Chapter

Structure:
1.1 What is Research?
1.2 Nature or Characteristics of Research
1.3 Aims of Research
1.4 Types of Research
1.5 Process of Research
1.6 Purpose of Research
1.7 Questions

WHAT IS RESEARCH?
Research is undertaken within most professions. More than a set of skills, it is a way
of thinking: examining critically the various aspects of professional work. It is a habit of
questioning what you do, and a systematic examination of the observed information to find
answers with a view to instituting appropriate changes for a more effective professional
service.
When you say that you are undertaking a research study, to find answers to a question,
you are implying that the process:
1. Is being undertaken within a framework of a set of approaches
2. Uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for their validity
and reliability;
3. Is designed to be unbiased and objective.

The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search.

 re is a prefix meaning again, anew or over again

 search is a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe.

Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and
investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.
Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to
solve problems and create new knowledge that is generally applicable. Scientific methods

Research means “Search for Knowledge”. It aims at discovering the truth. It is the search
for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to problems. It is
carried on both for discovering new facts and verification of old ones. Therefore, research is a
process of systematic and in-depth study or search of any particular topic, subject or area of
investigation backed by collection, computation, presentation and interpretation of relevant data.

consist of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data.

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Methodology

Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making
for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison
and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic
method of finding solution to a problem is research.

1.2 NATURE OR CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer
questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must,
as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and
critical.
1. Controlled - in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The
concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables
(factors), you set up your study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors
affecting the relationship.
2. Valid and verifiable - this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the
basis of your findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.
3. Empirical - this means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence
gathered from information collected from real life experiences or observations.
4. Critical - critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is
crucial to a research enquiry. The process of investigation must be fool proof and
free from drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able
to withstand critical scrutiny.
5. Rigorous - you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to
find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the
degree of rigor varies markedly between the physical and social sciences and
within the social sciences.
6. Systematic - this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation
follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a
haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others.

1.3 AIMS OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet.
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (Studies
with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group (Studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (Studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);
Introduction to Research 3

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (Such studies are

known as hypothesis-testing research studies)

1.4 TYPES OF RESEARCH

The basic types of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-
finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over
the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of
all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods.
In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of
the material.
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research.
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is
mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory.
“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics
are examples of fundamental research.

research studies, concerning human behavior carried on with view to make

generalizations about human behavior, are also examples of fundamental
research,
but research aimed at certain conclusions facing a concrete social or business
problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic
or political trends that may affect a particular institution or copy research or the
marketing research are examples of applied research.

Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some
pressing practical problems. Whereas basic research is directed towards finding
information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already
existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement
of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in
terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with
qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.
For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human
behavior, we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of
qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying
motives and desires, using indepth interviews for the purpose.
Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion
tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or
opinion research, i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they
think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research.
Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioral sciences where the
aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior. Through such
research we can analyse the various factors which motivate people
4 Research
Methodology

to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular

thing.
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is related to some abstract
idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research
relies an experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and
theory. It is databased research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of
being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental
type of research, in such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their
source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production
of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide
himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then
works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets
up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the
materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information.
(v) Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one
or more of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research,
or the time required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research
is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor.
(a) One Time Research: From the point of view of time, we can think of
research either as one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former
case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter
case the research is carried on over several time-periods.
(b) Laboratory Research: Research can be field-setting research or laboratory
research or simulation research, depending upon the environment in which
it is to be carried out. Research can as well be understood as clinical or
diagnostic research. Such research follows case-study methods or in-depth
approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep
into the causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples
and very deep probing data gathering devices.
(c) Exploratory Research: The research may be exploratory or it may be
formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the development of
hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are
those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested.
(d) Historical Research: Historical research is that which utilizes historical
sources like documents, remains, etc., to study events or ideas of the past,
including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time.
(e) Conclusion-oriented Research: Research can also be classified as
conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion-oriented
research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as
he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented
research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in
this case is not free to embark upon research
Introduction to Research 5

according to his own inclination. Operations research is an example of

decision- oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing
executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding
operations under their control.

1.5 PROCESS OF RESEARCH

However, the following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural
guideline regarding the research process:
(1) Formulating the research problem;
(2) Extensive literature survey;
(3) Developing the hypothesis;
(4) Preparing the research design;
(5) Determining sample design;
(6) Collecting the data;
(7) Execution of the project;
(8) Analysis of data;
(9) Hypothesis testing;
(10) Generalisations and interpretation, and
(11) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of
conclusions reached.

1. Formulating the Research Problem

There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature
and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher
must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of
interest or aspect of a subject matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the problem
may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the
problem be resolved.
Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working
formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific
research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry.
two steps are involved in formulating the research problem,
understanding the problem thoroughly,
rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
6 Research
Methodology

2. Extensive Literature Survey

At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected
with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or
unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference
proceedings, government reports, books, etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of
the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another.
The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand, should be carefully
studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.

3. Development of Working Hypotheses

researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working
hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical
consequences.
They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data and
indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis.
Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because
it has to be tested.
The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research
and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the
more important facets of the problem. It also indicates the type of data required and the
type of methods of data analysis to be used.
How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the
following approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the
objectives in seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for
possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a
limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater
insight into the practical aspects of the problem.
Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a priori thinking about the subject,
examination of the available data and material including related studies and the counsel of
experts and interested parties. Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise
and clearly defined terms.
7

4. Preparing the Research Design

The research problem having been formulated in clear-cut terms, the researcher will
be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure
within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates
research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information.
In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of
relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these
can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be
grouped into four categories, viz.,
(i) Exploration,
(ii) Description,
(iii) Diagnosis,
(iv) Experimentation.
A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different
aspects ofa problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that
of exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation
or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one that minimises bias
and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed.

5. Determining Sample Design

All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or
‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a
census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered
no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not
be true.

6. Collecting the Data

Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the
researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the
data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.
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Methodology

7. Execution of the Project

The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in
time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be
readily machine-processed. In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers
may be coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be
made for proper selection and training of the interviewers.

8. Analysis of Data
After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them.
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment
of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and
then drawing statistical inferences.
The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and
tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some
purposeful and usable categories.
Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are
transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that
improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation.
Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in
the form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal
of data, especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save
time but also make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem
simultaneously.
Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various
percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the
process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or
new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity
data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).

9. Hypothesis Testing
After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they
happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing
hypotheses.
Introduction to Research 9

Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more
of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis testing
will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no
hypotheses to start with, generalisations established on the basis of data may be stated as
hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.

10. Generalisations and Interpretation

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher
to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of
research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the researcher had no
hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory.
It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new
questions which in turn may lead to further researches.

11. Preparation of the Report or the Thesis

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing
of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows:
(i) The preliminary pages;
(ii) The main text,
(iii) The end matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a
list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.
The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research
and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research.
The scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in
this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of
findings and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are
extensive, they should be summarised.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical
sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down
the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in
the end. Index should also be given specially in a published research report.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language
avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.
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Methodology

4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints

experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated.

1.6 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

1. Progress and Good Life

The purpose of all research is progress and good life. Progress results if the space of
ignorance is occupied by knowledge and wisdom. The latter are the results of good
research. Knowledge and wisdom drive the mankind to live an orderly good life.

2. Development of Scientific Attitude

One of the purposes of research is to develop scientific attitude. Scientific attitude is
one that asks ‘Why’ and ‘How’ and answers are found. This ‘Know-why’ and ‘Know-how’
attitude nurtures talents and such intellectual talents are the great assets of society.

3. Creativity and Innovativeness

One of the purposes of research is encouragement to creativity and innovation. New
products, new processes and new uses are the means through which the world goes
dynamic. A dynamic world is not possible without newness introduced every now and then
in every walk of life. And this is possible only through creativity and innovation. Research
kindles the creativity and innovative instincts of people and thus experiments on the
possibility of new things instead of waiting for the accidental and slow experience path to
creativity and innovation.

4. Testing Hypothesis and Establishing Theories

A very important purpose of research is testing of hypothesis and establishing theories.
As was already pointed out knowledge is power. That knowledge comes from testing
hypotheses and establishing new theories. Proven hypotheses become theories.

5. Prediction and Control

Applied research has a great say in prediction and control in almost all walks of human
endeavor Prediction is jumping into the future and the theories constitute the launch pad.
Control looks for deviation between actual happening and predicted happening. In the
process, the theories get reevaluated and redefined.

6. Purposive Development
Development = Growth + Change, Growth is uni-scaled while change is multi-scaled.
In the natural process development does take place through trial and error through casual
observations, through actual exposure and the like. But this is evolutionary and time
consuming. Revolutionary development takes fourth through discontinuous change.
Research is the seed of such dichotomous change or even disruptive change which
contributes to purposive development.
Introduction to Research 11

7. Problem Solving
The purpose of any research is problem solving. What is a problem? Problem is
deprivation or depreciation of something. Knowledge deprivation, efficiency deprivation,
productivity depreciation, etc., exist. How can these be solved? Research into the forces
that cause deprivation and measures to contain them from causing deprivation is needed.
Thus, problem solving is a great purpose of research.

8. Schematic Evaluation
Research is also carried out to systematically evaluate a process or practice of an
organisation to know its strengths and weaknesses so that areas for improvement process
can be identified.

9. Impact Analysis
Research is undertaken to assess the impact of certain measures or change introduced
on relevant variables. Impact studies are useful for biological, social, business, economic
and other areas of decision making.

10. Methodological Improvement

Another purpose of research is improving research methodology itself. Developments
in the field of measurement and scaling are immense. Whether these can be appropriately
used in the case of particular research areas? To answer the question research needs to be
done. Validation, revalidation and devalidation of methodological aspects thus constitute
good piece of research. And this is one of the purposes of research. In fact, any research
has a responsibility towards contribution to methodological enrichment.

1.7 QUESTIONS
1. Define Research and Explain it’s Significance.
2. Explain the Nature of Research.
3. What do you mean by Research Methodology? Explain the process of Research.
4. Explain briefly different types of Research.

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