 these questions: + What isa rebula? + How did our solar system form? How Do Solar Systems Form? You probably know that our solar system today isa includes the planets, moons, and other objects that orbit Organize As you read ths ‘seaion, make flowchart ju sun, However, our solar system has existed for only sear make Nowa bout 5 billion years. It was not always the same as itis glaweeng steps nthe now. It began as a nebula, lke ours. All solar systems start as clouds of gas and dustin space called nebulas (or nebulae). Our solar system probably formed from a nebula called the solar nebula. ‘The gases in a nebula are mainly hydrogen and helium, ‘The dust contains elements stich as carbon and iron. olar systems form from nebulas. The gas and dust in nebulas become solar systems because of two forces: sewty and pressure Vem 1. Identify Which 10 forces GRAVITY: PULLING MATTER TOGETHER ‘cause the [Link] distin Remember that gravity pulls objects together. The ‘ebulas form solar systems? particles of matter in a nebula are very small, There is a ot of space between them. Therefore, the force of grav: ity holding the particles together is very weak, It is just strong enough to keep the nebula from drifting apart. oe iy foc gy TAKE A LOOK 2. Identity what effect does savy have on the particles ina nebula? ‘Te fore o rity pul th patisin neu together, ~ Formation fhe Sole StemEID) 4 Soler system 1s Born comin PRESSURE: PUSHING MATTER APART Gravity pulls the particles ina nebula together: Why dont the panicles collapse ito a single point? The Critical Thinking answer has to do with the pressure inside a nebula 3 Apply anceps How ©The paticles in a nebula are always moving. As the Goethghorssreprovsbly panicles move around, they sometimes ump into each atioc the sine of a nebula? other, When two particles bump into each other, they: a nove apart. This produces pressure within the nebula ‘The closer the particles are, the more likely they are to tmp into each otter, Therefore, the pressure is high TAKE ALOOK 2 Kdentty What causes presse de 3 nebula? trou cae he piesa rst roast ‘THE BALANCE BETWEEN GRAVITY AND PRESSURE High pressure causes the nebula to expand, or get larger. The particles spread farther apart, and pressu decreases, However, gravity increases pressure by pulling the particles together. When the nebula is just the right size, the pressure inside it exactly balances the force of -avity. This balance keeps the nebula the same size. It does not expand or shrink UPSETTING THE BALANCE ‘The balance between gravity and pressure in a nebula can be upset, or changed, For example, a supernova ccan produce a force on the nebula. The force ean cause sinall regions of the nebula to be compressed, or pushed together. These small regions are called globules. 5. Define What are globules? A globule can become very dense. Gravity can cause the lobule to collapse. As t collapses, is temperature increases. “The hot, dense globule ean eventually become a star Intractne Tetbook 386 Formation he So SemName EGSIDYD 4 Solar System Is Born continued How Did the Solar System Form? Ie took about ten milion years for our solar system to fonn trom the solar nebula, The figures below show some of the important events in the formation of our solar system. Soa | Sane 4 Ee is ee Interscive Tenbook 387 TAKE A LOOK 6 Define watisa planetesimal™| STANDARDS CHECK 55a The ert the th ane or theson ster hatinces he moon Be an, [Sah che plan she ‘oor and sale acts Sich sao nd comets ‘eal and args Bon he 1% List what are the four 525 giant planets ~ Formation af ie Soo temName cuss Date Section 1 Review SES. cs3a.38.3¢ SECTION VOCABULARY ge coud of gos and dust n interstellar | solar nebula a rotating coud of gas and dust Space avegion in space vier stars are bom |” romwhich the sun and planes formed 1. Describe What happened (o the solar nebula? [Link] What force pulls the matter in a nebula together? 5. Identify Where did rest of the gas in the solar nebula end up? [Link] What are the four inner, rocky planets? “Apply Concepts: Wht would happen to a nebula if the pressure inside it was greater than the force of gravity? Explain your answer, Intact Tetbook oe.) Formation oe Sar Serfowrria2| Formation of the Solar Systern) The Sun: Our Very Own Star Pama) ‘After you read this section, you should be able to answer these questiors: + Where does the sun's energy come from? + How do sunspots and solar fares affect Barth? What Is the Structure of the Sun? ‘The sun is the largest part of our solar system, Ninety-nine percent of the matter in our solar system is found in the sun. Although the sun may look like a solid ball in the sky itis actually made of gas. The gas is held together by gravity. The figure below shows the structure side of the sun, Bneruy is produced in the core of the sun, ‘The energy produced in the core takes millions of years to move to the photosphere. Firs, the energy passes from the core into the radiative zone. Next, the energy reaches the convective zone. Within the convective zone, hot gases carry energy to the photosphere. Energy leaves the sun as light, It takes about 8:3 min for light to travel from the sun to Barth, 380 National Science Education Standards Cisworne p> ‘Ask Questions As you read, write down any questions YOU have. When you nish Teading discuss your ques tions witha partner orin smal group. Together, ty to figure out the answers to your questions TAKE A LOOK ty hatte ormation of the Salar emEGE "he Sun: Our Very Own Star continued Where Does the Sun's Energy Come From? Our sun has existed for about 4.0 billion years. Scientists have developed many theories about why the sin shines. For example, scientists used to think that the sun bums fae, ike a camp tions about the age of the sun fe, However, new observa showed that this theory could not be correct, A sun that burs fuel could not last VEE for more than about 10,000 years. &} or ant aban aaa Scientists now know that nuclear fusion is the process hhasthe sun been shining?” that powers our sun and most other stars, To understand nuclear fusion, you must know a little bit about the struc- ture of atoms. Remember that all matter is made of atoms, Atoms, in turn, are made of even smaller particles called electrons, protons, and neutrons. Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus (plural, nucle’) of the atom. The electrons move around the nucleus. The figure below shows a model of VEE an atom of the element helium, @) 3. List What are three aries that make up ‘toms? Protons and neurons ar found inthe rc: rotors ee ty Darcles tha peste lee Erage Newwons have na secc etage. the mut of mos ats Eon prtors and eutons en proto a TAKE ALOOK ~< | A ___ 4 denity Wii nd of x | Eators ws mh rater too] ate do all nie! contin? Newton | eeacnoape Ceo | Pattie do all uc t ove negate scr re | \ Eons ae not prt the Proton cee ‘The numberof protons in an atom determines which Critread Thinking clement the atom is For example, al atoms wih only re om and zone at) one proton and one neutron is still hydrogen. It is simply Epon your ose a uferent form of hose releases a huge amount of energy. Within stars nucle of hydrogen fase to form nuetel of helium. 2 Foxton athe Slr StemNaswe = a ctw FEE The Sun: Our Very Own Star contined FUSION IN OUR SUN Normally, tydrogen nuclei never get close enough to each other to fuse into helium. However, the pressure in the center ofthe sun is very high. This high pressure forces hydrogen nuclei together, so they ean fuse. The figure below shows how hydrogen nuclei in the sun fuse to form heliur. open Sb fees Wy pe famp i “e saan Ds > GP a ey Ne beac satomotiragen woe 3 calle is newennisoucess Vanni an, cuinstwe protons and SEER, ince epoametaee caeeraiems ens eigen, ‘ier ln Meese inudeos of storm oe eke A past ha cn ‘ins no protne one en How Does Solar Activity Affect Earth? “The movement of energy inthe photosphere causes the gases to chum. The circulation of gases andthe s rotation produce magnetic fekds These magnetic fields reach farntospace. They can cause changes in the Photosphere. These changes can aso alfect the Earth, Is SUNSPOTS The sun's magnetic fields slow the movement of gases in the conveetive zone. This causes certain areas of the photosphere to become cooler than others, The cooler ‘areas show up as sunspots. Sunspots are cooler, dark spots on the photosphere, They vary in size and shape. Some sunspots are as large as 80,000 km in diameter, & InterociveTentbock 391 6 Define What s nucle fusion? TAKE A LOOK 1. Compare How s helms erent from helium? JED 1. Define What ae sunspots? Forint Solr SatName Date EGR the Sun: Our Very Own Star conte ¥ TAKE A LOOK 8 Identify Wiha causes ee Sung cok seo eee 52 the ptogrre hye — tll Surge mtb rs ‘THE SUNSPOT CYCLE ‘The Huallan scientist Galileo was one of the first to study ‘smspots, Using 2 telescope, he observed the numbers, sizes, and locations of sunspots over time. He found that the numbers ancl locations of sunspots change ina predictable pattem. This pattern is called the sunspot eyete “Today, scientists know thatthe sunspot eyele is about 11 ‘years long, Every 1 years, the number of sunspots reaches ‘apeak. Then it declines. The graph below shows how the rhumber of sunspots hats changed over time. Math Focus [Link] le History deed 4 HoH ieee ereeaaeeeeE He il iH fore aero if ina ee Jo Sas Pee i 7 5 1650" 170017501900 18501900. 1950 Tiga stow enter oie heen tent ee ‘ha tcc of sunpss change 9 eR me Formation othe Slr SaterGSI) "Pe Sun: Our Very Own Star continued © EFFECTS OF SUNSPOTS ON CLIMATE Ssientststhink that sunspot activity may affect Barth's weather For sxample, there were few sunspots between the years of 1615 an! 1715, During this ime, Europe's el mate was much coer than usa fact. the elite was so cold that this period is sometimes caed the *Litle ee “OE Say It Age” However scientists do not understand how a small Sypothence tet tinds number of sunspots may change the Earth's climate. of evidence could support Most sciertists agree that sunspots may affect eee the Earth's climate, However, the connection between yaaa tak wacarter sunspots and the climate on Earth is not clear. More inser oh ston research is needed in order for us to Fully understand Then tak about your answers ee a ee uth parte on a smal how sunspots can affect our climate, an SOLAR FLARES The magnetic fields that cause sunspots can also cause solar flares. Solar flares are extremely hot, bright regions fon the sun's surface. They send huge streams of electri cal particles throughout the solar system. Solar Nares ean extend up to several thousand kilometers within only a @ few minutes. Scientists do not know exactly what causes solar ors flares. However, they do know that most solar flares are faret Solar flares can have significant effects on the Earth. ‘The streams cf charged particles solar flares emit can interact with the Earth's atmosphere. They can interfere with radio and television transmissions, Therefore, scien tists are trying to find ways to predict solar Mares. fed with sunspots, efsolor | Bexripton ow can tafe sey = the est? [nse mycore dae ombcion tcl Solar tres TAKE ALOOK 12. Deseribe Fin the blank spaces inthe abe Interactive Textbook 393 Formation We Sar SytemName cass _ ate Section 2 Review NSES e530 SECTION VOCABULARY ‘nuclear fusion the processby which nucei of | sunspot a dark area of the photosphere of the Small atoms combine to form a Hew, more ‘un thet cooler than the surrounding areas ‘mossive nucleus: the process releases energy | and that has a stong magnetic field [Link] What process powers: most stars, 2. Describe Label the leyers of the sun that are missing from this diagram, huomosphere photosphere 3. Explain Describe the process of nuclear fusion in our sun, Interactive Tetbook 394 “Feomaion oe Slr SternThe Earth Takes Shape Ee After you read this section, you should be able to answer these questions: + How did the Earth form? + How did te Earth's atmosphere form? + How did the Barth's oceans form? How Did the Earth Form? ‘The Earth & made mostly of roc Water covers nearly three-fourths ofits surface. 4 protective atmosphere of nitrogen and oxygen surrounds it, However, the Earth has changed a lotsince it formed 4.6 billion years ago. ‘THE EFFECTS OF GRAVITY Earth formed when rocky planetesimals collided and combined. When Earth was a young planet, i was smaller and had an uneven shape, like a potato. As itatracted more matter, gravity increased. When Earth reached a diameter ‘of about 350 kay, the rock at Barth's center was erushed by gravity. AS a resull, the planet started 1o become rounder. ‘THE EFFECTS OF HEAT As Barth was changing shape because of also heating up. The energy from collisions with pla along with radiation from radioactive mate- ‘ial, warmed the young planet. When the Earth got large ‘enough, the temperature rose faster than the inside could cool The rocky center began (0 melt ‘Today, the Barth is still cooling from the energy produced when it formed, You can see evidence of Earth's internal heat in volcanoes, earthquakes, and hot springs. Force ect > saced mater othe sty Eath shed rodeo the ery Ea cote > cauid the aid the cay Eo ro mele |: Sa ean afveleanoes eamsquakes and hot Sings today 05 National Science Education Standards ssa Ciro te Summarize Before you read this section, make an eutine sing the headings from the Section. As you ead fil in the main ideas ofthe section in your autine Vom 1. Mdentfy What caused the ey Eartto change from fan Uneven shape to around Shape? TAKE A LOOK 2 Identify Fillin the blank Spaces in the table Fern fhe Solar SytemSune Ca Date (EGS The Earth Takes Shape conned How Did the Earth’s Layers Form? olay geolits vide the Ea into thie an layers Bah ayer has a diferent composton, Te three layers ae he crst te anil and the core Criticad Thinking “ine erust iste thin, outermost layer. eis between S compere ethee Ski ad 10 ken ticle The rock inthe erst sch dieenesbemcente elements such as oxygen, sicon, and aura a The mantle is the layer beneath the crust. It extends 2.900 lan below te Hath surface The slid rockin he trae sich in elena such as magnesia rn, The core the central pat of Earth The cores nade vol of ona nickel tis the dense layer ofthe Barth, The core has a rads of about 2.400 kn Tow di these thre layers form from te rocky mate- al hat nade up the ely Earth? Remeber Oat het within the Barth caused the rocks to melt As the rocks Ile more dene materi, sch a lel a iron, sito the center They Tore the core Less dense Intell foated othe surface. They came the rut and mantle, 4. Explain Hove did the arth’ layers form? Interact Tetbook 306 Fosmation ote Slr SemName Css ate GSO) the arth Takes shape contined How Did the Earth's Atmosphere Form? Toa he aston tans 7h tog, aviosyaen an thot gon ato ona tn nouns marth ass Homever et ee ote Bathe Ears tsp has a ayy en the say in Ears sory the aoe a bry ver iret fo he snophere oy ARTS EARY ATMOSPHERE ety Whe ees ik that Earth's early atmosphere was a make up most of the Earth's oe iH y atmosphere today? mist ass ht were sn off a arth coe Bnvyin he Farshuno; ts surice was sory ht ln — some pices twas moto ore. The mole ek gave fare amon carton dod at mater Yapor Merete Earth eat stor dab contain arg rau ofthese fae el sconecrer) FARTS CHANGING ATMOSPHERE er ‘Asthe Ear cooked wt es fom eae babe ste sphere changed, Volcanoes released chlorine, nitrogen Peers aeccenbee en xe and wer apo Tse sei sac clee inthe sphere sulfur, as wells ¢ ‘TAKE A LOOK 12 Describe How did vleanoes afet the early Earth's atmosphere? ‘canoes on he ea ar released guest the strep ‘Comets may also have helped to form the Barth early atmosphere. Comets are planctesimals that are made mainly of ice, The material in comets contains many different elements. When the comets crashed into the Barth, these ‘elements were released! and became part ofthe annosphere. ‘Comets probably brought oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen saases to the Bacth’s atmosphere, They may also have brought sore ofthe water that helped form the oceans. Irrav Fexbook Foxton he Solar SensESI) he Earth Takes shape conned Identify where does most af the onygen in today's ttmosphere come rom? VED 9. Define What = Photosynthesis TAKE A LOOK 10, List il inte lnk Spoces nthe able rate use Dae Where Did the Oxygen in Today's Atmosphere Come From? Most ivng things om Earth today including humans, need oxgafen in order to survive. Comets brought only small nount of oxygen tothe almosphere. Mos of the oxygen in the atmosphere today i there because of life on Earth ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION ‘You may know that ultraviolet (UV) radiation in su light ean cause sunburns. Scientists think that this radia tion may also have helped to produce the conditions. necessary for life to form on Earth. Ultraviolet radiation contains a lot of energy. ‘Therefore, it can break apart molecules in the air and on. the Earth’s surface, This is probably what happened on the early Earth, The smaller molecules collected in water: In the water, these chemicals might have combined to form the complex molecules that made life possible, ‘THE SOURCE OF OXYGEN The first life forms did not need oxygen to live. By 3.4 billion years ago, 0 nisms that could carry out photosynthesis had evolved. Photosynthesis is a process in which a living thing uses sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to produce food and oxygen. As these living things carried out photosynthesis, they added more and more oxygen to the atmosphere. At the same time, they removed carbon diode from the atmosphere. Some of the oxygen reacted with sunlight to form. ‘ozone gas. This gas then formed the ozone layer. The ozone layer blocked much of the harmful UV radiation, making it possible for life to move onto land. The earli- est forms of land life were simple plants, like algae today ‘They moved onto land about 2.2 billion years ago. Source of smorpheric gases _| Cases from this source en sock on the ety ars neeBESIDE Bh Earth Takes shape continued ‘TAKE A LOOK 1 Define What is 2 stromatoite? ee be dada ‘These stomata af mas ose lo, Als he ese ‘Rap hoeeen Soe he caret ome fe Eat, EEE HESS How Did the Earth’s Oceans and Continents Form? At first, Barth was so hot that much of its water was inthe form of water vapor in the atmosphere. Scientists think that the Earth's oceans formed once Earth had ‘cooled enough for rain to fall. The rain collected on the Barth's surface. After millions of years of rainfall, water covered the planet. By about billion years ago, the first slobal ocean covered the planet. GROWTH OF CONTINENTS ‘There may not have been any dry land during the few hundred million years of Earth’s history. Scientists ink that the rocks in the crust and mantle melted and cooled many times while the Earth formed, Bach time the ‘rocks melted, denser materials sank and less dense mate- tals rose (oward the surface. After a whie, some of the rocks were light enough to pille up on the surface. These rocks were the beginnings of the eailiest continents. Overtime, as the continents have moved over the surface, they have become eve larger. The processes of plate tectonies, such as cont rental collisions, have produced new continental Come Nal. Most of the material in the continents today formed ial. Most of the material in th today formed AMR ‘caused the continents to become larger ‘within the last 2.5 billion years, &)Name cuss ate Section 3 Review NSES 530 SECTION VOCABULARY ‘core the cenal par ofthe Earth below the mantle ‘rust the thin and solid outermost ayer of the ath above the mantle mantle the lye of rock berween the Earth's ‘ustand core 1. List Which two forces caused the early Earth's size and structure to change? 2. Identify Label the three layers of the Earth in the figure below. 3. Describe How did photosynthesis change the Barth's atmosphere? Give two ways, How did the ozone layer form? 5. Identify When did the ocean on Earth form? interactive Febook Faraone Slr Serclass 2] Formation of the Planetary Moti n Een ‘After you read this section, you should be able to answer these questions: + What is the difference between rotation and revolution? ‘+ What are Kepler's three laws of planetary motion? + How does gravity affect the orbits of p How Do Scientists Describe the Motions of the Planets? Remember that the Earth, like all planets, spins on Its axis, Scientists use the {erm rotation to describe the motion of a body spinning on its axis. As the Earth rotates, different parts ofits surface face the sun. It ‘daytime in the part that faces the sun. It night in the: part that faces away from the sun, At any time, only one-half of the Earth faces the sun, In addition to rotating, all planets move around the sun. The path that a planet follows around the sun is called its orbit. One complete trip around the sun is called a revolation. Aotation ‘The amount of time it takes for a planet to complete fone revolution is called its period of revolution, Each planet has a efferent period of revolution, For example, Earth's period of revolution is 355.24 days. Mercury's is ‘only 88 days, invective Textbook wor Date National Science Education Standards sab iG > Summarize After you ead this section, make 8 chart describing Kepler's laws of Planetary motion. Criticad Think slow than the Earth On wich Planet does daysme as longer) TAKE A LOOK 2. Describe What are two ‘ways that planets move?lass Date ERIN) Planetary Motion continued 3. Describe How did Johannes Kepler come ‘up with his thre laws of planetary mation? TAKE A LOOK A. Identify Label the place inthe planet's orbit where it 'S moving the fastest. What Do We Know About How Planets Move? Scientists have not always: known how the planets move Until the 1600s, scientists did not know the shapes of the planets’ orbits or their periods of revolition accurately In the 1600s, a German scientist named Johannes Kepler made detailed observations of the motions of the planets, After analyzing his observations, he developed three laws of planetary motion. Kepler's observations and calculations were so accurate that selentists still use his Jaws today! KEPLER’S FIRST LAW Kepler carefully observed the path that Mars takes through the sky. When he analyzed his observations, he found that Mars’ orbit is not a perfect circle, Instead, iis shaped like an ellipse, ot oval. Kepler's frst law of planetary ‘motion states that the orbits of al planets are ellipses, KEPLER’S SECOND LAW Kepler reasoned that the planets must move through their orbits faster in some places than in others. To understand why this is So, look at the figure below. The distance between point 1 and point 2 is longer than the distance between point 3 and point 4, The planet takes the same amount of time to travel both distances, ‘Therefore, the planet must be moving faster between points 1 and 2 than between points 3 and 4. This is Kepler's second law. woe Formation oe Saar SeteName cuss Date ESI) Planetary Motion continued KEPLER'S THIRD LAW Kepler observed that planets that are far from the n, such as Sattum, take longer to orbit the sun. This is Kepler's third law of planetary motion, How Does Gravity Affect a Planet's Orbit Kepler never knew why planets orbit the stn, Another astronomer, Si Isaac Newton, solved the puzzle. He con bined the observations of earlier scientists with math- ematical modols to deseribe the force of gravity Newton observed that objects fll toward arth. He reasoned that all objects are attracted to each other through the fore of gravity. The strength ofthe force depends on two factors—the masses ofthe objects and the distance between them Newton's law af universal gravitation describes how the force of gravity is related to these two factors. When tive masses ar large, the force of gravity is strong. When the objects ar far apart, the force of gravity is weak, ‘ORBITS AND GRAVITY If gravity pulling on the moon, why doesn't the moon ‘al to Earth? The answer has to do with the moon’ inertia. Inertia isan object's resistance lo changes in its speed or dirvetion, Gravity is like a string holding the moon in orbit around the Barth, Without gravity, the moon would move ina straight line away from the Earth. The moon's orbit is a balance between its inertia and the force of gravity: This balance is the reason that all bodies in orbit, ineluding the Barth, travel along, curved paths, esting Path a (ori ‘raay pte be moon oars te Eat ; In apenas ee 7 [STANDARDS CHECK E53b Ms! abject in the solar Stem ero an esate nate, Those Fors ean sch ph tne dy he or pele Word Help: predictable able ta be know ahead of Word Help: phenomenon (plural phenomena) any faa or event that can be sensed or deserbed scentfieay 5. Kdentify Relationships How is the distance ofa planet rom the sun related {ots period of revoltion? TAKE A LOOK 6 Explain Why doesn't the ‘moon move away fom the Earth ina suaight line? Foxton the Sear SemName cass Date Section 4 Review NSES e536 SECTION VOCABULARY ‘orbit the path that 3 body tolows as it travels around anather body in space ‘evolution the motion ofa body that aves ‘found another body in space; one complete tp along an obit, rotation the spn of» body on its axis 1. Compare How is rotation different from revolution? 3. Describe Fill in the blank spaces in the table How it affects the force of gravity Factor Mass of the objects Distance between the objects Aldentify What two factors must be balanced in order for an object to remain 5. Predict Consequences Wha would happen to an object in orbit around a planet if ‘the planet's Force of gravity were stronger than the objeet’s inertia? 6. Apply Concepts Imagine a planet with two moons. Moon A is twice as far from the planet as moon B. Which moon will take longer to orbit the planet once? Explain ‘your answer. Interac Testbook