Amplifier

 An amplifier, is an electronic device that can increase the power of a signal.

 It is a two-port electronic circuit that uses electric power from a power supply to
increase the amplitude of a signal applied to its input terminals, producing a
proportionally greater amplitude signal at its output.
 The amount of amplification provided by an amplifier is measured by its gain:
 The ratio of output voltage, current, or power to input.
 An amplifier is a circuit that has a power gain greater than one.
 An amplifier can either be a separate piece of equipment or an electrical circuit
contained within another device.
 Operational amplifier
 An operational amplifier or op amp is a DC coupled voltage amplifier with a very
high voltage gain.
 Op amp is basically a multistage amplifier in which a number of amplifier stages
are interconnected to each other in a very complicated manner. Its internal circuit
consists of many transistors, and resistors. All this occupies a very little space. So, it
is packed in a small package and is available in the Integrated Circuit (IC) form.
 The term Op Amp is used to denote an amplifier which can be configured to
perform various operations like amplification, subtraction, differentiation, addition,
integration etc. An example is the very popular IC 741.
 An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a very high gain differential amplifier with
high input impedance and low output impedance.
 Typical uses of the operational amplifier are to provide voltage amplitude changes,
oscillators, filter circuits, and many types of instrumentation circuits.
 An op-amp contains a number of differential amplifier stages to achieve a very
high voltage gain.
 Figure given below shows a basic op-amp with two inputs and one output as would
result using a differential amplifier input stage.
 We call the terminal, marked with negative (-) sign as the inverting terminal and
the terminal marked with positive (+) sign as the non-inverting terminal of the
operational amplifier.
 If we apply an input signal at the inverting terminal (-) than the amplified
output signal is 180 degree out of phase concerning the applied input signal.
 If we apply an input signal to the non inverting terminal (+) then the output
signal obtained will be in phase, i.e It will have no phase shift with respect to
input signal. The op-amp also has two voltage supply terminals.
 Single-Ended Input
 Single-ended input operation results when the input signal is connected to one
input with the other input connected to ground.
 Figure below shows the signals connected in single-ended input .
 Double-Ended (Differential) Input
 In addition to using only one input, it is possible to apply signals at each input this being a double-
ended operation.
 Figure(a) below shows an input, Vd, applied between the two input terminals with the
resulting amplified output in phase with that applied between the plus and minus inputs.
 Figure(b) below shows the same action resulting when two separate signals are applied to the
inputs, the difference signal being Vi1 - Vi2.
 Working Principle of Op-Amp
I. Open Loop Operation of an Operational Amplifier
 An op-amp has a differential input and single ended output. So, if we apply two
signals one at the inverting and another at the non-inverting terminal, an ideal op-
amp will amplify the difference between the two applied input signals. We call this
difference between two input signals as the differential input voltage.
 The equation below gives the output of an operational amplifier.

 Where, VOUT: is the voltage at the output terminal of the op-amp.

AOL: is the open-loop gain for the given op-amp and is constant (ideally).
II. Closed Loop Operation of an Operational Amplifier

 The above-explained operation of the op-amp was for open-loop i.e. without a
feedback. We introduce feedback in the closed loop configuration. This feedback
path feeds the output signal to the input. Hence, at the inputs, two signals are
simultaneously present. One of them is the original applied signal, and the other is
the feedback signal. The equation below shows the output of a closed loop op-
amp.

Where VOUT is the voltage at the output terminal of the op-amp.

ACL is the closed loop gain.
 The feedback circuit connected to the op-amp determines the closed loop gain
ACL.
 We say the feedback as positive if the feedback path feeds the signal from
the output terminal back to the non-inverting (+) terminal. Positive
feedback is used in oscillators.
 The feedback is negative if the feedback path feeds the part of the signal
from the output terminal back to the inverting (-) terminal. Negative
feedback to the op-amps used as amplifiers.
 Each type of feedback, negative or positive has its advantages and
disadvantages.
 Differential and Common mode operation
 One of the more important features of a differential circuit connection, as provided in
an op-amp, is the circuit’s
 Ability to greatly amplify signals that are opposite at the two inputs, while
only slightly amplifying signals that are common to both inputs.
 An op-amp provides an output component that is due to
 The amplification of the difference of the signals applied to the plus and
minus inputs and
 A component due to the signals common to both inputs.
 Since amplification of the opposite input signals is much greater than that of the
common input signals, the circuit provides a common mode rejection as described
by a numerical value called the common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR).
𝑨𝑫
CMRR =
𝑨𝑪
 Differential Inputs
 When separate inputs are applied to the op-amp, the resulting difference signal is
the difference between the two inputs.

 Common Inputs
 When both input signals are the same, a common signal element due to the two
inputs can be defined as the average of the sum of the two signals.
 Output Voltage
 Since any signals applied to an op-amp in general have both in-phase and out-of
phase components, the resulting output can be expressed as:
Vo =AdVd + AcVc
where
Vd = difference voltage
Vc =common voltage
Ad =differential gain of the amplifier
Ac =common-mode gain of the amplifier
[Link] Operational Amplifier | Inverting Op Amp
 We call the operational amplifier as an inverting operational amplifier or an
inverting op-amp when the op-amp circuit produces the output which is out of
phase with respect to its input by 180 degree.
 This means that if the input pulse is positive, then the output pulse will be
negative and vice versa.
 The figure below shows an inverting operational amplifier built by using an op-
amp and two resistors.
 Here we apply the input signal to the inverting terminal of the op-amp via the
resistor Ri. We connect the non-inverting terminal to ground.
 Further, we provide the feedback necessary to stabilize the circuit, and
hence to control the output, through a feedback resistor Rf.
Mathematically the voltage gain offered by the circuit is given as
 We know that an ideal op amp has infinite input impedance due to which the
currents flowing into its input terminals are zero i.e. I1 = I2 = 0.
Thus, Ii = If. Hence,

 We also know that in an ideal op amp the voltage at inverting and non-inverting
inputs are always equal.
 As we have grounded the non inverting terminal, zero voltage appears at the non
inverting terminal. That meansV2=[Link],V1 = 0, also. So, we can write:
  From, the above two equations, we get

 The voltage gain of the inverting operational amplifier or inverting op amp is,

 This indicates that the voltage gain of the inverting amplifier is decided by the ratio
of the feedback resistor to the input resistor with the minus sign indicating the
phase-reversal. Further, it is to be noted that the input impedance of the inverting
amplifier is nothing but Ri.
 Inverting amplifiers
 exhibit excellent linear characteristics which make them ideal as DC
amplifiers.
 often used to convert input current to the output voltage in the form of Trans
resistance or Trans impedance Amplifiers.
 can also be used in audio mixers when used in the form of Summing
Amplifiers.
[Link] Inverting Operational Amplifier | Non Inverting Op Amp
 Non inverting amplifier is an op amp based amplifier with positive voltage gain.
 A non inverting operational amplifier or non inverting op amp uses op amp as main
element.
 The op amp has two input terminals (pins).
 inverting denoted with minus sign (-), and
 non-inverting denoted with a positive sign (+).
 When we apply any signal to the non-inverting input of, it does not change its
polarity when it gets amplified at the output terminal. So, in that case, the gain of
the amplifier is always positive.
 Here, in the above circuit, we connect an external resistance R1 and feedback
resistance Rf at inverting input. Now, by applying Kirchhoff Current Law, we get,

 Let us assume the input voltage applied to the non inverting terminal is vi. Now,
if we assume that the op amp in the circuit is ideal op amp, then,

Therefore, equation (i) can be rewritten as,

 The closed loop gain of the circuit is,

 This term does not contain any negative part. Hence, it proves that the input signal
to the circuit gets amplified without changing its polarity at the output.
 From the expression of voltage gain of non inverting op amp, it is clear that, the
gain will be unity when Rf = 0 or R1 →infinite.
  So, if we short circuit the feedback path and/or open the external resistance of the inverting pin,
the gain of the circuit becomes 1.

 This circuit is called voltage follower or unity gain amplifier. This is used to isolate two cascaded
circuits, because of its infinitely large impedance, at op amp inputs.
3. OP AMP as integrator
 op amp integrator circuit can be done, if we replace the feedback resistor Rf by a
capacitor C as shown below

 In an ideal op amp the voltage at non inverting input terminal is same as that of
inverting input. Here, in the circuit, as the non inverting input is grounded, the
electric potential of inverting input will also be zero as non inverting input. In an
ideal op amp, no current enters to the op amp through both inverting and non
inverting inputs.
 Now, if we apply Kirchhoff current law at node 1 of the above circuit, shown in
figure , we get,
 4. OP AMP Differentiator
 Differentiator is an op amp based circuit, whose output signal is proportional to
differentiation of input signal. An op amp differentiator is basically an inverting
amplifier with a capacitor of suitable value at its input terminal.
 The figure below shows the basic circuit diagram of an op amp differentiator.
 We will first assume that the op amp used here is an ideal op amp.
 We know that the voltage at both inverting and non inverting terminals of an ideal
op amp is same. As the electric potential at non inverting terminal is zero since it is
grounded.
 It is also known to us that the current entering through inverting and non inverting
terminal of an ideal op amp is zero.
 Considering, these conditions of an ideal op amp, if we apply Kirchhoff Current
Law at node 1 of the op amp differentiator circuit, we get,

 The above equation shows that the output

voltage is the derivative of the input voltage.
 OP AMP parameters:
[Link]-mode rejection ratio
[Link] offset voltage
 The input offset voltage (VIO) is a parameter defining the differential DC
voltage required between the inputs of an amplifier, especially an operational
amplifier (op-amp), to make the output zero (for voltage amplifiers, 0 volts with
respect to ground or between differential outputs. The manufacturer’s
specification sheet provides a value of VIO for the op-amp.
 An ideal op-amp amplifies the differential input; if this input difference is 0
volts (i.e. both inputs are at the same voltage), the output should be zero.
However, due to manufacturing process, the differential input transistors of real
op-amps may not be exactly matched. This causes the output to be zero at a non-
zero value of differential input, called the input offset voltage.
 To determine the effect of this input voltage on the output, consider the
connection shown in figure given below: Using Vo = AVi, we can write:
 Equation shows how the output offset voltage results from
a specified input offset voltage for a typical amplifier
connection of the op-amp.
[Link] rate:
 Pin Diagram of an Op Amp IC
The op amp IC we are going to discuss about here is IC 741. It is an 8 pin IC. The pin
configuration of IC 741 is given below

PIN 1 – Offset Null

PIN 2 – Inverting input
PIN 3 – non- inverting input
PIN 4 – negative voltage supply
PIN 5 – offset null
PIN 6 – output
PIN 7 – positive voltage supply
PIN 8 – not connected
 Block Diagram Of Operational Amplifier (Op-amp)
 The op-amp begins with a differential amplifier stage, which operates in the
differential mode. Thus the inputs noted with ‘+’ & ‘- ‘ .
 The positive sign is for the non-inverting input and negative is for the inverting
input.
 The non-inverting input is the ac signal (or dc) applied to the differential
amplifier which produces the same polarity of the signal at the output of op-amp.
 The inverting signal input is the ac signal (or dc) applied to the differential
amplifier. This produces a 180 degrees out of phase signal at the output.
 The inverting and non-inverting inputs are provided to the input stage which is a
dual input, balanced output differential amplifier.
 The voltage gain required for the amplifier is provided in this stage along with the
input resistance for the op-amp.
 The output of the initial stage is given to the intermediate stage, which is driven by
the output of the input stage.
 In this stage direct coupling is used, which makes the dc voltage at the output of
the intermediate stage above ground potential. Therefore, the dc level at its output
must be shifted down to 0 Volts with respect to the ground. For this, the level
shifting stage is used where usually an emitter follower with the constant current
source is applied.
 The level shifted signal is then given to the output stage where a push-pull
amplifier increases the output voltage swing of the signal and also increases the
current supplying capability of the op-amp.
Examples on OPAMP
Example:-Calculate the CMRR for the circuit measurements shown in Fig.

Solution
 From the measurement shown in Fig. a,
 The measurement shown in Fig. b,
Example:- Calculate the output voltage of a non-inverting amplifier for values of
V1= 2V, Rf = 500 k, and R1 = 100 k.
Solution

Example:- Calculate the output voltage of an op-amp summing amplifier for the
following sets of voltages and resistors. Use Rf = 1 M in all cases.
(a) V1 = 1 V, V2 = 2 V, V3 =3 V, R1 = 500 k, R2 = 1 M, R3 = 1 M.
(b) V1 = 2 V, V2 = 3 V, V3 = 1 V, R1 =200 k, R2 = 500 k, R3 = 1 M.
 Example:- (a) For the circuit of Fig. (a), calculate IL.
(b) For the circuit of Fig. (b), calculate Vo.

Solution