ASSIGNMENT 561
QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between mineral and Ore
2. What is pyrometallurgy? Explain the four processes in pyrometallurgy?
3. What is metallurgy? (ii) Explain the major steps involves in extraction and isolation of
metals from ores?
4. Explain the procedures for concentration of ore?
5. Isolation of metals from concentration ore involves two major steps, explain the two
steps?
6. What is Gibbs energy (ii) How does Gibbs energy explain the criterion for the feasibility
of thermal reduction of ore?
7. State the limitations of Ellingham diagram?
8. Describe the extraction of the following from their ore: (i) iron (ii) copper (iii)
Aluminum
9. What is hydrometallurgy? (ii) Explain the steps in hydrometallurgical process?
10. Mention the leaching operations and explain two
11. Explain the theory of leeaching and state their equations?
12. What is electrometallurgy? (ii) Draw the electrolysis diagram for extraction
13. Mention and explain the methods of electrometallurgy
1. Differentiate between Mineral and Ore
Parameter Mineral Ore
Naturally occurring inorganic solid with A mineral or aggregate of minerals
Definition definite chemical composition and from which metal can be extracted
crystal structure economically
Engineering Processable feedstock for
Raw geological material
significance metallurgical extraction
Economic Must be economically viable for
May not be economically useful
viability extraction
Bauxite (as ore of aluminum),
Example Bauxite, quartz
hematite (ore of iron)
👉 Mechanical Engineering View:
All ores are minerals, but only minerals with sufficient metal concentration and extractability
qualify as ores for industrial processing.
2. What is Pyrometallurgy? Explain the Four Processes
Definition
Pyrometallurgy is the extraction and refining of metals using high-temperature thermal
processes, involving chemical reactions such as oxidation, reduction, and decomposition.
Four Major Processes
1. Calcination
o Heating ore below its melting point in absence of air
o Removes volatile impurities and moisture
o Example:
ZnCO3 →ZnO +C O2
2. Roasting
o Heating sulphide ores in excess air
o Converts sulphides to oxides and removes sulphur as SO₂
o Example:
2 ZnS +3 O2 → 2 ZnO +2 S O2
3. Smelting
o High-temperature reduction of oxide ores using reducing agents (C, CO)
o Produces molten metal and slag
o Example:
F e 2 O3 +3 CO → 2 Fe+3 C O2
4. Refining
o Removal of remaining impurities by oxidation, distillation, or electrorefining
3. What is Metallurgy? Explain Major Steps in Metal Extraction
Definition
Metallurgy is the engineering science concerned with extraction, processing, refining, and
physical metallurgy of metals and alloys for industrial applications.
Major Steps
1. Ore Dressing (Concentration)
o Removal of gangue using physical separation techniques
2. Extraction of Crude Metal
o Conversion of concentrated ore to metallic form via pyrometallurgy,
hydrometallurgy, or electrometallurgy
3. Refining
o Purification of metal to required engineering-grade purity
4. Explain Procedures for Concentration of Ore
Concentration is achieved by exploiting differences in physical properties:
1. Hydraulic Washing (Gravity Separation)
o Based on density difference between ore and gangue
2. Magnetic Separation
o Used when ore is magnetic and gangue is non-magnetic
3. Froth Flotation
o Used for sulphide ores based on surface wettability differences
4. Leaching
o Chemical dissolution of ore using selective solvents
5. Two Major Steps in Isolation of Metals from Concentrated Ore
1. Conversion to Oxide (Thermal Pretreatment)
oBy roasting or calcination to make ore chemically reducible
2. Reduction to Metal
o Using carbon, CO, hydrogen, or electrolysis
6. Gibbs Energy and Thermal Reduction Feasibility
(i) Definition
Gibbs free energy (ΔG) is the maximum reversible work obtainable from a thermodynamic
system at constant temperature and pressure.
Δ G=Δ H −T Δ S
(ii) Criterion for Feasibility
If ΔG < 0, reaction is spontaneous → reduction feasible
If ΔG > 0, reaction is non-spontaneous
👉 In metallurgy, oxide reduction is feasible when:
Δ G reduction <0
Ellingham diagrams plot ΔG° vs T to evaluate this.
7. Limitations of Ellingham Diagram
1. Assumes equilibrium conditions only
2. Does not consider reaction kinetics
3. Does not include phase transformations
4. Cannot predict reaction rates
5. Does not account for impurities or non-ideal systems
8. Extraction of Metals
(i) Iron from Hematite (Fe₂O₃)
Concentration: Magnetic separation
Roasting: Partial oxidation
Smelting: Blast furnace
F e 2 O3 +3 CO → 2 Fe+3 C O2
Flux: CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂; CaO removes SiO₂ as slag
(ii) Copper from Copper Pyrite (CuFeS₂)
Concentration: Froth flotation
Roasting: Partial oxidation
2 CuFe S 2+ 4 O2 → C u2 S +2 FeO+3 S O2
Smelting: Converts FeO to slag
Bessemerization:
C u 2 S +O2 → 2 Cu+ S O2
(iii) Aluminum from Bauxite
Concentration: Bayer process (NaOH leaching)
Electrolysis: Hall-Héroult process
3
A l 2 O 3 →2 Al+ O2
2
9. Hydrometallurgy
(i) Definition
Hydrometallurgy is the extraction of metals from ores using aqueous chemical reactions,
typically at low temperatures.
(ii) Steps
1. Leaching – Dissolution of metal values
2. Solution Purification – Solvent extraction or precipitation
3. Metal Recovery – Cementation, electro-winning, or crystallization
10. Leaching Operations (Mention and Explain Two)
1. Heap Leaching
oCrushed ore stacked and irrigated with solvent
2. Agitated Tank Leaching
o Finely ground ore mixed with leachant in stirred reactors for faster kinetics
Other types: In-situ leaching, pressure leaching, vat leaching
11. Theory of Leaching and Governing Equations
Leaching is governed by mass transfer and chemical reaction kinetics.
Steps:
1. Diffusion of leachant to solid surface
2. Surface chemical reaction
3. Diffusion of dissolved species away from surface
For diffusion-controlled:
Rate=k d A (C s−C b )
For reaction-controlled:
Rate=k r A
Example reaction:
2+ ¿+ H2 O ¿
CuO+ 2 H +¿ →C u ¿
12. Electrometallurgy
(i) Definition
Electrometallurgy is the extraction or refining of metals using electrical energy, based on
electrochemical reduction.
(ii) Electrolysis Diagram (Description)
Cathode: Metal deposition
Anode: Oxidation reaction
Electrolyte: Molten salt or aqueous solution
External DC power supply
Example:
−¿→ Al ¿
¿
A l 3+¿+3 e
13. Methods of Electrometallurgy
1. Electrowinning
o Metal recovered from solution
2. Electrorefining
o Impure metal dissolved at anode and redeposited at cathode
3. Electrothermic Reduction
o Electrical energy used as heat source (e.g., electric arc furnace)
