+ Amap is a symbolic representation of selected characteristics of a place, usually drawn on a flat surface, Maps present information about th world in a simple, visual way. + They teach about the world by showing sizes and shapes of counties, locations of features, and distances between places,0 KA Namo of the map:chue Coie) OA ‘The name ofthe map will always have the following information a ae BLOEMFONTEIN ‘Scale of the map: ‘The scale ofthe map indicates the relationship between the actual sze of the area and the map that has been drawn of this area. + There are THREE types of scales: Tee ele mop prevents, out] 20m represents Oe the. grant: 250 meters Rao sae 1: SO 000 Tine sae * Large scale and small-scale maps: [ENE ee boredDirection: + Direction is expressed by using the points of a compass (North, East, South ‘and West) and the points between them. + There are 16 cardinal points: Koy: + Akey is used to show conventional signs on a topographic map. ‘+ Conventional signs are symbols for different features found on a map. Three types of map symbols: *- Line svmbols: Represent ines on maps ke fos, powerinesrlvey ae 2 "Bataymbla: Represent Point on maps like post office, police station;‘ 3, Polvgonlarea symbols: Represent areas on maps ike dams, recreational parks, gol courses Trigenometrical station ding Neo A ‘Spot heights Bench marksorion visible onthe photo. Horizon is not visible on the photo. ‘ORTHOPHOTO MAP: Orthophoto maps are made from aerial photographs. ‘Types of aerial photographs: 1. Vertical aerial photographs: * Photo is taken from an aeroplane which is fying directly over the landscape; + Photos taken at a 90° angle; + Shows the top view of the landscape: + Has a bigger scale; + Usually printed in black and white to save costs; + Help to map large and inaccessible areas. * Photographs that are taken from high above the ground at an angle that is not vertical o the ground + Two types of oblique aerial photographs: [Shows a big area. /Shows 2 specific imege of an area, Iniagesar€detoried when landscape afer ror |lobaes ar cle the tens,How orthophoto maps are made: ‘Orthophoto maps are made from a 3! photographs. Map information lke the names of streets and dams are added tothe orthophoto. Contour tines are superimposed on the photo to provide height ofthe area or landscape COrthophotos maps are therefore a combination of @ photo and a map: Digital mapping cameras are used where the camera is flown ove’ an area and the images are recorded and corrected according to scale; ‘The scale of an orthophoto map is 1: 10 000, which means that 1 cm on the map represent 10 000 cm on the ground. ‘Shadows on an orthophoto map: “The direction ofthe shadow on an orthophoto mep can determine the tine of the day the photo was taken. ‘Anways look fr trees or buildings when determining the time of the day. ‘The longer the shadow the earlier it is (am) and the shorter the shadow the later in the day itis. ‘Shadows that les to the SOUTHEAST means the photo are taken after 12:00 NOT 12:00 ‘Shadows that les to the SOUTHWEST means the photo are taken before 12:00 NOT 12:00,( TOPOGRAPHICAL me) NATURAL FEATURES: ‘Any feature that appears naturally + Ocean, natural bays and shores; + Islands. + Rivers, lakes and dams + Bushes, vegetation and forests Represented as blue areas (water resources) , brown lines ( contour tines) and green ‘areas (natural vegetation like bushes or forestyy) ‘CONSTRUCTED (MAN MADE) FEATURES: ‘Any feature that is constructed on natural areas: + Transport and infrastructures; + Dam wall and dams; + Cultivated land and pusiiation plants; + Buildings and heritage sites. Represented as black and grey lines, grey areas, black symbols, green areas that indicate cultivated lands, blue lines that indicate canals, blue symbols anc red lines, INFORMATION FROM AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS AND MAPS: + The type of tanaorm; +The relief ofthe landform; * Drainage patterns, drainage density and drainage distribution; + Descrive the settlement type: Urban or rural; + Describe if the settlement is nucleated or dispersed + Describe the site and situation ofa settlement, + Indicate what the land is being used fer.Distance is the shortest distance between two point in a straight line. EC) LScenty zen acco | ‘Step 4: Measure the distance between the two points in centimeter. ‘Step 2:Note the unit thatthe answer must be in. Make use ofthe above table. “Topographic ma Orthophoto mapa ‘EXAMPLE 4: QUESTION: MEASURE THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE SCHOOL AND CHURCH IN KM. Siep4: Measure the straightline distance on the topographical map between the two points. ‘Step2: Use the table and the formula to determine the answer. ‘NOTE. The question asked for the distance in km, EXAMPLE 2: QUESTION: MEASURE THE DISTANCE BETWEEN spot height 1706 and spot height 1856 In m.2 Measure the straight line distance on the orthophoto mar between the ‘wo points. ANSWER: 7,4 CM, Step2; Use the table and the formula to determine the answer. oe TO” = Oy TE em x1020 ce ee pass hi ‘We divide by 10 to get the answer in km and X by 1000 because the question wanted 3nswer in m and we worked on anorthophoto map!‘The measurement ofthe size of a surface. REMEMBER - WITH AREA YOU MUST MEASURE THEREFORE A SCALE MUST BE USED! ‘Example 4: (Answer calculated in km?) ‘Measure the length and breadth separately... Assumed we worked the topo map Length = 8,5em vapoedgs4 wom han 2 F BSem beer a a 2 4,Askmx BAUM = das km Example 2; (Anawercleulted in em). ~~) We know rom previous caluatons that Length = 85cm and Besa = 44cm = CARS bm O60) 2c CRA Hn 10007) Agom x 4900 935000"5 ‘Step; Join the two places witha line. ‘Step2: Draw in the 8 main directions. Step3: Determine the direction, EXAMPLE: Determine the direction from trig beacon 183 to Bosrug. ‘As you can see on the map itis not one ofthe directions drawn on the map, therefore it wil be a direction in-between the cardinal points. (Refer to the diagram above) Answer = NWTue 6 | Note from where the bearing must be measured, Drawa tine between the two points, Place your protrector along the North ~ South line with theo” atthe Stent: Step 2i Step 3: {tthe point is anywhere from 0° — 180° you justread the dogroes from the ouside ofthe protractor. Ifthe point is anywhere from 180° ~ 260° you heve to tun the protractor around and add the degrees to 180" QUESTION: Determine the Bearing from point A to point B: Step 4; Join the two points witha straight line. Ay ‘Step 2: _Drawin the North to South and West to East ine atthe point you must measure FROM. 8 ‘Step3: Place your protractor along the North ~ South line with the 0° atthe top, ‘Now read your anawer fom the ‘outer number. ‘Anower = 136° EXAMPLE 2: QUESTION: Determine the Bearing from point A to point C: Step4; Join the two points with a straight in. a e ‘Step 2; Draw in the North to South and West to East line atthe point you must measure FROM.Step3: Place your protractor along the North ~ South line with the 2° atthe top. Remember: ‘When you move past 180° you ‘must turn your protractor and must add the reading on the ‘outer side to 180°, Anewor= 180° + 87° =247° + Thisis the angle between true north and the magnetic north + The magnetic decination changes yearly and must be calcvated. + This information can be found on the map. + Magnetic decination can change in TWO direction ® Westerly The magnetic decination will INCREASE. ® Easterly — The magnotic declination will DECREASE. Information on a map recarding the magnetic declination: ‘Mean magnetic declination 26°31" West of True North{ June 2011 }. ‘Mean annual change 6 Westwards{ June 2011 - May 2012) ‘Sourved from "NOAA National Geophysical Data Center”, ‘June 2011 refer to the month and year that the mean magnetic dectinaticn was recorded, June 2011 ~ May 2012 refers to the years that were used to calculate the mean (average) magnetic deciination. DO NOT USE THESE DATES IN CALCULATIONS!a9 Mean annval change refers to how the magnetic dectinaton changes each year. QUESTION: Use the Information on the map and determine the magnetic doctination for 2020. ‘Sent: Calculate the diterence in years = Curent year - Year onthe map ‘Mean magnetic declination 26°31" ‘West of True North( June 2011 ). Mean annual change 6° Westwards{ June 2011 ~ May 2012). ‘Sourced from "NOAA National Geophysical Data Center” RenRReEIRENS “S477, pose ran ‘Steps: Total change: 9 yearsx61W_ “Total change: 54°W_ Step. 4: Add the otal change to the magnetic dectnaton for 2011 /Meen magnetic declination 26°31" West of True North( June 2011 ), Moan annual change 6° Westwards{ June 2011 ~ May 2012). "Magnetic deciination = 26° 31° + 00° 54" W ea20 Magnetic declination = 27°25" W (Remember the direction MUST be indicated) QUESTION: Calculate the magnetic bearing of trig beacon 160 to trig beacon 38. Use the following formula: Magnetic bearing = True bearing + Magnetic declination. Sten4: Determine the bearing between the two points. Anewer = 110" destination 2. Total change: 9 years x6" W Total change: 54’ W 3. Magnetic dectination = 26° 31' + 00" 54" W Magnetic dectination = 27°25" Wa Step 3: Use the answers and substitute it into the formula. True bearing = 110" Magnetic dectination = 27°25" W Magnetic bearing = Truo bearing + Magnetic dectination Magnetic bearing = 110° + 27°25'W Magnetic bearing = 137°25' W Coordinates are @ set of values that shows the exact location ofa feature. Coordinates are given as degrees (*), minutes () and seconds (*) and a direction. Latitude and Longitude aro used to give the exact position. + In South Aric: ¥ Latitude wil ALWAYS be SOUTH therefore increase in minutes land seconds when you move down on a map, and2 Longitude wil ALWAYS be EAST therefore increase when you ‘move from lft to right on @ map. ‘Remember: 60= 1" er=7 With the start of a new block it changes to the next minute. ‘QUESTION: DETERMINE THE COORDINATES OF TIG BEACON 345IN BLOCK. Bt. Note thatthe coordinates must be written in the following format: (00°00"00" S; 00°00'00" E Latitude; Longitude Step: Start withthe latitude. Determine the degrees. Answer: 33° Remember witen moving frm block A to block B 60 seconds has passed and therefore it wil be one minute more, The degrees remain the same ‘Answer: 20 38‘Stem.3: Now determine the seconds. Use the following method: 1°60"; Half way will be 30° ra Answer- 33°20' 39” S 25°18'44" E Latitude; Longitude 39° 20°30" S; 25° 18°44" E24 + Gradient shows the siope of a land, Itis the relationship between the vertical height and the horizontal distance between two points. + The following formula is used: Gradient = eal tere) ‘oraona equivalent = + Remember that gradient isin METERS. + Answer must ALWAYS be as a ratio (1: 1) ‘QUESTION: DETERMINE THE GRADIENT BETWEEN TRG BEACON 348 IN BLOCK B1 AND POINT HEIGHT 489 IN BLOCK A2. (On the topographic map) ‘Step 4; Dawa line between the two points Siap2; Determine the VI (Vertical Interval) by subtracting the two pointsfrom ‘one another: Wr= 697.1 ~ 459m = 238m ‘Ste23: Determine the HE (Horizontal equivalent) by measuring the distance between the two points. ‘Answer: 6,5 0m8 HE= 650m 2 = 3,25 kn x1000 = 250m ‘Step4; Substitute the values calculated into the formu: Remember to always write the formula down, Vertical interval (Vi) Gradient = iorizontal equivalent (HE) of the numerator) Ste25; Write your answer as a ratio 18,66 (Round off to two decims‘A cross section isa SIDE view ofa landform or system. ollow the following steps to draw a cross section: Step 1: Draw straight line between the points ‘Step4: —_Drawa graph where the vertical scale is on the y-axis with a scale of ‘1em = 20m and the horizontal scale is on the x-axis,‘Remember the following: + Label your x and y axis + Write @ heading for your graph StepS: Place the strip of paper on the horizontal line and plot the heights to ‘correspond withthe heights on the vertical axis, Join the dets to ‘complete the cross section.2% + Itis difficult to distinguish the difference in the slope ifthe vertica’ and horizontal scales are the same. + Therefore, vertical exaggeration is the amount by which the vertical scale of the ‘1088 section is bigger than the map scale. + Mountain areas usually have a smaller exaggeration and flat areas have a bigger exaggeration so thatthe relief difference is noticeable. + Vertical exaggeration Is calculated with the following formula: ¥S (Werticat scale) ‘== 5 (Horizontal scale) ‘Step: Write down the vertical scale. Lem =20m Step2: Convert the meters to centimeters in the vertical scale Lem = 20m>x 100 ‘Lem = 2000 em ‘Siep3: White the VS ae a fraction: Lem = 2000 em9 ‘Step4: Write down the scale of the horizontal axis. Note topographic map = 1: 50.000 and orthophoto map 1: 10 000, Let's assume we worked on a topographic map. 1:50 000, ‘Ste§: Write the horizontal scale as a fraction 1 1:50000= a5 Steps: ‘Write down the formula; VE ce ‘WS Worizntal scale ‘Stop Z: Substitute the values for VS and HS in the formula: Refers to whenever one place is visible from another place, Point A is visible so there is intervisibility. Point B is not visible so there is no intervisibility.20 ‘Acontour line isa ine on a map that join all points of the same height above sea level CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOUR LINES: + Contour tines are imaginary tines; + Contour lines can never cross one another; ‘+ Contour lines are represented 2s a brown line on a 1: 60 000 topagraphical + Contour tines are continuous and closed lines (except iftey are atthe side of the map); + Ifthe landscape is steep, the contour lines are close together; * Contour intervals indicate the difference in height between successive contour lines; + Ifthe landscape is gentle, the contour lines are far apart; + Ifthe slope is uniform, the contour lines are evenly spaced; + Contour tines can join to form a single contour line only where there is a vertical ali + Contour lines never spit2 . Concave slope: ‘When the contour tines are close together a the top ofthe hill and gente at the bottom; ‘A slope which becomes progressively steeper uphill (On a map the Contour lines willbe spaced closer with an increase in height above sea-level Convex slope: ‘When the contour ines are gentle atthe top of the hill and close together at the bottom, this indicate a convex slope: ‘A slope which becomes progressively steeper downhill, ‘On a map the contour ines will be spaced closer together with a éectine in height above sea-level1. River valleys: * valley is formed due to flowing water and result into a V ~ shaped landform) +The V-shape point towards the higher ground (biger contour interval) * Inthe case ofa river valley, the greatest height isto the outer side and the land sinks down towards the inner side, where the riverbed is,s 2, V-valley: * Found in the upper course of a river where the gradient is steep: + Can be identified on a map by looking at the dominant V of the ecntour tn + Contour lines are close together. wy make ita U shap + Occurin the middle and lower course of a river; 4, Waterfall: + Forms where there is 1udden drop inthe river valley; + Waterfalls are formed in the upper course of the river; + When contour lines on a map touch one another or are very close together as they cross a river or stream, it indicates a waterfall5. Spur: ‘Along, gently sloping stip of ground that runs down from a hill to lower ground; + A spurs formed between two river valleys; ‘The greatest height i to the inner side and the land sinks down tewards the outer side of the spur. 6. Hil: + A point or small area of high ground. + When you are on a hiltop, the ground slopes down in all directions,Fy 7. Saddle: + Depression between two peaks or ridges; + This landform is formed by glaciers or streams that flow close to one another; 8, RIDGE: * Aline of high ground with height variations along its crest +The ridge isnot simply a line of hills; all points ofthe ridge crest are higher than the ground on both sides of the ridge. 9. MESA: + Alat-topped hill wth steep sides; + Found in landscapes associated with horizontal strata;a + Contour tines are close together atthe top (illustrate the cap rock [Link]: + Tallfat topped mountain with steep sides; + Associated with landforms with horizontal strata; + Greater height than width; + Smaller flat top. + Formed by rivers that cuts through the landscape; + No cap rock on this type of rock; Rounded point atthe top, but gentler than a mesa or butte.WHATIS Gis? DEEINITION: A computer Geographical information systems sed technology and method for collecting, analyzing, ‘managing, modeling and presenting geographical data fora wide range of users. WHY WAS GIS DEVELOPED? ‘To process geographical data and to produce information can be used for decision making, COMPONENTS OF GIS: HARDWARE: Computer, screen, keyboard and mouse. SOFTWARE: A program where you can enter/capture the data, eit it and put the data into map format. GEOGRAPHICAL DATA: Information that can be analysed. PERSONNEL: People that can operate the computer, enter the information and analyse the data METHOD: A way how the data will be stored on the computer. WHATIS GEOGRAPHICAL DATA? Information about features that exist and events that occur on Eaith. Example: The geographical data about a residential area can explain the population density of that area. HOW DO WE COLLECT GEOGRAPHICAL DATA? People complete surveys; Use of existing data and documents and capture iton a computer, Remote sensing: Photographs: Testing of natural environment eg. testing soil and water quality;Fy "= Physical measurements using secondary data; © Using existing maps. REMOTE SENSING: EFINITION: Collection of data by a recording device that is notin direct contact with the are, Examples: Satelites, sircrafts, drones and aerial photographs0 ADVANTAGES OF REMOTE SENSING: 1 Allows coverage of very large areas. = Gan access inaccessible areas. "= Easy collection of data over a varity of scales and resolutions | ‘= There is no limitation on the es single remotely sensed image. nt of information that can be gathered from & "© Data can easily be processed and analysed fast using a computer. = Does not distur the object or the area of interest Cheap and fast method of collecting data of large areas, = Itis easier to locate floods or forest fire that has spread over a large region hich makes it easier to plan @ rescue mission easily and fast. DISADVANTAGES OF REMOTE SENSING: '= Remote sensing isa fairly expensive method of analysis especially when ‘measuring or analysing smaller areas, '= Requires a special kind of training to analyse the images. "= Human errors may occur during the analysing process. Sometimes diferent phenomena being analysed may look the sane during measurement which may lead to classification error. "Sometimes large-scale engineering maps cannot be prepared from satelite data which makes remote sensing data collection incomplete, HOW GAN REMOTE SENSING ASSIST RESEARCHERS? Gives an overview of the entice study area; Allows geologists to check and verity changes over ime; Researchers do not have to be atthe site to obtain data; Weather conditions have limited influence on the obtaining of data Upto date data is easily and readily available; Geologists will have access to data that could not be easily reached (obtained) by human beings: Data can be collected quickly; Safer to collect data from inaccessible places;Continuous collection of data; ¥ Assists with more accurate geological mapping; ¥ Improves spectral resolution of geological mapping: ¥ Combining different datasets of geological layers; ¥_ Studying changes in geological environments; ¥ Collection of data is reliable. ‘TYPES OF DATA: 1. SPATIAL DATA: Th-eredt location oF 0 plore This data use coordinates to give an exact locaton ofa feature Examples of spatial data on armap: Dams, Bulings, Rivers, Roeds, House ot “Feeveg Dyon 2. ATTRIBUTE DATA: -cmmserstice oP Featre IFS tein, ‘This is descriptive data that gives the characteristics ofa speci teas ue’? Example: Attbute data ofa road might be iis name, height end ngth‘Large number of data might decrease the processing speed.“images can be scaled without compromising the quay of te imag ‘Eaay(o handle thes afew dala Some shepes Ike curved shepes are ‘not shown properly \When different kind of data are placed on top of one another to produce a map of an ‘Layers of maps that can be identified: Vegetation Drainage Cultivation Reliet Infrastructure (roads, railway lines, etc.) Land-use eee reese Built-up areas ‘HOW IS DATA LAYERING USED? Different sets of data can be compared. Relationships between different sets of data can be established, ‘Analyzing diferent sets of information. ‘Comparisons can assist with future developments. sansIMPORTANCE OF DATA LAYERING: "Different sets of data can be compared, Integrated picture of landscape. | Relationships between diferent sets of data can be established, 1+ Analyze different sets of information, "© Comparisons can assist with future developments © Helps with querying DEEINITION: To mark off the area around an object "= Buffer zone can be created around line, point and polygon features. = A specific distance Is placed around @ feature. "= Bufering can be done on vector and raster data.TTT ABVANTAGES ‘Gan be placed around vector and rasier data, Can be time consuming Can protect the area around the feature, Can limit development inthe area, ‘Alot of information Gan be gathered of the feature inthe area, Buffers must be put on the ight places. ‘othenvise it ean lea fo inaccuracy: HOW CAN BUFFERING ASSIST THE AREA WHERE THERE ARE SCHOOLS AND. ‘RIVERS THAT PASS THROUGH THE SETTLEMENT; Can assist with the admission to schools; Can help to determine the number of learners in the area that must attend schoo! Help with the planning of infrastructure in the area around the sctool e.g. roads and sewage pipes Determine the average distance leamers travel to school, Ecosystems around the river can be protected; Prevent exploitation of resources; Prevent industrial waste to be dumped in the rivers; Prevent pesticides from entering the river system; Decrease the amount of sol erosion inthe area; Protect the settlement from floods in rainy seasons; {twill allow the river to maintain its natural course; Limit the effect onthe natural capacity ofthe river. DATA INTEGRATION: DEFINITION: The integration of data from different maps info one map Which summarises the overlaying process. Data integration makes it easier for a Geographer to analyse the information on amap.“6 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH INTEGRATING MAPS: 4 Maps have different scales; 4 Difficult to get the shapes of feature correct; & Maps have different projections; ‘@ Fleldwork information is sometimes inaccurate and incorrect, DATA MANIPULATION: = DEFINITION: The abity to manipulate data so that the system cen perform a wide variety of functions. 1 IMPORTANCE OF MANIPULATING DATA ON MAPS: To remove unnecessary information from the map; To use the data thats required; Can make features lighter tobe easily identited; ‘Making features smaller so it can be clearer, ‘More descriptive labels can be added, ‘Making images sharper in order to make it clearer. eee eeoe RESOLUTION: DEFINITION: How clear and detailed the location and feature of ashape is. = Tho more colls that cover an area, the better the resolution. "| Apicture that was taken with an 8-megapixol camera has a better resolution than a photo that was taken with a 4-megapixel cameraHOW CAN GIS HELP FARMERS? + Determine sol ype; + Determine soil fer + Determine drainage in the area; + Determine availabilty of underground water + Determine slope of and (gradient Early detection of crop diseasesipests, HOW CAN GIS ASSIST WITH DEVELOPMENT INAN AREA? The person can compare the topography ofthe different areas tofind the {topography that is most suitable; ‘The person can compare the soll feilty of diferent areas: ‘The person will look at the drainage ofthe different areas/Water ‘or expansion; Can determine what impact the development wil have on job opportunities: Can determine the accessibilitytransport network ofthe newly plenned development, ‘The person can compare the existing aesthetic appeal of the areas of possible development, oooo a Determine crime rates; Economic status of inhabitants; Number of customersimarkeUthreshold population; What competition exists in the area; Cost to build shopping contre; ‘Types of products to sel: Zoning/®ylaws of municipality; ‘Availabilty of space for further development ooooooog= DEEINITION: The representation of the spherical surface of the Earth on a flat ‘map. "= When maps are drawn from the spherical earth onto a lat surface the shape, distance, area and direction change and is called distortion. ® Different projections have been developed so that features can be shown accurately. Lines of iattude (parallels) and tines of longitudes (meri base to draw the maps. CYLINDRICAL MAP PROJECTIONS: '= This kind of map projection has straight coordinate lines with horizontal parallels crossing meridians at right angles. s) are used as & '= All meridians are equally spaced and the scale is consistent along each parallel = Oylindrical map projections are rectangles, but are called cylindrical because they can be rolled up and their edges mapped in a tube, or cylinder ‘Cylindrical map projections are severely distorted at the poles. = Areas near the equator are the most likely to be accurate compared to the ‘actual earth. "= Example: Gauss Conform projection, Mercator projection, Universal Mercator projection and Lamberts projection. ‘= The topographical map you are using is a*° CONIC MAP PROJECTIONS: * Conic map projections are best suited for use as regional or hemispheric maps, but rarely fora complete world map, * The distortion in a conic map makes it inappropriate for use as a visual ofthe entre Earth but does make it great for use visualizing temperate regions, ‘weather maps, clmate projections, and more "= Tho only projection where the shortest distance (great ctcle) between any two Points is always represented by a straight line. Its neither conformal nor equal ‘area, and suffers from large scale distortions. Useful for mapping areas that are roughly circular in shape. "= Frequently used for air-route distance maps.