Network+ Guide to Networks, Fourth Edition

Chapter 4
Network Protocols

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Objectives

 Identify the characteristics of TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, NetBIOS, and

AppleTalk
 Understand how network protocols correlate to layers of the OSI
Model
 Identify the core protocols of the TCP/IP suite and describe their
functions
 Identify the well-known ports for key TCP/IP services

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Objectives (continued)

 Understand addressing schemes for TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, NetBEUI,

and AppleTalk
 Describe the purpose and implementation of DNS (Domain Name
System) and WINS (Windows Internet Naming Service)
 Install protocols on Windows XP clients

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Introduction to Protocols

 Protocols vary according to purpose, speed, transmission efficiency,

utilization of resources, ease of setup, compatibility, and ability to
travel between different LANs
 Multiprotocol networks: networks running more than one protocol
 Most popular protocol suite is TCP/IP
 Others: IPX/SPX, NetBIOS, and AppleTalk

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TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol)

 Suite of specialized subprotocols

 TCP, IP, UDP, ARP, and many others

 De facto standard on Internet

 Protocol of choice for LANs and WANs

 Protocols able to span more than one LAN are routable

 Can run on virtually any combination of NOSs or network media
 TCP/IP core protocols operate in Transport or Network layers

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The TCP/IP Core Protocols: TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol)

 Provides reliable data delivery services

 Operates in Transport layer
 Connection-oriented
 Ensures reliable data delivery through sequencing and checksums
 Provides flow control

 Port hosts address where an application makes itself available to

incoming or outgoing data

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The TCP/IP Core Protocols:
TCP (continued)

Figure 4-1: A TCP segment

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The TCP/IP Core Protocols:
TCP (continued)

Figure 4-2: TCP segment data

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The TCP/IP Core Protocols:
TCP (continued)

Figure 4-3: Establishing a TCP connection

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UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

Figure 4-4: A UDP segment

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IP (Internet Protocol)

 Provides information about how and where data should be delivered

 Data’s source and destination addresses
 Network layer protocol
 Enables TCP/IP to internetwork
 Unreliable, connectionless protocol

 IP datagram: packet, in context of TCP/IP

 Envelope for data

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IP (continued)

Figure 4-5: An IP datagram

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IP (continued)

Figure 4-6: IP datagram data

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ICMP (Internet Control
Message Protocol)

 Network layer protocol that reports on success or failure of data

delivery
 Indicates when part of network congested
 Indicates when data fails to reach destination
 Indicates when data discarded because allotted time for delivery (TTL)
expired
 Cannot correct errors it detects

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IGMP (Internet Group
Management Protocol)

 Network layer protocol that manages multicasting

 Transmission method allowing one node to send data to defined group
of nodes
 Point-to-multipoint method
 Teleconferencing or videoconferencing over Internet

 Routers use IGMP to determine which nodes belong to multicast

group and to transmit data to all nodes in that group

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ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

 Network layer protocol

 Obtains MAC (physical) address of host
 Creates database that maps MAC address to host’s IP (logical) address

 ARP table or cache: local database containing recognized MAC-to-

IP address mappings
 Dynamic ARP table entries created when client makes ARP request that
cannot be satisfied by data already in ARP table
 Static ARP table entries entered manually using ARP utility

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RARP (Reverse Address
Resolution Protocol)

 Allows client to broadcast MAC address and receive IP address in

reply
 If device doesn’t know own IP address, cannot use ARP

 RARP server maintains table of MAC addresses and associated IP

addresses

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Addressing in TCP/IP

 IP core protocol responsible for logical addressing

 IP Address: unique 32-bit number
 Divided into four octets separated by periods
 0 reserved as placeholder referring to entire group of computers on a network
 255 reserved for broadcast transmissions

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Addressing in TCP/IP (continued)

Figure 4-8: IP addresses and their classes

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Addressing in TCP/IP (continued)

 Many Internet addresses go unused

 Cannot be reassigned because they are reserved
 IP version 6 (IPv6) will incorporate new addressing scheme

 Some IP addresses reserved for special functions

 127 reserved for a device communicating with itself
 Loopback test

 ipconfig: Windows XP command to view IP information

 ifconfig on Unix and Linux

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Binary and Dotted Decimal Notation

 Most common way of expressing IP addresses

 Decimal number between 0 and 255 represents each binary octet
 Separated by period

 Each number in dotted decimal address has binary equivalent

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Subnet Mask

 Every device on TCP/IP-based network identified by subnet mask

 32-bit number that, when combined with device’s IP address, informs
rest of network about segment or network to which a device is attached
 Subnetting: subdividing single class of networks into multiple,
smaller logical networks or segments

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Assigning IP Addresses

 Nodes on a network must have unique IP addresses

 Static IP address: manually assigned
 Can easily result in duplication of addresses

 Most network administrators rely on network service to automatically

assign IP addresses

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BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol)

 Uses central list of IP addresses and associated devices’ MAC

addresses to assign IP addresses to clients dynamically
 Dynamic IP addresses
 Application layer protocol
 Client broadcasts MAC address, BOOTP server replies with:
 Client’s IP address
 IP address of server
 Host name of server
 IP address of a default router

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DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol)

 Automated means of assigning unique IP address to every device

on a network
 Application layer protocol
 Reduces time and planning spent on IP address management
 Reduces potential for errors in assigning IP addresses
 Enables users to move workstations and printers without having to
change TCP/IP configuration
 Makes IP addressing transparent for mobile users

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DHCP (continued)

Figure 4-11: The DHCP leasing process

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APIPA (Automatic Private
IP Addressing)

 Provides computer with IP address automatically

 For Windows 98, Me, 2000, XP client and
Windows 2003 server
 For situations where DHCP server unreachable
 Assigns computer’s network adapter IP address from predefined pool of
addresses
 169.254.0.0 through 169.254.255.255

 Computer can only communicate with other nodes using addresses in

APIPA range

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Sockets and Ports

 Every process on a machine assigned a port number 0 to 65535

 Process’s port number plus host machine’s IP address equals
process’s socket
 Ensures data transmitted to correct application

 Well Known Ports: in range 0 to 1023

 Assigned to processes that only the OS or system administrator can
access

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Sockets and Ports (continued)

 Registered Ports: in range 1024 to 49151

 Accessible to network users and processes that do not have special
administrative privileges

 Dynamic and/or Private Ports: in range 49152 through 65535

 Open for use without restriction

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Addressing in IPv6

 IPv6 slated to replace current IP protocol, IPv4

 More efficient header, better security, better prioritization
 Billions of additional IP addresses

 Differences:
 Address size
 Representation
 Distinguishes among different types of network interfaces
 Format Prefix

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Host Names and DNS (Domain Name
System): Domain Names

 Every host can take a host name

 Every host is member of a domain
 Group of computers belonging to same organization and has part of
their IP addresses in common
 Domain name usually associated with company or other type of
organization

 Fully qualified host name: local host name plus domain name
 Domain names must be registered with an Internet naming authority
that works on behalf of ICANN

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Host Files

 ASCII text file called HOSTS.TXT

 Associate host names with IP addresses
 Growth of Internet made this arrangement impossible to maintain

Figure 4-13: Example host file

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DNS (Domain Name System)

 Hierarchical method of associating domain names with IP

addresses
 Refers to Application layer service that accomplishes association and
organized system of computers and databases making association
possible
 Relies on many computers around world
 Thirteen root servers
 Three components:
 Resolvers
 Name servers
 Name space

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DNS (continued)

Figure 4-14: Domain name resolution

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DNS (continued)

Figure 4-14 (continued): Domain name resolution

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DDNS (Dynamic DNS)

 DNS is reliable as long as host’s address is static

 Many Internet users subscribe to type of Internet service in which IP
address changes periodically

 In DDNS, service provider runs program on user’s computer that

notifies service provider when IP address changes
 DNS record update effective throughout Internet in minutes

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Zeroconf (Zero Configuration)

 Collection of protocols designed by IETF to simplify setup of nodes

on TCP/IP networks
 Assigns IP address
 Resolves node’s host name and IP address without requiring DNS
server
 Discovers available services
 Enables directly connected workstations to communicate without relying
on static IP addressing
 IP addresses are assigned through IPv4LL (IP version 4 Link Local)

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Some TCP/IP
Application Layer Protocols

 Telnet: terminal emulation protocol used to log on to remote hosts

using TCP/IP protocol suite
 TCP connection established
 Keystrokes on user’s machine act like keystrokes on remotely
connected machine

 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Application layer protocol used to send

and receive files via TCP/IP
 Server and clients
 FTP commands work from OS’s command prompt
 Anonymous logons

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Some TCP/IP Application Layer Protocols
(continued)

 Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP): enables file transfers between

computers
 Simpler than FTP
 Relies on UDP at Transport layer
 Connectionless

 Network Time Protocol (NTP): Application layer protocol used to

synchronize clocks of computers
 Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP): facilitates exchange of
newsgroup messages between multiple servers and users

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Some TCP/IP Application Layer Protocols
(continued)

 Packet Internet Groper (PING): utility that can verify that TCP/IP is
installed, bound to the NIC, configured correctly, and
communicating
 Pinging:
 Echo request and echo reply
 Can ping either an IP address or a host name
 Pinging loopback address, 127.0.0.1, to determine whether
workstation’s TCP/IP services are running
 Many useful switches
 e.g., -?, -a, -n, -r

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IPX/SPX (Internetwork Packet
Exchange/Sequenced
Packet Exchange)
 Required to ensure interoperability of LANs running NetWare
versions 3.2 and lower
 Replaced by TCP/IP on Netware 5.0 and higher

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The IPX and SPX Protocols

 Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX): provides logical addressing

and internetworking services
 Operates at Network layer
 Similar to IP
 Connectionless

 Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX): Works with IPX to ensure data

received whole, in sequence, and error free
 Belongs to Transport layer
 Connection-oriented

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Addressing in IPX/SPX

 Each node on network must be assigned unique address

 IPX address
 Network address: chosen by network administrator
 Node address: by default equal to network device’s MAC address

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NetBIOS and NetBEUI

 NetBIOS originally designed to provide Transport and Session layer

services for applications running on small, homogenous networks
 Microsoft added standard Transport layer component called
NetBEUI
 Efficient on small networks
 Consumes few network resources
 Provides excellent error correction
 Does not allow for good security
 Few possible connections
 Cannot be routed

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Addressing in NetBEUI

 Network administrators must assign NetBIOS name to each

workstation
 After NetBIOS has found workstation’s NetBIOS name, it discovers
workstation’s MAC address
 Uses this address in further communications

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WINS (Windows Internet
Naming Service)

 Provides means to resolve NetBIOS names to

IP addresses
 Used exclusively with systems using NetBIOS
 Microsoft Windows

 Automated service that runs on a server

 Guarantees unique NetBIOS name used for each computer on
network
 Clients do not have to broadcast NetBIOS names to rest of network
 Improves network performance

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AppleTalk

 Protocol suite originally designed to interconnect Macintosh

computers
 Can be routed between network segments and integrated with
NetWare-, UNIX-, Linux-, or Microsoft-based networks

 AppleTalk network separated into logical groups of computers called

AppleTalk zones
 Enable users to share file and printer resources

 AppleTalk node ID: Unique 8- or 16-bit number that identifies

computer on an AppleTalk network

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Binding Protocols on a
Windows XP Workstation

 Windows Internet Naming Service (WINS): process of assigning one

network component to work with another
 Core Network and Transport layer protocols normally included with
OS
 When enabled, attempt to bind with network interfaces on computer
 For optimal network performance, bind only protocols absolutely
needed
 Possible to bind multiple protocols to same network adapter

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Summary

 Protocols define the standards for communication between nodes

on a network
 TCP/IP is most popular protocol suite, because of its low cost, open
nature, ability to communicate between dissimilar platforms, and
routability
 TCP provides reliability through checksum, flow control, and
sequencing information
 IP provides information about how and where data should be
delivered
 Every IP address contains two types of information: network and
host

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Summary (continued)

 Subnetting is implemented to control network traffic and conserve a

limited number of IP addresses
 Dynamic IP address assignment can be achieved using BOOTP or
the more sophisticated DHCP
 A socket is a logical address assigned to a specific process running
on a host
 IPv6 provides several other benefits over IPv4
 A domain is a group of hosts that share a domain name and have
part of their IP addresses in common

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Summary (continued)

 DNS is a hierarchical way of tracking domain names and their

addresses
 IPX/SPX is a suite of protocols that reside at different layers of the
OSI Model
 NetBEUI is a protocol that consumes few network resources,
provides error correction, and requires little configuration
 WINS is a service used on Windows systems to map IP addresses
to NetBIOS names
 AppleTalk is the protocol suite originally used to interconnect
Macintosh computers

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