Chapter One

Introduction to Research Methodology

Meaning of Research
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. One can also define research as a
scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is
an art of scientific investigation. Research is defined as human activity based on intellectual
application in the investigation of matter. In other words, research is the systematic process of
collecting and analyzing information to increase our understanding of the phenomenon under
study. It is the function of the researcher to contribute to the understanding of the phenomenon
and to communicate that understanding to others. Research is, thus, an original contribution to
the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the
help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. It may be said that the general aims of
research are to observe and describe, to predict, to determine causes and explain.

Characteristics of Scientific Research

Research has been considered as an impartial, objective, empirical and logical analysis and
recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalizations,
principles or theories, resulting, to some extent, in prediction and control of events that may be
causes or consequences of specific phenomena. We can summarize the main characteristics of
research as follows. Research:
 is directed toward the solution of a problem;
 is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence;
 demands accurate observation and description;
 involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data
for a new purpose;
 is characterized by carefully designed procedures, always applying rigorous analysis.
 requires expertise;
 is characterized by patient and unhurried activity;
 is carefully recorded and reported;
 emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that will be
helpful in predicting future occurrences; and

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  Strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the procedures
employed, the data collected, and the conclusion reached.
Objectives of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think
of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).

Types of Research

Research can be classified in terms of:

 Goal of research,
 Specific objectives of research,
 Approaches of research,
 Designs
 The type of data used in research, and
 Fields of study.

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 Classification of Research based on the Goal of Research
The nature of the problem that the research attempts to solve could be theoretical or practical –
building a theory or solving immediate practical problems. These two types of problems that the
research tries to solve leads to two broad classifications of research:
• Basic research, and
• Applied research.

Basic research (also called fundamental or pure research):- its primary objective is the
advancement of knowledge and the theoretical understanding of the relations among variables. It
is basically concerned with the formulation of a theory or a contribution to the existing body of
knowledge. That is, basic research is designed to add to an organized body of scientific
knowledge and does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value.

Applied research:- is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to
acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to
improve the human condition. It is undertaken to solve immediate practical problem and the
goal of adding to the scientific knowledge is secondary.

Classification of Research based on the Specific Objectives of Research

According to the specific objectives research can be classified as:
 descriptive,
 explanatory, or
 exploratory research
Descriptive research sets out to describe and to interpret what is. It looks at individuals, groups,
institutions, methods and materials in order to describe, compare, contrast, classify, analyze and
interpret the entities and the events that constitute the various fields of inquiry. It aims to
describe the state of affairs as it exists. E.g. If a researcher collects data about women’s
participation in politics and reports their level of participation based on the data collected, then
we can say that females’ participation in politics has been described.

Explanatory research: aims at establishing the cause and effect relationship between variables.
The researcher uses the facts or information already available to analyze and make a critical

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evaluation of the data/information. E.g. Why do females fail to actively participate in politics?
Here the researcher attempts to answer the causes of low level of participation females in
politics. Is there causal link between gender and level of participation in politics?

Exploratory research is less formal, sometimes even unstructured and focuses on gaining
background information and helps to better understand and clarify a problem. It can be used to
develop hypotheses and to develop questions to be answered.

Classification of Research based on Approaches of Research

Research can be classified as qualitative research and quantitative research when the issue at
hand is the approaches to be employed in conducting research. Qualitative research involves
studies that do not attempt to quantify their results through statistical summary or analysis.
Qualitative research seeks to describe various aspects about behavior and other factors studied in
the social sciences and humanities. In qualitative research data are often in the form of
descriptions, not numbers. Quantitative research is the systematic and scientific investigation of
quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. The objective of quantitative
research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and hypotheses pertaining to
natural phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it
provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical
expression of an attribute.

Classification of Research by Type of Data

Depending of the type of data generated and used research can be classified as Primary research
(also called field research) and Secondary research (also known as desk research). Primary
research involves the collection of data that does not already exist whereas secondary research
involves the summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing data rather than generating primary
data, where data are collected from, for example, research subjects or experiments.

Classification of Research based on Designs

Although there are endless ways of classifying research designs, they usually fall into one of
three general categories:
 experimental,

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  quasi-experimental, and
 Non-experimental.

Classification of Research by Fields of Study

Research can also be classified based on fields of study. Therefore, there are:
• Natural science research,
• Social science research,
• Educational research,
• Behavioral science research,
• Health science research, etc.

Motivation of doing Research

What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about
new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like
may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.

Research and Scientific Method

The scientific method is based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;
2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct statements about population objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;

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 6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in
testing the conclusions through replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.
Thus, “the scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated by
the demands of logic and objective procedure.”10 Accordingly, scientific method implies an
objective, logical and systematic method, i.e., a method free from personal bias or prejudice, a
method to ascertain demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable of being verified, a method
wherein the researcher is guided by the rules of logical reasoning, a method wherein the
investigation proceeds in an orderly manner and a method that implies internal consistency.

Research Process

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research
and the desired sequencing of these steps. The chart shown in Figure 1.1 well illustrates a
research process. The chart indicates that the research process consists of a number of closely
related activities, as shown through I to VII. But such activities overlap continuously rather than
following a strictly prescribed sequence. However, the following order concerning various steps
provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the research process: (1) formulating the
research problem; (2) extensive literature survey; (3) developing the hypothesis; (4) preparing
the research design; (5) determining sample design; (6) collecting the data; (7) execution of the
project; (8) analysis of data; (9) hypothesis testing; (10) generalisations and interpretation, and
(11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions
reached.

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 RESEARCH PROCESS

Review
previous Formulate Design Collect data Analyse data Interpret
Define research Hypotheses research (Execution) (Test and report
Research (including hypotheses
finding
sample F if any)
problem design)
Review
concepts
and theories

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 1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems, viz.,
those which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between
variables. At the very outset the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study,
i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would
like to inquire into the statement of the objective is of basic importance because it
determines the data which are to be collected, the characteristics of the data which are
relevant, relations which are to be explored, the choice of techniques to be used in these
explorations and the form of the final report.
.
2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be
written down. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.

3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should

state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative
assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the
manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they provide
the focal point for research. They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the
analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis. In most types
of research, the development of working hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should
be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role
of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on
the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the
problem. It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be
used.

4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut
terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the
conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a
design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other
words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be achieved depends

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mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be. (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, and
(iii) Experimentation.
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves
usually the consideration of the following:
a) the means of obtaining the information;
b) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
c) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be
organized and the reasoning leading to the selection;
d) the time available for research; and
e) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.

5. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample
or what is popularly known as the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite
plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given
population. Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. The sample
design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the nature of the
inquiry and other related factors.

6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand
are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are
several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money
costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher
conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help
of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can
be collected by any one or more of the following ways:
(i) By observation
(ii) Through personal interview
(iii) Through telephone interviews
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires:
(v) Through schedules:

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The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into
consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources,
available time and the desired degree of accuracy.

7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research
process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would
be adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a
systematic manner and in time.

8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analyzing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. Researcher should classify the raw data into
some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through
which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted.
Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is
ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data
are put in the form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great
deal of data, especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save
time but also make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem
simultaneously. Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various
percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae.

9. Hypothesis-testing: After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to
test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they
happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing
hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose.

10. Generalisations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it
may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter
of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations.

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11. Preparation of the report: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been
done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:.

1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements
and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list
of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.
The main text of the report should have the following parts:
a. Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an
explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the
study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
b. Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be
summarised.
c. Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
d. Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography,
i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should
also be given specially in a published research report.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding
vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced
in conducting research operations may as well be stated.

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Criteria of Good Research
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they
all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific
research to satisfy the following criteria:
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what
has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are
as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited
to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to
be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules.
Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it
certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in
carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole
whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which
follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more
meaningful in the context of decision making.

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3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

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