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Kenyatta University

School of Humanities and Social Sciences

Literature Department

Master of Arts (Literature)

Alt 803: Stylistics and Practical Criticism.

[Link] Muhia

1st Trimester CEP August 2023

Year 2023/2024

Admission Number: C50/CE/20833.2023.

Name: Njogu Hottensiah Wawira.

Style in Poetry.

Poetry is a form of literary expression characterized by rhythmic and imaginative use of

language, often employing meter, rhyme, and metaphor to evoke emotions or convey vivid

imagery. The earliest known poetic works come from ancient cultures such as Sumerian, Egypt,

China, and India. These early poems often had a strong connection to religious or mythological

themes, reflecting the cultural and spiritual beliefs of the societies that produced them. In poetry,
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style refers to the distinctive and unique way in which a poet uses language to convey thoughts,

emotions, and imagery.

Several key elements contribute to the overall style of a poem with all citations from An

Anthology of East African Poetry by A. D. Amateshe: Diction refers to the poet's choice and use

of words, this is important to style. It encompasses the selection of vocabulary, the level of

formality or informality. Diction can be formal or informal, archaic or contemporary, and it

significantly influences the tone and atmosphere of the poem. A contemporary diction in the free

verse;

The Money Changers by Richard S. Mabala.

"Our father who art in-CLINK

hallowed be thy- CLINK..." page 9

The poet deviates from the normal poetic writing to where he emphasis the onomatopoeic

use of the bell sound, it is to emphasis the description of churches currently focusing on money

making than worship. The vocabulary in the poem involves holy words from The Lord's Prayer

to show it is being done in a church during a service due to the bells, helps understand the

setting.

Imagery refers to the use of vivid and descriptive language that appeals to the senses,

creating a mental picture or sensory experience for the reader. Poetic style often involves the use

of vivid and evocative imagery. Metaphors, similes, and other figurative language contribute to

the creation of mental images that enhance the reader's sensory experience. As seen in the poem

below:
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I will cling to your garment by Eric S. Ng'maryo's.

"I will cling to your garment like a wild grass seed:

I will needle your flesh

And pray...” page 9. A simile where poet says to cling like a wild grass seed helps create a vivid

description on how tight the clinging will be. The figurative language used in this poem is to

create a clear image in the reader's mind of what's being described.

Sound and Rhythm. Sound and rhythm are integral elements in the structure of poetry,

contributing to the musicality and flow of the language. Here's a breakdown of these elements:

Rhyme is the repetition of similar sounds, usually at the end of lines. An example;

The end begins by Kalungi Kabuye.

"Words words words

words without wind

words without end..." page 23. Rhyme here appears through repetition of words and sounds in

the second and third stanza. Rhyming words can add a sense of unity and musicality to a poem.

Poems may have end rhymes, where the last words of lines rhyme, like in:

Ploughing by Dr. Noah K. Ndosi

"...breaks the ground

round after round

The sun...” or internal rhymes within the lines. Meter involves the rhythmic pattern of stressed

and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry. Common meters include iambic pentameter, trochaic

tetrameter, and anapestic trimeter. Meter establishes a beat or cadence, influencing the poem's

overall rhythm. Alliteration technique involves the repetition of initial consonant sounds in

closely positioned or adjacent words. Like in:

Illegal brew by Dr. Noah K. Ndosi

"...from families and friends,” page 31, fourth stanza second line. Alliteration can create a

pleasing sound and contribute to the musical quality of the poem. Assonance and Consonance;

Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds within nearby words, Extensions by Humphrey

Webuye the vowel sound /é/ in "...Extended vexing expectations..." page 43 while consonance

involves the repetition of consonant sounds like; Illegal brew by Dr. Noah K. Ndosi

"...from families and friends...” page 31 the repetition of the /f/ sound. Both techniques

contribute to the auditory texture of a poem. Onomatopoeia uses words that imitate the sound

they represent. Including such words in a poem enhances the auditory experience and can evoke

specific sensations. A caesura is a pause or break within a line of poetry. As seen in the poem

below:

The Money Changers by Richard S. Mabala.

"Our father who art in-CLINK

hallowed be thy- CLINK..." page [Link] influences the poem's rhythm by creating natural pauses,

emphasizing certain words or ideas. Repetition; repeating words, phrases, or entire lines can
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establish a rhythmic pattern and emphasize key ideas. Repetition contributes to the overall

musicality of the poem. Like in; The Money Changers by Richard S. Mabala.

"Our father who art in-CLINK

hallowed be thy- CLINK..." page [Link], these elements contribute to the auditory and

rhythmic qualities of poetry, enhancing the reader's experience and allowing poets to create a

unique and engaging form of expression. The arrangement of sounds, including rhyme, meter,

and alliteration, contributes to the musicality and rhythm of a poem. These elements impact the

overall flow and aesthetic appeal, defining the poet's style.

Structure and Form. In poetry, structure and form refer to the organization and

arrangement of elements within a poem. Here's a breakdown of these concepts: Structure

encompasses the overall organization of a poem, including how it is divided into lines and

stanzas. The structure of a poem may be free-form or follow a specific pattern, and it influences

the visual presentation of the poem on the page. The poem The Money Changers by Richard S.

Mabala in page 9 is in free-form. Lines in a poem can vary in length, contributing to the poem's

rhythm and pace. Lines may be short or long, and their structure often affects the visual and

auditory impact of the poem. Stanzas are groups of lines within a poem that are separated by

spaces. The arrangement of stanzas contributes to the poem's structure and can convey shifts in

tone, theme, or narrative, an example is in The Disabled by Bungirama B-T Kanzira

Rwandadabwe the second stanza from the fourth line breaks from the normal starting point to

middle, and this use helps the poet create an emphasis on those words. Form refers to the

specific style or pattern that a poem follows. Different poetic forms have established rules for

rhyme scheme, meter, and line length. Examples include sonnets, haikus, and villanelles. Rhyme
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Scheme is the pattern of rhyming words at the end of lines in a poem is known as the rhyme

scheme. It is often represented using letters to denote corresponding rhymes (e.g., AABB,

ABAB).

Meter involves the rhythmic pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables within lines.

Different meters, such as iambic pentameter or trochaic tetrameter, contribute to the overall flow

and musicality of the poem. Blank verse is unrhymed poetry that adheres to a specific meter,

commonly iambic pentameter. It provides a structured rhythm without the constraints of rhyme.

Free verse is poetry that lacks a regular rhyme scheme, meter, or form. Like The Money

Changers by Richard S. Mabala. It allows for greater flexibility and creativity in the arrangement

of lines and stanzas. In concrete poetry, the visual arrangement of words on the page contributes

to the overall meaning. The physical shape of the poem is an integral part of its expression like in

The Disabled by Bungirama B-T Kanzira Rwandadabwe where the second stanza from the fourth

line deviates from the normal starting point to create emphasis on those words. The interplay of

structure and form in poetry allows poets to convey meaning not only through words but also

through the arrangement of those words. It adds depth, rhythm, and visual appeal to the artistic

expression of language.

Tone in poetry refers to the poet's attitude or emotional stance toward the subject matter

or audience. It reflects the way the poet feels about the themes, ideas, or emotions conveyed in

the poem. Tone is conveyed through the poet's choice of words, imagery, and the overall style of

the poem. Here are some common tones found in poetry. Melancholic is used in conveying a

sense of sadness, sorrow, or introspection. Like in The end begins by Kalungi Kabuye, page

[Link] poet uses imagery and language that evoke a feeling of sadness at the struggles they are

facing. Reflective is used in exhibiting thoughtful contemplation or introspection. Like in the

poem Extensions by Humphrey Webuye, page 42. The poet's tone is suggesting a deep

consideration of ideas and ways of life where he as the husband is burdened by the entire in-law

family through visitations where each expects warm welcomes with gifts, he seems privacy.

Solemn tone is used in conveying a tone of gravity and importance. The language used is often

formal and the themes explored are weighty or significant. Hopeful tone expresses optimism or a

positive outlook like the tone in I will cling to your garment by Eric S. Ng'maryo's page [Link]

poet's language and imagery is inspiring a sense of expectation or anticipation. Ironic tone

appears where the intended meaning is opposite to the literal meaning. Like in The Anniversary

by A. D. Amateshe, page 123, the irony is seen in how after freedom instead of unity people

divided into tribes, there was corruption to how there us hope for a government without colonial

influence called Tomorrow to ironically mean it might never happen. The tone of a poem

contributes significantly to its emotional impact and the reader's interpretation of the content. It

is an essential aspect of the poet's expression, shaping the overall mood and resonance of the

poem.

Themes and Motifs. Themes in poetry are central ideas or topics that the poet explores

and addresses in their work. Motifs are recurring elements, images, or symbols that serve to

reinforce and emphasize the themes of a poem. These can be specific objects, colors, sounds, or

symbols that carry symbolic meaning. The recurring themes and motifs explored in a poet's work

contribute to their unique style. The subjects they choose to address and how they approach them

distinguish their voice and if the theme of a poem is love, a motif within that theme might be a

rose, symbolizing love and passion. In The Money Changers by Richard S. Mabala, page 105,

the theme is colonialism where even in church Africans care scared of being driven out
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forcefully with a whip therefore the whip is the motif symbolizing colonial powers oppressing

Africans everywhere.

Language Play in poetry refers to the creative and innovative use of language to add

depth, nuance, and aesthetic value to a poem. Poets often engage in language play by

experimenting with words, sounds, and structures. Here are some aspects of language play in

poetry: Puns and Wordplay, Poets often use puns, double meanings, and wordplay to create

humor, surprise, or multiple layers of meaning within their poems. This adds a playful and clever

dimension to the language. Alliteration and Assonance, Repetition of initial consonant sounds

(alliteration) or vowel sounds (assonance) can create a musical quality in the language,

enhancing the auditory experience of the poem. Like in; the death of my father by Dr. Henry

Indangasi, first stanza second line,"...The Sarcastic, scornful smile..."page 74. Extensions by

Humphrey Webuye the vowel sound /é/ in "...Extended vexing expectations..." page 43.

Imagery and Metaphor, Poets use vivid and imaginative language to create striking

images and metaphors, allowing readers to visualize and emotionally connect with the content.

In Beloved of my mother by Okot p'Bitek, page 19. The poet has used a metaphor to create a

mental image likening the beloved of his mother to plucked vegetable leaves to mean he is dead.

Neologisms is creating new words or using existing words in unconventional ways can

infuse a poem with freshness and originality, challenging conventional language norms. In The

Dawn by Lilian Ingonga,"...the morn is here again..."page 80, the poet has shortened the word

morning to morn so that it can rhyme with born in the next line.

Rhyme and Rhythm; playing with rhyme schemes, exploring various meters, or

intentionally disrupting traditional patterns can contribute to the overall playfulness in a poem. In
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the poem, The Money Changers by Richard S. Mabala, page 105,he uses a different free format

with unusual capitalization of the word CLINK to symbolize the importance of the bell in the

prayer and as a timer till the Africans come to be thrown out. It however brings about an

irregular rhyme whose rhythm is brought out well in the second stanza out of repetition of words.

Syntax and Structure; Poets may experiment with sentence structure, line breaks, and

stanza formation to create unconventional patterns, adding an element of surprise and innovation.

A good example is Lead Kindly Dark by David Kihazo, page 99,where the poem starts normally

and goes thinning with words reducing till it is a single letter, to signify the going back to zero

and nothingness due to the darkness.

Ambiguity and Multiple Meanings; deliberate ambiguity or the use of words with multiple

meanings allows readers to interpret the poem in different ways, fostering engagement and

contemplation. In Beloved of my mother by Okot p'Bitek, page 19, the term Beloved is ambiguous

for it can either mean the husband to the mother or the lover to the mother. It is confusing as to

who exactly it refers to, it could even be the husband she loves for at times some are in loveless

marriages, ambiguous.

Humor and Satire; Poets often use language play to inject humor or satire into their work,

employing irony, parody, or other comedic elements to convey a message. In Armanda by Jared

Angira, page 117, by the constant repetition of the satirical statement; “Armanda was a well -

meaning lass," the author mocks her behavior of smoking, hating the kitchen he even shows us

how she acts to mean we'll in the fourth stanza when she makes a man to lay millions into her

bank account and how she made the man take a surgery for perfection which ended with him
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being in chair, she leaves him after she has exhausted his wealth and seeing he can't heal and will

be in a wheelchair.

Allusion and Intertextuality seen by referencing other texts, cultural symbols, or

historical events adds layers of meaning to a poem and engages readers familiar with those

references. In Armanda by Jared Angira, page 117, the first stanza is used as a form of

intertextuality to represent the westernized woman who has studied Anthropology in college,

smokes Dunhill and hates the kitchen among other things.

Juxtaposition and Contrast this can create unexpected connections and provoke thought.

This technique adds complexity and depth to the language. In Song of the worker by [Link],

page 33-34, words have been put in a manner showing the contrasting lives of the tortured

workers or slaves to the joy in seeing torture by their oppressors.

Repetition; strategic repetition of words, phrases, or sounds can create emphasis, rhythm,

and resonance. Repetition serves as a playful device to guide the reader's attention and shape the

overall tone. In Song of the worker by E. Songoyi, the repetition of;

"...Kwa! Kwa! Kwa!

Our hands sore

Our heads ache

Our knees numb

Our backs..." has been used to show that the suffering is for all the workers, they are all in pain.

It is also creating a musicality feel in the poem. In essence, language play in poetry is a dynamic
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and creative use of language that goes beyond conventional expressions, allowing poets to push

boundaries, evoke emotions, and create a unique linguistic experience for their readers.

Allusion and Symbolism. An allusion is a literary device in which a writer makes a brief

and indirect reference to a person, place, thing, or idea of historical, cultural, literary, or political

significance while symbolism something mentioned has a deeper meaning. The use of literary

allusions or symbolic elements can be a distinctive feature of a poet's style, adding depth and

layers of meaning to the text. Like in The Money Changers by Richard S. Mabala, page 105, the

whip is symbolically used to represent the oppressive rule by the colonizers.

Persona and Voice where the persona in poetry refers to the voice or character assumed

by the poet to convey the narrative or speaker of the poem. It's a constructed identity that may

differ from the poet's actual self. The persona allows poets to explore different perspectives,

experiences, or voices within their work. In Beloved of my mother by Okot p’Bitek, page 19, the

persona is a child to the mother who we are being told about in the poem. Voice in poetry

encompasses the distinctive style, tone, and language choices of the poet. It reflects the poet's

unique way of expressing ideas and emotions. Voice is a crucial element that establishes the

poet's presence and perspective in the poem. It can be formal or informal, serious or playful,

creating an identifiable and authentic artistic signature. The voice in When I see the beauty on my

beloveds face by Okot p'Bitek, page 1, the voice used appears informally as it is the persona

talking to a family member of the person the persona loves, the descriptive words used bring out

a playful loving tone and voice of the persona. We see the joy in seeing the lover till the appetite

for normal food is gone, there even is hyperbole in,"...when I touch the tattoos on her back, I die,

“clearly showing how deeply infatuated the persona is to the conviction at the end that he has to

marry her due to love.

In essence, the style in poetry is the poet's unique fingerprint, a combination of linguistic

choices, sound patterns, and thematic exploration that sets their work apart from others. It is a

crucial aspect of the art form, allowing for diverse and individualized expressions of human

experience. Thus style in poetry should be appreciated, explored, analyzed and used extensively

to boost up the love for poetry and to show that language can be used in a clear, precise words

with rhythm and beats to pass a message in an interesting manner with a lasting impression to its

readers or audience.
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Works Cited.

Amateshe, A D. An Anthology of East African Poetry. Harlow: Longman, 1988. Print.

L. S. Senghor, Prose and Poetry, Oxford University Press, 1965.

Leech, Geoffrey. Language in Literature, Style and Foregrounding. 2007.

Ngugi wa Thiong'o, 'Okot p'Bitek and Writing in East Africa's, Homecoming, Heinemann,

London, 1972.

'Okot p'Bitek, Africa's Cultural Revolution, Macmillan, Nairobi, 1973.