CELLS

Types and structure

KEY CONCEPTS
All organisms are make up of one

or more cells
Cells are the basic unit of

structure and function of

organisms
New Cells are made only by

existing cells through cellular

reproduction
Cells exchange substances with

their environment by transporting

these substances in and out of
the cell through the plasma
membrane

TYPES OF CELLS-PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES

Prokaryotic Cells-simple and

more ancient than Eukaryotic

cells. The are all bacteria
Have no nucleus, but have a
nucleoid region with one,
circular DNA
No membrane bound organelles
Have a cell wall
Contain plasma membrane,
cytoplasm, and ribosomes (site
of protein synthesis)
No histones or no formation of
chromosomes

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
The hereditary material exists as a

single naked DNA molecule without

the proteins that are associated with
the DNA in eukaryotic chromosomes
Ribosomes are smaller than those of

Eukaryotic cells
Cell wall when present are made

from peptidoglycans, a
polysaccharide protein.
Archaea bacteria cell walls are

chemically diverse and may contain

proteins, glycoproteins, and/or
polysaccharides, but not
peptidoglycans, cellulose (plant cell
walls), or Chitan (fungi cell wall)

Flagella, when present are not

constructed of microtubules and

are not enclosed by the plasma
membrane. Flagella delivers motion
by twisting like a cork screw

EUKARYOTIC
CELLS

Eukaryotic cells-All other organisms,

such as protists, fungi, plants, and

animals
Contain a nucleus, nuclear envelope to

protect DNA, nuclear pores to allow

transport in and out of nucleus, and
linear DNA
Have membrane-bound organelles
Like Prokaryotic cells they also contain a
plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and
ribosomes (site of protein synthesis)
Contain histones that form into
chromosomes
Eukaryotic cells maintain interan
organelles for specialized functions

CELL MEMBRANE (PLASMA

MEMBRANE)
Separates internal environment

from external environment and

allows substances to be
transported in and out of the cell
It bounds the cell and encloses

the nucleus and cytoplams

Selective permeability-The plasma

membrane is selectively
permeable in other words, it
allows some substances to pass,
but not others

FLUID MOSAIC MODEL

Proteins are scattered throughout

the flexible phospholipid

membrane
Proteins may attach loosely to the

inner or outer surface of the

membrane
Proteins may span across the

membrane with hydrophobic

regions embedded in the
membrane and hydrophilic
regions exposed to the aqueous
solutions bordering the
membrane

FLUID MOSAIC MODEL

The Mosaic nature of scattered proteins

within a flexible matrix of phospholipid

molecules describes the fluid mosaic
model of the cell membrane.
Variations in the fatty acid makeup of the

phospholipids influence the fluidity of the

membrane.
Phospholipids with saturated fatty acids

pack more tightly, leading to a more rigid

membrane
Unsaturated fatty acids, which bend at

their double-covalent bonds, limit

packing, and result in a more flexible
membrane

SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY
The phospholipid membrane is

selectively permeable
Only small, uncharged, polar

molecules such as water (H2O)

and hydrophobic molecules,
nonpolar molecules like oxygen
(O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and
lipid-soluble molecules such as
hydrocarbons, freely pass across
the membrane
In contrast, large polar molecules

(such as glucose) and all ions are

impermeable

PROTIENS-IN THE PLASMA MEMBRANE PROVIDE A WIDE

RANGE OF FUNCTIONS AND INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING
Channel Proteins-Provide open passageways

through the membrane for certain hydrophilic

substances such as polar and charged
molecules
Aquaporins-channel proteins of certain cells

such as those found in the kidneys and plant

roots dramatically increase the passage rate of
H2O molecules
Ion Channels-allow the passage of ions across

the membrane. In nerves cells and muscle

cells, these channels, called gated channels,
open and close in response to specific chemical
or electrical stimuli to allow the passage of
specific ions such as Na+ and K+
Carrier proteins-bind to specific molecules,

which are then transferred across the

membrane after the carrier protein undergoes a
change of shape. The passage of glucose into a
cell is by a carrier protein

Transport proteins-use energy (in the form of

ATP) to transport materials across the

membrane. This is an example of active
transport
Recognition proteins-gives each cell type a

unique identification. This identification provides

for a distinction between cell types, between self
cells and foreign cells, and between normal cells
and cells infected with viruses.
Receptor proteins-provide binding sites for

hormones or other trigger molecules. In

response to the hormone or trigger molecule, a
specific cell response is activated.
Adhesion proteins-attach cells to neighboring

cells or provide anchors for the internal filaments

and tubules that give stability to the cell.

CHOLESTEROL
Molecules distributed throughout

the phospholipid bilayer provide

some stability to the plasma
membrane of animal cells.
At higher temperatures,

cholesterol helps maintain

firmness, but at lower
temperatures, it helps keep the
membrane flexible.

CELL ORGANELLES
Are bodies within the cytoplasm

that serve to physically separate

the various metabolic reactions
that occur within eukaryotic cells.
Within these bodies, chemical

reactions are isolated and can

take place without interference or
competition with other reactions
that might be occurring nearby.
Many of these bodies also provide

large surface areas to maximize

the space over which of these
chemical reactions can take place
Cells can be specialized for

specific functions depending on

the kinds and number of

NUCLEUS
Bounded by a nuclear envelope

consisting of two phospholipid

bilayers, each similar to the
plasma membrane.
The nucleus is large and round

and is studded with pores

It is the site of chromosome

(DNA) storage and RNA synthesis

(transcription)
The Nucleolus is a dense

spherical area within the nucleus.

rRNA synthesis and ribosome
production is done in the
Nucleolus.

DNA IN THE NUCLEUS

Normally DNA is spread out within

the nucleus as a thread-like

matrix called chromatin.
When the cell begins to divide,

the chromatin condenses into rodshaped bodies called

chromosomes, each of which,
before dividing is made up of two
long DNA molecules and various
histone (proteins) molecules.
The histones serve to organize

the lengthy DNA, coiling it into

bundles called nucleosomes.

RIBOSOMES
Tiny organelles that do not have a

membrane
They contain rRNA and protein
They are found free floating in the

cytoplasm or bound to the Rough

Endoplasmic Reticulum
They are manufactured in the

nucleus
In the cytoplasm, ribosomes

assist in the assembly of amino

acids in proteins.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
(ER)
Rows of flattened sacs that begin as an

extension of the outer bilayer of the

nuclear envelope.

In cross sections the Endoplasmic

Reticulum, or ER, appears as a series of

maze-like channels
When ribosomes are present the ER is

called the Rough ER. It creates

glycoproteins by attaching
polysaccharide groups to polypeptides as
they are assembled by the ribosomes
Smooth ER, has no ribosomes. It is

responsible for various activities,

including synthesis of lipids and steroid
hormones. In the liver cells, it is involved
in the breakdown of toxins, drugs, and
toxic by-products from cellular reactions

GOLGI APPARATUS

(GOLGI BODY, GOLGI COMPLEX)

A group of flattened sacs (cisternae)

arranged like a sack of bowls.

They collect and modify proteins and

lipids made in other areas of the cell

and package them into vesicles, small,
spherically shaped sacs that bud from
the outside surface of the Golgi
apparatus
Example: Glycoprotein made and

packaged into a vesicle by the ER may

be transported to the Golgi Apparatus,
where it is modified as it passes
through its chambers. At the outer side
of the Golgi apparatus, the modified
proteins can be packaged into a
secretory vesicle, which migrates to
and merges with the plasma
membrane, releasing its contents to
the outside of the cell.

LYSOSOMES
Vesicles from the Golgi apparatus

that contain hydrolytic enzymes,

which are enzymes that break
down molecules by hydrolysis.
They breakdown food, cellular

debris, and foreign invaders

Contribute to a recycling of

cellular nutrients
Aids in phagocytosis and

intracellular digestion

PEROXISOMES
Break down various substances,

including hydrogen peroxide, H2O2

(forming H2O and O2), fatty acids,
and amino acids.
Common in liver and kidney cells,

where they break down toxic

substances
In plant cells, peroxisomes modify

by-products of photorespiration, a
process by which CO2 is diverted
from its use in photosynthesis

MITOCHON
DRIA
Small organelle with two

membranes; inner membranes

called cristae are folded to
increase surface area for electron
transport

The two membranes allow the

separation of metabolic processes

that occur inside the inner
membrane from occurring in the
intermembrane space
Mitochondria carry out aerobic

respiration, a process in which

energy (in the form of ATP) is
obtained from carbohydrates,
fats, and occasionally proteins
Inheritance is always from mother

to child

CHLOROPLAST
Chloroplasts are membrane

bound organelles
Has a double membrane
Has thylakoids; shaped like

stacked coins to increase surface

area.
Carry out photosynthesis, the

plant process of incorporating

energy from sunlight into
carbohydrates.

CYTOSKELETON
Network of microtubules,

intermediate filaments, and

microfilaments though out the
cytoplasm
Controls cell shape; causes

movement of chromosomes and

organelles within the cell
The internal structure of the

cytoplasm

MICROTUBULES (PART OF
CYTOSKELETON)
Made up of the protein tubulin
Provides support and motility for

cellular activities
Found in the spindle apparatus,

which guides the movement of

chromosomes during cell division,
and in flagella and cilia

INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
(PART OF
CYTOSKELETON)

Provide support for

maintaining the
shape of the cell

MICROFILAMENTS(ACTIN
FILAMENTS) (PART OF
CYTOSKELETON)
Made of the protein actin

Are involved in cell motility

Found in muscle cells and in cells

that move by changing shape,

such as phagocytes (white blood
cells that wonder throughout the
body, attacking bacteria and
other invaders)
In plants, microfilaments promote

the movement of cytoplasmic

materials around the cell
(cytoplasmic streaming)

FLAGELLA AND CILIA

Structures that protrude from the cell

membrane and make wave-like movements

Flagella and cilia are classified by their

lengths, by their numbers per cell, and by

their movement
Flagella are long, few, and move in a snake-

like motion
Cilia are short, many, and move with a

back-and-forth , serpentine movement.

A single flagella propels sperm, while the

numerous cilia that line respiratory tract

sweep away debris
Both, structurally are made of microtubules

arranged in a 9+2 array. Nine pairs

(doublets) of microtubules arranged in a
circle surrounding a pair of microtubules

CENTRIOLES AND BASAL BODIES ACT AS

MICROTUBULE ORGANIZING CENTERS (MTOCS)
Located outside the nuclear

envelope gives rise to the

microtubules that make up
spindle apparatus used during
cell division
Basal bodies organize the

development of flagella and cilia

and anchor them to the cell
surface.
Both centrioles and basal bodies

are made up of nine triplets of

microtubule arranged in a circle
Plant cells lack centrioles and

only lower plants (mosses and

ferns) with motile sperm have

VACUOLES AND VESICLES

Are fluid filled, membrane bound

bodies
Can be small or large
Surrounded by a single

membrane

VACUOLES AND VESICLES

Transport Vesicles-Move

materials between organelles or

between organelles and the
plasma membrane
Food Vacuoles-Are temporary

receptacles of nutrients. Food

vacuoles often merge with
lysosomes, whose digestive
enzymes break down the food
Contractile vacuoles-

Specialized organelles in singlecelled organisms that collect and

pump excess water out of the cell

CENTRAL
VACUOLES

May store starch, nutrients,

pigments, cellular waste, or toxins

(nicotine, for example)
May carry out functions such as

digestion that are otherwise

assumed by lysosomes in animal
cells
Provides cell growth by

absorbing water to allow

expansion of the cell. In contrast,
animal cells require nutrients to
build macromolecules to generate
growth.

CENTRAL VACUOLE
In plants occupy most of the

interior
When fully filled, they exert

turgor, or pressure, on the cell

wall, thus maintaining rigidity in
the cell
Renders a large surface area-to-

volume ration of cytoplasm as it

interfaces with the plasma
membrane an the outside
environment. This occurs
because the central vacuole
occupies so much of the cell that
thee organelles and the
cytoplasm are flattened into a
narrow area between the central
vacuole and the plasma

THE EXTRACELLULAR REGION

The area outside the plasma membrane,

the following may occur in this region

Cell Walls-found in plants, fungi and

many protists. It develops outside the

plasma membrane and provides support
for the cell. In plants, the cell wall is
consists mainly of cellulose. In fungi the
cell wall is usually made up of chitin.
Extracellular matrix-found in animal

cells, is an area between adjacent cells.

It is occupied by fibrous structural
proteins, adhesion proteins, and
glycoproteins secreted by the cell. The
matrix provides mechanical support and
helps bind adjacent cells together. The
most common substance in this region is
the protein collegen

CELL JUNCTIONS-SERVE TO ANCHOR OR

PROVIDE A PASSAGEWAY FOR CELLULAR
EXCHANGE
Cell junctions include:
Anchoring Junctions-protein

attachments between adjacent

animal cells. The desmosome, is a
junction that consists of proteins that
bind adjacent cells together,
providing mechanical stability to
tissues. The are also associated with
intermediate filaments that extend
into the interior of the cell and serve
to hold cellular structures together.
Tight junctions-are tightly stitched

seams between animal cells. They

completely encircles each cell,
production a seal that prevents the
passage of materials between the
cells.

COMMUNICATING JUNCTIONS-ARE PASSAGEWAYS

BETWEEN CELLS THAT ALLOW THE TRANSFER OF
CHEMICAL OR ELECTRICAL SIGNALS. TWO TYPES.
Gap Junctions-narrow tunnels between

animal cells. Their proteins prevent

cytoplasmic proteins and nucleic acids from
each cell from mixing, but allow the
passage of ions and small molecules. Gap
junctions allow communication between
cells through the exchange of materials or
through transmission of electrical impulses.
Because the proteins of each cell extend
beyond the plasma membranes before they
meet, a small gap occurs between the two
plasma membranes.
Plasmodesmata(plural)-are narrow

channels between plant cells. A narrow

tube of endoplasmic reticulum, surrounded
by the cytoplasm and the plasma
membrane, passes through the channel.

PLANT CELLS VS. ANIMAL

CELLS
Plants and animal cells can

generally be distinguished from

animal cells by the following:
Plant cells have cell walls,

chloroplasts, and a central

vacuoles.
Animal cells have centrioles and

cholesterol

MOVEMENT OF
SUBSTANCES

Various terms are used to describe the movement of substances in and out

of cells and between cells. Some of these terms are:

Movement of substances may occur across a selective permeable membrane.

A selective permeable membrane allows only specific substances to pass.

The substance whose movement is being described may be water (solvent) or
substances dissolved in water (solute).
Substances move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration
(down or with the concentration gradient) or the reverse (up or against the
gradient)
Solute concentrations between two areas can be compared. A solute may be
hypertonic (a higher concentration of solutes), hypotonic (a lower
concentration of solutes), or isotonic (an equal concentration of solutes) relative
to another region.
Movement of substances may be passive or active. Active movement requires
energy expenditure and usually occurs against the gradient. Passive transport
does not require energy and moves with the gradient concentration.

BULK FLOW
The collective

movement of
substances (solvent and
solutes) in the same
direction in response to
a force or pressure.
Blood moving through

the blood vessel is an

example of bulk flow.

PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Movement of substances from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower

concentration and does not require expenditure of energy.

Rate of passive transport increase with higher concentration gradients, higher

temperature, and smaller particle size.

Example of passive transport:

Simple diffusion (diffusion)-the net movement of substances from an area of high

concentration to an area of lower concentration. This occurs as a result of the random and
constant motion characteristic of all molecules. Since at any one time, some molecules may be
moving up the gradient and some down the gradient, since motion is random, the word net is
used to indicate the overall result of the movement. Ultimately, a state of equilibrium is
attained, where uniform distribution of molecules has occurred, but continue to move randomly.
Osmosis-Diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane. When water
moves into a body by osmosis, hydrostatic pressure (osmotic pressure) may build up inside the
body. Turgor pressure is the hydrostatic pressure that develops when water enters the cells
of plants and microorganisms.

PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Plasmolysis-Movement of water out of a cell (by osmosis) that results in the

collapse of the cell. (Especially in plant cells with central vacuoles) In contrast,
when water moves into a cell (by osmosis) the cell volume increases and the cell
expands. Cell lysis occurs when swelling causes the cell to burst (especially
animal cells and cells without cell walls)

Facilitated Diffusion-diffusion of solutes or water through channel proteins or

carrier proteins in the plasma membrane. Some channel proteins facilitate the
movement of ions such as Na+, K+, Ca++, or Cl- across the plasma membrane, while
other channel proteins, the aquaporins, facilitate the movement of water across the
plasma membrane. Carrier proteins can facilitate the movement of ions, as well as
some larger organic molecules such as amino acids or glucose.

Countercurrent exchange-describes the diffusion of substances between two

regions in which substances are moving by bulk flow in opposite directions.

Example: the direction of water flow trough the gill of a fish is opposite to the flow
of blood in the blood vessels. Diffusion of oxygen from water to blood is maximized
because the relative motion of the molecules between the two regions is increased
and because the concentration gradients between the two regions remain constant
along their area of contact.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Is the movement of solutes against a gradient and requires the expenditure

of energy (usually in the from of ATP)

Transport proteins in the plasma membrane transfer solutes such as small

ions (Na+, K+, Cl-, H+), amino acids, and monosaccharides across the
membrane.

Active Transport is different from facilitated diffusion in several ways

Does not result from random movements of molecules (as does any kind if

diffusion)
Moves specific solutes across a membrane from lower to higher concentrations
(opposite direction of diffusion).
The term active in active transport implies the use of energy, whereas

the various processes of diffusion are passive

Vesicular transport-uses vesicles or other bodies in the cytoplasm to

move macromolecules or large particles across the plasma membrane.

TYPES OF VESICULAR
TRANSPORTS
Exocytosis-process of

vesicles fusing with the

plasma membrane and
releasing their contents
to the outside of the
cell. This is common
when a cell produces
substances for export.

TYPES OF VESICULAR
TRANSPORTS
Endocytosis-the capture of

a substance outside the cell

when the plasma
membrane merges merges
to engulf it. The substance
subsequently enters the
cytoplasm enclosed in a
vesicle. There are three
kinds of endocytosis.

TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS
Phagocytosis (Cellular

Eating)-Occurs when undissolved

material enters the cell. The
plasma membrane wraps around
the solid material and engulfs it,
forming a phagocytic vesicle.
Phagocytic cells (such as certain

white blood cells) attack and

engulf bacteria in this manner.

TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS
Pinocytosis (cellular

drinking)-Occurs when
dissolved substances enter
the cell. The plasma
membrane folds inward to
form a channel, allowing the
liquid to enter.
Subsequently, the plasma
membrane closes off the
channel, encircling the liquid
inside a vesicle.

TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS
Receptor-mediated endocytosis-a

form of pinocytosis, occurs when

specific molecules in the fluid
surrounding the cell bind to specific
receptors that concentrate in coated
pits in the plasma membrane. The
membrane pits, the receptors, and
their specific molecules (called
ligands) fold inward, and the
formation of a vesicle follows.
Proteins that transport cholesterol in
blood (low density lipoproteins, or
LDLs) and certain hormones targets
specific cells by receptor-mediated
endocytosis