ME 380 Aircraft Design

Stability and Control, Pt. 2

Energy Maneuverability Diagram Puts all of the maneuver information in one compact diagram
Flight velocity, turn rate, turn radius, & load factor

However, requires a diagram for each altitude and weight

Stability In order of importance: Longitudinal stability

Stability about the pitch axis: horizontal stabilizer

Lateral stability
Stability about the roll axis: bi-lateral symmetry, wing design (dihedral), ailerons, keel effect,

Directional stability
Stability about the yaw axis: vertical stabilizer

Note on axes:

Trim Point Location Compare two aircraft below

+ (nose up)

Aircraft 1

Trim Pt. Cm cg = 0

Cmcg
A B C

(nose down)

Aircraft 2

Airplane 1 Trimmed at point B Cm=0 for > 0

Airplane 2 Cannot be trimmed to point B Cm=0 for < 0

For stability, Cm = Cmcg <0 d = 0 at > 0 dCmcg

Balance
The moment about the c.g. is the sum of these moments

M cg = M c / 4 L(x c / 4 x cg ) + Lt (x t x cg )

cg

=0

Static Margin & CG Travel By looking at CL and Cm we can define the static margin

=
=

Cm CL x c / 4 x cg c

This is a measure of an aircrafts stability - this value should be between 0.03 (low) to 0.1 (high); 0.05 is a good value to aim for

c.g. travel must be within SM limits

Pitch Stability From these we can determine the limits for c.g. (forward, XF, and aft, XR) - note that a larger tail provides a larger range of c.g. travel

Pitching Tendencies in Stall Low-tail aircraft pitch down in stall; recovery easier T-tail aircraft pitch up in stall; tail in stalled wake, recovery more problematic cruciform T-tail

Effect of Sweep on Stall Angle Sweep reduces drag, but also increases stability at the expense of lower lift
For example,

Effect of Elevator on Pitch Stability Shifts stability curve up and down

Phugoid The phugoid is the traditional pitch behavior of an aircraft responding to a disturbance

Directional Stability Stability reqmts Cn >0

Requirements for Direction Control

Adverse Yaw
When an airplane is banked to execute a turning maneuver, the ailerons may create a yawing moment that opposes the turn (adverse yaw). The rudder must be able to overcome the adverse yaw so that a coordinated turn can be achieved. This usually occurs during slow flight (high CL).

Crosswind landings
To maintain alignment with the runway during a crosswind landing the pilot must fly at a non-zero sideslip angle. The rudder must be powerful enough to permit the pilot to trim the airplane for specified crosswinds. Max. crosswind design value typically 15.5 m/s (51 fps).

Asymmetric power condn

When one engine fails on a multi-engine plane, a critical asymmetric power condition occurs. The rudder must be able to overcome the yawing moment produced by the asymmetric thrust arrangement. The farther an engine is away from the centerline, the greater the asymmetric power control requirements are.

Asymmetric power & Stall into Spin Spin Recovery

The primary control for spin recovery in most airplanes is the rudder. The rudder must be powerful enough to oppose the spin rotation. Rectangular wing
Stall seen inboard; tail blanked, but aileron control still available

Swept wing
Stall outboard; tail available but ailerons may not be

Dorsal Fin

Addition of dorsal fin delays tendency of tail to stall at high sideslip angles w/ reduced parasite drag

Forces on Aircraft in Roll

Roll Stability Stability reqmts Cl <0

Fuselage Contributions High wings more stable due to stabilizing roll moment; low wings typically include dihedral to counteract the destabilizing moment

Dihedral & Roll Stability Dihedral angle denoted by , typically +3-5o for a low wing plane, 0 or slightly negative for a high wing

Dihedral Effect
When an airplane is disturbed from wings level attitude it will begin to sideslip. During sideslip, an additional velocity component is present The leading wing experiences an increased angle of attack, hence increased lift. The trailing wing experiences a decreased angle of attack, hence decreased lift.

This results in a restoring force.

Wing Dihedral: Simplified Explanation

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Lateral Control and Roll Control Power

M ROLL = Ly L Cl cydy Cl = = qSb Sb

Cl a = =

dCl d a 2Cl w Sb
y2

cydy

y1

Common Coupled Dynamics Spiral divergence (graveyard spiral); occurs when static directional stability is large compared to static lateral stability - solved with addition of dihedral Directional divergence; sideslip coupled with yaw Dutch roll; occurs when dihedral effect is large compared to directional stability

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Dutch Roll Commonly seen in low speed flight or with too much dihedral

Slipstream Rotation

Slipstream rotation from prop yaws aircraft; most critical at high power/low speed scenarios (landing and takeoff)

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Wing Rock

All Coefficients Each coefficient (3 forces, 3 moments) has a derivative in each direction and each angle, plus a derivative with each rate (such as d/dt or q) In general, a handful of these may be important for any particular aircraft usually determined by software (including numerical models) See Phillips (Mechanics of Flight) or Etkin & Reid (Dynamics of Flight) for more details

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Some Stability Derivatives

Longitudinal derivatives (Etkin & Reid, Table 5.1)

Lateral derivatives (Etkin & Reid, Table 5.2)

No formula available No formula available

Blue denotes tail only, wing-body formula not available

Control

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Control Surfaces

Control Surface Deflections

CL = CL =

dCL e d e

dCL dC + L e d d e = a + CL e e

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Flap Effectiveness How much extra lift is added by a control surface?

CL =

dCL dCL d t = = CL t d e d t d e
Trim AoA

Hinge Moments & Trim To size a servo, we need to note the required moment 1 to move a control surface 2

H e = Ch e

U Sc

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Stick Forces Servo motors on control surfaces easily sized once hinge moments are determined. Use moment balance (even if modern control system is used).

Flss = H ee F=

e He lss
1 U 2 Sc 2

= GH e = GChe
Can get flap forces from Xfoil

Stick Fixed v. Stick Free When the elevator is set free, the stability and control characteristics change. Typically, when the AoA is increased, the elevator floats upwards. Regardless, the location of the stick fixed and stick free neutral points sets an aft limit to the center of gravity travel for the plane.

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Fixed vs. Free Static Margin Static margin is a way of measuring the static stability of an aircraft
Neutral point is location of c.g. where stability goes to 0 (neither + nor -) Neutral point (NP) is usually the aerodynamic center (AC), or where the lift vector acts

stick fixed static margin =

x NP x cg c c x x stick free static margin = NP cg c c

5% (0.05c) is the general design rule of thumb for static margin

Stick Force or Speed Stability Negative stick force gradient provides pilot with speed stability; once trimmed, the velocity will return to trimmed speed if perturbed

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Control Issues: e.g., Aileron Reversal As an example of the many control issues one may encounter, aileron reversal is one commonly seen at higher speeds

Control: Open & Closed Loop Practically all aircraft are closed-loop control
Classic: pilot gets feedback from stick forces and instruments Modern: digital autopilot corrects/enhances pilot input

Example: wing leveling autopilot

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Types of Control Systems Direct

Push-rod Cable-and-pulley

Indirect
Hydraulic Fly-by-wire Fly-by-light

FBW Philosophy The computer should have final authority on the commands sent to the control system. The pilots inputs should be limited by the computer (hard limits or protections) to prevent exceeding the physical design limits of the aircraft (e.g., angle of attack, gloads, etc.) to protect the integrity and dynamics of the aircraft. The pilot should have final authority of the commands sent to the control system. The computer should monitor the pilots inputs for limits (soft limits) and warn when they exceed the physical design limits of the aircraft, but carry out the commands even if that would endanger the aircraft integrity or flight.

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Handling Qualities Controls must feel right to pilot Control parameters (gains, damping, etc.) are unique to each aircraft and thus must be tuned, typically through wind tunnel and flight tests Cooper-Harper Scale

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Weather

Typical Storm Wind Patterns

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Landing in Wind Shear

From headwind to tailwind
1. 2. 3. 4. Normal approach Increasing downdraft and tailwind Airspeed decreases, pitch down Aircraft crashes short of runway

From tailwind to headwind; hard landing or overshoot

Wind Shear

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Wind Shear

1- & 2-D Gusts

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Boundary Layer Effect

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