CHAPTER 3

TRANSFORMERS

DR MOHAMMAD SHOAIB SHAHRIAR

1
I NTRODUCTION
• A transformer is a static machine.
• It is a simple device, having two or more electric circuits coupled by
a common magnetic circuit.
• Consists of two or more windings coupled by a mutual magnetic
field.
• Ferromagnetic cores are used to provide tight magnetic coupling
and high flux densities.
• Such transformers are known as iron core transformers.

2
 THE WORKING PRINCIPLE
• Can be described by the Faraday’s first law.
• It states that:
If a flux passes through a turn of a coil of wire, a voltage will be induced in the
turn of wire that is directly proportional to the rate of change in the flux with
respect to time.

𝑒 is the voltage induced in the coil.

N is the number of turns of wire in coil
𝜙 is the flux passing through coil

3
WHY DO WE NEED TRANSFORMERS?

• Increase voltage of generator’s output

– Transmit high power at low current
– Reduce cost of transmission system
• Adjust voltage to a usable level (in distribution side)
• Create electrical isolation (in low-power electronic or control
circuits to isolate one circuit from another)
• Match load impedance

4
 220kV-750kV

Distribution
Transformer

15 kV- 25kV Transmission

Transformer

Service 208V- 416V

Transformer

El-Sharkawi@University of Washington 5
I NTRODUCTION
• Electrical power is generated in a power plant at about 30,000 volts.
• However, in domestic houses, electric power is used at 110 or 220 volts.
• Electric power is transmitted from a power plant to a load centre at 200,000 to
500,000 volts.
• Transformers are used to step up and step down voltage at various stages of
power transmission.

6
TRANSMISSION TRANSFORMER

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Distribution Transformer

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SERVICE TRANSFORMER

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SERVICE TRANSFORMER BANK

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SERVICE TRANSFORMER BANK

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Service Transformer

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BASIC COMPONENTS

Iron Core Insulated Copper Wire

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BASIC COMPONENTS
Laminated
iron core

Insulated
copper wire

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I NTRODUCTION
• Two types of core constructions
are normally used
• In the core type (Fig.1a), the
windings are wound around two
legs of a magnetic core of
rectangular shape.
• In the shell type (Fig.1b), the
windings are wound around the
centre leg of a three-legged
magnetic core.
FIGURE1. Transformer core construction. (a) Core-type,
(b) Shell-type, (c) L-shaped lamination, (d) E-shaped
lamination.

15
 I NTRODUCTION
• A schematic representation of a two-winding transformer
is shown in Fig. 2.
• One winding is connected to an ac supply and is referred
to as the primary winding.
• The other winding is connected to an electrical load and is
referred to as the secondary winding.
FIGURE 2. Schematic
• The winding with the higher number of turns will have a representation of a
two-winding
high voltage and is called the high-voltage (HV) or high- transformer.
tension (HT) winding.
• The winding with the lower number of turns is called the
low-voltage (LV) or low-tension (LT) winding.

16
 IDEAL
TRANSFORMER

17
I DEAL T RANSFORMER
• Consider a transformer with two
windings, a primary winding of N1
turns and a secondary winding of N2
turns
• In a schematic diagram it is a
common practice to show the two FIGURE 6. Ideal transformer.

windings in the two legs of the core,

although in an actual transformer the
windings are interleaved.

18
I DEAL T RANSFORMER ASSUMPTIONS:

1. The winding resistances are negligible.

2. All fluxes are confined to the core and link both windings; that is,
no leakage fluxes are present. Core losses are assumed to be
negligible.
3. Permeability of the core is infinite (i.e., ). Therefore, the
exciting current required to establish flux in the core is negligible;
that is, the net mmf required to establish a flux in the core is zero.

19
I DEAL T RANSFORMER
• When the primary winding is connected to a time-varying voltage
v1, a time-varying flux is established in the core. A voltage e1
will be induced in the winding and will equal the applied voltage if
resistance of the winding is neglected:

• The core flux also links the secondary winding and induces a
voltage e2, which is the same as the terminal voltage v2:

20
 d d
eP  N P
dt eS  N S
1
dt

NP  eP dt
iP iS

eP NP NS eS

Primary Secondary

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 BASIC ANALYSIS:VOLTAGE
d iP iS
eP  t  N
dt  N P
P
+ + eS
 eP NP NS
eS  t  N d N S _ _
S
dt
  
EP N P E P ES
   a (turn ratio) 
ES N S NP NS
• Volts/turn is constant
• Voltages are in phase (no phase shift)
• Voltage magnitudes vary with turns ratio.
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 Basic Analysis: Power and current

iP iS
SP  SS
+ + eS
eP _
NP NS
_
EP I P*  ES I S*

I P* ES N S IP NS
*
   NP I P  NS IS
I S EP N P IS NP This makes sense:
primary mmf =
• Currents are in phase.
secondary mmf
• Current ratio is opposite to the voltage ratio

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I DEAL T RANSFORMER

• If the supply voltage Vp is sinusoidal, then we can write in terms of

rms values:

24
E XERCISE 01

A 200 kVA, 6600 V/400 V, 50 Hz single-phase transformer has 80

turns on the secondary.
Calculate
• The appropriate values of the primary and secondary currents
• The approximate number of primary turns

25
S OLUTION

26
I MPEDANCE T RANSFER
• Consider the case of a sinusoidal applied
voltage and a secondary impedance Z2

• The input impedance is

• So
FIGURE 7. Impedance transfer across
an ideal transformer.

27
I MPEDANCE T RANSFER

• An impedance Z2 connected in the secondary will appear as an impedance Z2’

looking from the primary. The circuit in Fig. 7a is therefore equivalent to the
circuit in Fig. 7b.
• Impedance can be transferred from secondary to primary if its value is
multiplied by the square of the turns ratio.
• An impedance from the primary side can also be transferred to the secondary
side, and in that case its value has to be divided by the square of the turns ratio:

• This impedance transfer is very useful because it eliminates a coupled circuit in28
an electrical circuit and thereby simplifies the circuit.
 E XERCISE 02
• A speaker of 9 Ω, resistive impedance is
connected to a supply of 10 V with internal
resistive impedance of 1 Ω, as shown in Fig. a.
a) Determine the power absorbed by the speaker.
b) To maximize the power transfer to the speaker,
a transformer of 1 : 3 turns ratio is used
between source and speaker as shown in Fig. b.
Determine the power taken by the speaker.

FIGURE.
29
S OLUTION

30
E XERCISE 03
• A single-phase power system consists of a 480-V 60-Hz generator supplying
a load through a transmission line of impedance
. Answer the following questions about this system.
a) If the power system is exactly as described above (and shown in Figure a),
what will the voltage at the load be? What will the transmission line losses
be?
b) Suppose a 1: 10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end of the
transmission line and a 10:1 step-down transformer is placed at the load end
of the line (as shown in Figure b). What will the load voltage be now? What
will the transmission line losses be now?

31
E XERCISE

32
S OLUTION

33
S OLUTION

34
S OLUTION

35
S OLUTION

36
 S OLUTION

• Notice that raising the transmission voltage of the power system reduced
transmission losses by a factor of nearly 90 (1484 watt to 16.7 watt!)
• This simple example dramatically illustrates the advantages of using higher-
voltage transmission lines as well as the extreme importance of transformers in
modern power systems.
37
 PRACTICAL
TRANSFORMER

38
P RACTICAL T RANSFORMER
• In the previous section, the properties of an ideal transformer were discussed.
• Certain assumptions were made that are not valid in a practical transformer.
• For example,
1. in a practical transformer the windings have resistances,
2. not all windings link the same flux,
3. permeability of the core material is not infinite,
4. and core losses occur when the core material is subjected to time-varying flux.
• In the analysis of a practical transformer, all these imperfections must be
considered.

39
P RACTICAL T RANSFORMER
Two methods of analysis can be used to account for the departures
from the ideal transformer:
1. An equivalent circuit model based on physical reasoning.
2. A mathematical model based on the classical theory of
magnetically coupled circuits.
• Both methods will provide the same performance characteristics for
the practical transformer.
• However, the equivalent circuit approach provides a better
appreciation and understanding of the physical phenomena
involved, and this technique will be presented here.
40
Major items to be considered to accurately
model a real transformer:

1. Copper Losses in the primary and secondary windings.

• Proportional to the square of the current in the windings
2. Eddy current losses.
• Proportional to square of the voltage applied to the XFMR.
3. Hysteresis losses.
• Nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the XFMR.
4. Magnetization losses.
• Can be represented by a current that is 90 degrees out of
phase with the voltage applied to the XFRM.
5. Leakage losses.
• Due to leakage fluxes, can be represented by inductances.
 Copper Losses
• These are I2R losses, i.e. resistive losses, in the
primary and secondary windings.

• Will be modeled by a resistor RP in the circuit and

a resistor RS in the secondary circuit.
 Leakage Losses
• Leakage flux in the primary windings produces a voltage
given by:
d LP
eLP  N P
dt
• Leakage flux in the secondary windings produces a voltage
given by:
d LS
eLS  N S
dt
• Leakage flux path is through air, whose permeability is linear.
Hence,
NP d NP N P2 diP di
 LP  iP eLP  N P [ iP ]   LP P
 dt   dt dt
NS d NS N S2 diS diS
 LS  iS eLS  N S [ iS ]   LS
 dt   dt dt
Leakage Losses Leakage
inductance of the
primary coil
Leakage
diP inductance of the
eLP  LP secondary coil
dt
di
eLS  LS S
dt

• Therefore, the leakage flux will be modeled by

primary and secondary inductors.
 Magnetization Losses
• We showed that magnetization current is:
• Proportional to the voltage applied to the core
• Lagging that voltage by 90 degrees.

• It will be modeled by a reactance XM connected

across/parallel to the voltage source at the
primary winding.

• Note: we saw that magnetization current is not a perfect sinusoid. So, this model is
just an approximation!
 Core Losses – Eddy Current and Hysteresis
• We showed that core-loss current is:
• Proportional to the voltage applied to the core
• In phase with that voltage.

• It will be modeled by a resistance RC connected

across the voltage source at the primary winding.

• Note: we saw that core losses are nonlinear. So, this model is just an approximation!
 3

FIGURE 10. Development of the

47
transformer equivalent circuits.
 S TEP 01
• A practical winding has a resistance, and this
resistance can be shown as a lumped quantity in
series with the winding (Fig. 10a).
• When currents flow through windings in the
transformer, they establish a resultant mutual (or
common) flux that is confined essentially to the
magnetic core.
• However, a small amount of flux known as leakage
flux, (shown in Fig. 10a), links only one winding FIGURE 10. Development of the
and does not link the other winding. transformer equivalent circuits.

• The leakage path is primarily in air, and therefore the

leakage flux varies linearly with current.
48
 S TEP 02
• The effects of leakage flux can be accounted for by
an inductance, called leakage inductance:

leakage inductance of winding 1

leakage inductance of winding 2

• If the effects of winding resistance and leakage flux

are respectively accounted for by resistance R and
leakage reactance , as shown in Fig.
FIGURE 10. Development of the
10b, the transformer windings are tightly coupled by transformer equivalent circuits.
a mutual flux.

49
 S TEP 03
• In a practical magnetic core having finite
permeability, a magnetizing current is
required to establish a flux in the core.
• This effect can be represented by a
magnetizing inductance .
• Also, the core loss in the magnetic
material can be represented by a
resistance .
• If these imperfections are also accounted FIGURE 10. Development of the
for, then what we are left with is an ideal transformer equivalent circuits.
transformer, as shown in Fig. 10c.

50
S TEP 04
• The ideal transformer in Fig.10c can be moved to the right or left by referring all quantities
to the primary or secondary side, respectively.
• This is almost invariably done.
• The equivalent circuit with the ideal transformer moved to the right is shown in Fig. 10d.

FIGURE 10. Development of the transformer equivalent

circuits.
51
 S TEP 05
• For convenience, the ideal transformer is usually not shown and the equivalent circuit is
drawn, as shown in Fig. 10e, with all quantities (voltages, currents, and impedances)
referred to one side.
• The referred quantities are indicated with primes.
• By analysing this equivalent circuit the referred quantities can be evaluated, and the
actual quantities can be determined from them if the turns ratio is known.

A practical transformer is
therefore equivalent to an ideal
transformer plus external
impedances that represent
imperfections of an actual
transformer.

FIGURE 10. Development of the transformer

equivalent circuits. 52
SIMPLIFICATION:

53
R EFERRED E QUIVALENT C IRCUITS
• Approximate Equivalent Circuits
• The shunt branch (composed of and ) can be moved to the supply terminal
• A further approximation of the equivalent circuit can be made by removing the
excitation branch

54
D ETERMINATION O F E QUIVALENT C IRCUIT
PARAMETERS
• The equivalent circuit model can be used to predict the behaviour of the transformer.
• The parameters R1, Xl1, Rcl, Xm1, R2, Xl2, and must be known so that the
equivalent circuit model can be used.
• If the complete design data of a transformer are available, these parameters can be
calculated from the dimensions and properties of the materials used.
• For example, the winding resistances (R1, R2) can be calculated from the resistivity of
copper wires, the total length, and the cross-sectional area of the winding.
• The magnetizing inductances can be calculated from the number of turns of the
winding and the reluctance of the magnetic path.

55
D ETERMINATION O F E QUIVALENT C IRCUIT
PARAMETERS
• The calculation of the leakage inductance (Ll) will involve accounting for partial flux
linkages and is therefore complicated.
• However, formulas are available from which a reliable determination of these
quantities can be made.
• These parameters can be directly and more easily determined by performing tests that
involve little power consumption.
• Two tests, a no-load test (or open-circuit test) and a short-circuit test, will provide
information for determining the parameters of the equivalent circuit of a transformer,
as will be illustrated by an example.

56
D ETERMINATION O F E QUIVALENT C IRCUIT
PARAMETERS
• Transformer Rating
• The kilovolt–ampere (kVA) rating and voltage ratings of a transformer are marked on
its nameplate. For example, a typical transformer may carry the following information
on the nameplate: 10 kVA, 1100/110 volts.
• What are the meanings of these ratings? The voltage ratings indicate that the
transformer has two windings, one rated for 1100 volts and the other for 110 volts.
• These voltages are proportional to their respective numbers of turns, and therefore the
voltage ratio also represents the turns ratio .
• The 10 kVA rating means that each winding is designed for 10 kVA.

57
D ETERMINATION O F E QUIVALENT C IRCUIT
PARAMETERS
• Transformer Rating
• Therefore, the current rating for the high-voltage winding is A
and for the lower-voltage winding is A.
• It may be noted that when the rated current of 90.9 A flows through the low-voltage
winding, the rated current of 9.09 A will flow through the high-voltage winding.
• In an actual case, however, the winding that is connected to the supply (called the
primary winding) will carry an additional component of current (excitation current),
which is very small compared to the rated current of the winding.

58
D ETERMINATION O F E QUIVALENT C IRCUIT
PARAMETERS
• No-Load Test (or Open-Circuit Test)
• In the No-load or open circuit test, one transformer side is open and the other winding is
connected to full rated line voltage.

• This test is performed by applying a voltage to either

the high-voltage side or low-voltage side, whichever
is convenient.
• Thus, if a 1100/110 volts transformer were to be tested, the voltage would be applied to the
low-voltage winding, because a power supply of 110 volts is more readily available than a
supply of 1100 volts.
59
 D ETERMINATION O F E QUIVALENT C IRCUIT
PARAMETERS
• No-Load Test (or Open-Circuit Test)
• A wiring diagram for open-circuit test of a transformer is
shown in Fig.12a.
• Note that the secondary winding is kept open.
• Therefore, from the transformer equivalent circuit of Fig. 11a
the equivalent circuit under open-circuit conditions is as
shown in Fig. 12b.
• The primary current is the exciting current and the losses
measured by the wattmeter are essentially the core losses.
• The equivalent circuit of Fig. 12b shows that the parameters FIGURE 12. No-load (or open-
circuit) test. (a) Wiring diagram for
Rc and Xm can be determined from the voltmeter, ammeter, open-circuit test. (b) Equivalent
and wattmeter readings. circuit under open circuit.
60
D ETERMINATION O F E QUIVALENT C IRCUIT
PARAMETERS
• No-Load Test (or Open-Circuit Test)
• Note that the core losses will be the same whether 110 volts are applied to the low-
voltage winding having the smaller number of turns or 1100 volts are applied to the
high-voltage winding having the larger number of turns.
• The core loss depends on the maximum value of flux in the core, which is the same in
either case, as indicated by the following equation:

61
D ETERMINATION O F E QUIVALENT C IRCUIT
PARAMETERS
Rc and Xm of the
equivalent circuit can be
found from the open
circuit test

62
D ETERMINATION O F E QUIVALENT C IRCUIT
PARAMETERS
• Short-Circuit Test
• This test is performed by short-circuiting one
winding and applying rated current to the other
winding, as shown in Fig. 13a.
• In the equivalent circuit of Fig. 11a for the
transformer, the impedance of the excitation
branch (shunt branch composed of Rc and Xm) is
much larger than that of the series branch
(composed of Req and Xeq).
FIGURE 13. Short-circuit test. (a)
Wiring diagram for short-circuit test.
(b) Equivalent circuit at short-circuit
condition.
63
D ETERMINATION O F E QUIVALENT C IRCUIT
PARAMETERS
• Short-Circuit Test
• If the secondary terminals are shorted, the high impedance of the shunt branch can be
neglected.
• The equivalent circuit with the secondary short-circuited can thus be represented by
the circuit shown in Fig. 13b.
• Note that since is small, only a small supply voltage is required to
pass rated current through the windings.
• It is convenient to perform this test by applying a voltage to the high voltage winding.

64
D ETERMINATION O F E QUIVALENT C IRCUIT
PARAMETERS
• Short-Circuit Test
• As can be seen from Fig. 2.13b, the parameters Req and Xeq can be determined from
the readings of voltmeter, ammeter, and wattmeter.
• In a well-designed transformer, and .
• Note that because the voltage applied under the short-circuit condition is small, the
core losses are neglected, and the wattmeter reading can be taken entirely to represent
the copper losses in the windings, represented by .

65
D ETERMINATION O F E QUIVALENT C IRCUIT
PARAMETERS
The equivalent resistances
and reactances (Req, Xeq)
are obtained from the
current, voltage and power
measurements in the
primary winding when the
secondary is shorted

66
E XERCISE 04
• Tests are performed on a 1φ, 10 kVA, 2200/220 V, 60 Hz transformer and the
following results are obtained.
Short-Circuit Test
Open-Circuit Test
(low-voltage side
(high-voltage side open)
shorted)
Voltmeter 220 V 150 V
Ammeter 2.5 A 4.55 A
Wattmeter 100 W 215 W
• (a) Derive the parameters for the approximate equivalent circuits referred to the low-
voltage side and the high-voltage side.
• (b) Express the excitation current as a percentage of the rated current.
• (c) Determine the power factor for the no-load and short-circuit tests.
67
S OLUTION

68
S OLUTION

69
S OLUTION

70
S OLUTION

71
S OLUTION

72
EXERCISE 05

73
SOLUTION

74
 VOLTAGE
REGULATION

75
 V OLTAGE R EGULATION
• Loads are connected to the secondary of the
transformer
• Designed to operate at essentially constant
voltage.
• However, as the current is drawn through the
transformer, the load terminal voltage
changes because of voltage drop in the
internal impedance of the transformer.
• In figure, the transformer is represented by a
series impedance .

76
V OLTAGE R EGULATION
• If load is not applied to the transformer (i.e., open-circuit or no-load
condition), the load terminal voltage is

• If the load switch is now closed and the load is connected to the
transformer secondary, the load terminal voltage is

The load terminal voltage ( ) may go up or down depending upon

the nature of the load. 77
V OLTAGE R EGULATION
• This undesired voltage change is due to the voltage drop in the
internal impedance of the transformer.
• For example, as more and more light bulbs are connected to the
transformer secondary and the voltage decreases appreciably, the
bulbs will glow with diminished illumination.
• To reduce the magnitude of the voltage change, the transformer
should be designed for a low value of the internal impedance Zeq.
• Voltage regulation is used to identify this characteristic of voltage
change in a transformer with loading.

78
V OLTAGE R EGULATION
• The voltage regulation is defined as the change in magnitude of the secondary
voltage as the load current changes from the no-load to the loaded condition.
• This is expressed as follows:

Voltage regulation

Vno load  V full load

VR 
V full load
• The absolute signs are used to indicate that it is the change in magnitudes that is
important for the performance of the load.

79
 V OLTAGE R EGULATION
• The voltages in the previous equation can be calculated by using equivalent circuits
referred to either primary or secondary.
• Let us consider the equivalent circuit referred to the primary, shown in Fig. 11b.
• The previous equation can also be written as

Voltage regulation

80
V OLTAGE R EGULATION
• The load voltage is normally taken as the rated voltage.

• From figure,

• If the load is thrown off . will appear as . Hence,

• Therefore:

Voltage regulation

81
E XERCISE 06

• Consider the transformer in the previous Exercise (1φ, 10 kVA,

2200/220 V, 60 Hz transformer). Determine the voltage regulation
in percent for the following load conditions.
• (a) 75% full load, 0.6 power factor lagging.
• (b) 75% full load, 0.6 power factor leading.
• (c) Draw the phasor diagram for conditions (a) and (b).

82
S OLUTION

83
84
85
 ReqP X eqP
How the phasor
diagram is drawn…
I P  I S'
VP VS' Z

VP  VS'  I S' ReqP  j I S' X eqP VP

I S' Z eqP
 I S' jX eqP
 V S' I S' R eqP

I S'
86
c) The phasor diagram for both leading and lagging power factors are presented below:

87
T RANSFORMER TAPS A ND V OLTAGE
R EGULATION
• In previous sections of this chapter, transformers were described by their turns ratios
or by their primary-to-secondary-voltage ratios.
• Throughout those sections, the turns ratio of a given transformer was treated as
though it were completely fixed.
• In almost all real distribution transformers, this is not quite true.
• Distribution transformers have a series of taps in the windings to permit small
changes in the turns ratio of the transformer after it has left the factory.
• A typical installation might have four taps in addition to the nominal setting with
spacings of 2.5 percent of full-load voltage between them.
• Such an arrangement provides for adjustments up to 5 percent above or below the
88
nominal voltage rating of the transformer.
E XERCISE

• A 500-kVA, 13,200/480-V distribution transformer has four 2.5 percent taps on its
primary winding. What are the voltage ratios of this transformer at each tap setting?

89
S OLUTION

• The five possible voltage ratings of this transformer are

• +5.0% tap 13,860/480 V
• +2.5% tap 13,530/480 V
• Nominal rating 13,200/480 V
• - 2.5% tap 12,870/480 V
• -5.0% tap 12,540/480 V

90
T RANSFORMER TAPS A ND V OLTAGE
R EGULATION
• The taps on a transformer permit the transformer to be adjusted in the field to
accommodate variations in local voltages .
• However, these taps normally cannot be changed while power is being applied to the
transformer.
• They must be set once and left alone.
• Sometimes a transformer is used on a power line whose voltage varies widely with
the load.
• Such voltage variations might be due to a high line impedance between the generators
on the power system and that particular load (perhaps it is located far out in the
country).
91
• Normal loads need to be supplied an essentially constant voltage.
T RANSFORMER TAPS A ND V OLTAGE
R EGULATION
• How can a power company supply a controlled voltage through high-impedance lines
to loads which are constantly changing?
• One solution to this problem is to use a special transformer called a tap changing
under load (TCUL) transformer or voltage regulator:
• Basically, a TCUL transformer is a transformer with the ability to change taps while
power is connected to it.
• A voltage regulator is a TCUL transformer with built-in voltage sensing circuitry that
automatically changes taps to keep the system voltage constant.
• Such special transformers are very common in modern power systems.

92
EFFICIENCY

93
E FFICIENCY
• The transformer is a static device. There are no rotational losses such as
windage and friction losses in a rotating machine. In a well-designed
transformer the efficiency can be as high as 99%.
• The efficiency is defined as follows:
output power (
input power(

• The losses in the transformer are: core loss ( ) and copper loss ( ).
• Therefore,

94
E FFICIENCY
• The copper loss can be determined if the winding currents and their
resistances are known:

It is a function of the load current.

• The core loss depends on the peak flux density in the core, which in
turn depends on the voltage applied to the transformer.
• Since a transformer remains connected to an essentially constant
voltage, the core loss is almost constant and can be obtained from
the no-load test of a transformer.
95
E FFICIENCY
• If the parameters of the equivalent circuit of a transformer are known, the
efficiency of the transformer under any operating condition may be determined.

• Now, output power,

• Therefore,

• Normally, load voltage remains fixed.

• Therefore, efficiency depends on load current 𝟐) and load power factor
( 𝟐 ).

96
MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY
ReqP XeqP
Pout IE
 IP
Pin I S'
VP VS'
V S' I S' cos  RC XM

V S' I S' cos   Pcore   I S' 
2
R eqP

d
Pcore  Pcu   I 
2
'
0 '
R eqP
dI S S

97
 Maximum Efficiency ReqP XeqP
Pout
 IE
Pin IP I S'
VP VS'
V '
I cos 
'
RC XM
 S S

I cos   Pcore   I 
' ' ' 2
V S S S R eqP

d
0
d
Pcore Pcu
And, Pcore  Pcu   I S 
2
'
R eqP I S'  
R eqP R eqP

98
Therefore, maximum efficiency in a transformer
occurs
-when the load power factor is unity (i.e.,
resistive load) and
-load current is such that copper loss equals
core loss.

99
E XERCISE 07

For the transformer in previous exercises (1φ, 10 kVA, 2200/220 V, 60 Hz transformer),

determine
(a) Efficiency at 75% rated output and 0.6 PF.
(b) Power output at maximum efficiency and the value of maximum efficiency. At what
percent of full load does this maximum efficiency occur?

100
S OLUTION

101
102
Example 08
A 10 kVA, 2300/230 V, single phase distribution transformer
has the following parameters:
RP  5.8 ; X P  X S'  12 ; RS'  6.05 
RC  75.6 k ; X M  69.4 k 
At full load and 0.8 power factor lagging, compute the efficiency
of the transformer.

103
SOLUTION
Pout  VS' I S' cos   S cos   10  0.8  8 kW

S 10, 000
I  ' 
'
S  4.35 A
VS 2300

Pcu   I  ReqP  (4.35) 2   5.8  6.05   224.23 W

' 2
S

Piron 
V S
2

V 
S
' 2


 2300 
2

 70 W
RC RC 75, 600
Pout 8000
    100  96.45 %
Pin 8000  224.23  70
104
EXAMPLE 09

105
SOLUTION

106
107
 A LL - DAY (O R E NERGY ) E FFICIENCY
• The transformer in a power plant usually operates near its full capacity and is taken out
of circuit when it is not required. Such transformers are called power transformers, and
they are usually designed for maximum efficiency occurring near the rated output.
• A transformer connected to the utility that supplies power to your house and the locality
is called a distribution transformer.
• Such transformers are connected to the power system 24 hours a day and operate well
below the rated power output for most of the time.
• It is therefore desirable to design a distribution transformer for maximum efficiency
occurring at the average output power.

108
A LL - DAY (O R E NERGY ) E FFICIENCY

• A figure of merit that will be more appropriate to represent the efficiency performance
of a distribution transformer is the “all-day” or “energy” efficiency of the transformer.
This is defined as follows:

• If the load cycle of the transformer is known, the all-day efficiency can be determined.

109
E XAMPLE 10

110
S OLUTION

111
AUTOTRANSFORMER

112
 A UTOTRANSFORMER
• This is a special connection of the transformer from
which a variable ac voltage can be obtained at the
secondary.
• A common winding as shown in Fig. 16 is mounted on a
core and the secondary is taken from a tap on the
winding. In contrast to the two-winding transformer
discussed earlier, the primary and secondary of an
autotransformer are physically connected.
FIGURE 16. Autotransformer.
• However, the basic principle of operation is the same as
that of the two-winding transformer.

113
114
115
A UTOTRANSFORMER
• Since all the turns link the same flux in the transformer core,
• If the secondary tapping is replaced by a slider, the output voltage can be varied
over the range 0 < V2 < V1.
• The ampere-turns provided by the upper half (i.e., by turns between points a
and b) are

• The ampere-turns provided by the lower half (i.e., by turns between points b
and c) are

116
A UTOTRANSFORMER

• For ampere-turn balance, we can write

• This indicate that, viewed from the terminals of the autotransformer, the voltages and
currents are related by the same turns ratio as in a two-winding transformer.
• The advantages of an autotransformer connection are lower leakage reactances, lower
losses, lower exciting current, increased kVA rating, and variable output voltage when
a sliding contact is used for the secondary.
• The disadvantage is the direct connection between the primary and secondary sides.

117
E XERCISE 11
• A 1φ, 100 kVA, 2000/200 V two-winding transformer is
connected as an autotransformer as shown in Fig. E2.6
such that more than 2000 V is obtained at the
secondary. The portion ab is the 200 V winding, and the
portion bc is the 2000 V winding.
• Compute the kVA rating as an autotransformer.

118
S OLUTION

119
 THREE-PHASE
TRANSFORMERS

120
T HREE- PHASE T RANSFORMERS
• A three-phase system is used to generate and transmit bulk electrical
energy. Three-phase transformers are required to step up or step down
voltages in the various stages of power transmission.
• A three-phase transformer can be built in one of two ways:
1. By suitably connecting a bank of three single-phase transformers
2. By constructing a three-phase transformer on a common magnetic
structure.

121
 Three-Phase Transformer – Single Core

• Cheaper
• Lighter
• Smaller
• A bit more efficient

FIGURE 2-36

A THREE-PHASE
TRANSFORMER W OUND ON A
SINGLE THREE-LEGGED
CORE. 122
 Three-Phase Transformer – Three Cores

• More reliable.
• Easier to
transport
• Spare phase!

Figure 2-35

A three-phase transformer bank composed

of independent transformers

123
3-PHASE TRANSFORMER BANK (Y-)
a A
Vab Van N1 N2 VAB

b B

N1 N2

C
c
N1 N2

124
B ANK O F T HREE S INGLE - PHASE T RANSFORMERS
(T HREE - PHASE T RANSFORMER B ANK )
• A set of three similar single-phase transformers may be connected to form a
three-phase transformer. The primary and secondary windings may be connected
in either wye (Y) or delta (Δ) configurations.
• There are therefore four possible connections for a three-phase transformer:
1. Y-Δ,
2. Δ-Y,
3. Δ-Δ,
4. and Y-Y.

125
B ANK O F T HREE S INGLE - PHASE T RANSFORMERS
(T HREE - PHASE T RANSFORMER B ANK )
1. Y-Δ: This connection is commonly used to step down a high voltage to a
lower voltage. The neutral point on the high-voltage side can be grounded,
which is desirable in most cases.

126
B ANK O F T HREE S INGLE - PHASE T RANSFORMERS
(T HREE - PHASE T RANSFORMER B ANK )
2. Δ-Y: This connection is commonly used
to step up voltage.

127
B ANK O F T HREE S INGLE - PHASE T RANSFORMERS
(T HREE - PHASE T RANSFORMER B ANK )
3. Δ-Δ: This connection has the advantage that
one transformer can be removed for repair and
the remaining two can continue to deliver
three-phase power at a reduced rating of 58%
of that of the original bank. This is known as
the open-delta or V connection.

128
B ANK O F T HREE S INGLE - PHASE T RANSFORMERS
(T HREE - PHASE T RANSFORMER B ANK )
4. Y-Y: This connection is rarely used
because of problems with the exciting current
and induced voltages.

FIGURE 2.17 Three-phase transformer connections.

129
T HREE - PHASE T RANSFORMER B ANK
PHASE SHIFT
• Some of the three-phase transformer
connections will result in a phase shift
between the primary and secondary line-
to-line voltages.
• Consider the phasor voltages, shown in
Fig. 18, for the Y-Δ connections. The
phasors VAN and Va are aligned, but the
line voltage VAB of the primary leads the
line voltage Vab of the secondary by 30°. FIGURE 18 Phase shift in line-to line voltages
in a three-phase transformer.

130
T HREE - PHASE T RANSFORMER B ANK
PHASE SHIFT
• It can be shown that Δ-Y connection also provides a 30 phase shift
between line-to-line voltages. The other connections don’t have this
phenomenon.
• In summary: we have phase shift in Δ-Y connection and Y-Δ
connection
& do not have in Δ-Δ and Y-Y connections.
• This property of phase shift in Y-Δ or Δ-Y connections can be used
advantageously in some applications.
131
B ANK O F T HREE S INGLE - PHASE T RANSFORMERS
(T HREE - PHASE T RANSFORMER B ANK )
• Single-Phase Equivalent Circuit
• If the three transformers are practically identical and the source and load are
balanced, then the voltages and currents on both primary and secondary sides
are balanced. The voltages and currents in one phase are the same as those in
other phases, except that there is a phase displacement of 120 .
• Therefore, analysis of one phase is sufficient to determine the variables on the
two sides of the transformer.
• A single-phase equivalent circuit can be conveniently obtained if all sources,
transformer windings, and load impedances are considered to be Y-connected.
132
B ANK O F T HREE S INGLE - PHASE T RANSFORMERS
(T HREE - PHASE T RANSFORMER B ANK )
• Single-Phase Equivalent Circuit
• An Y- Δ connection pattern is
shown in Part-a

• The Y load can be obtained

from the Δ load by the well-
known Y-Δ transformation, as
shown in Part-b.

133
B ANK O F T HREE S INGLE - PHASE T RANSFORMERS
(T HREE - PHASE T RANSFORMER B ANK )
• Single-Phase Equivalent Circuit
• The equivalent Y representation of the
actual circuit (Fig. 19a) is shown in
Part-c, in which the primary and
secondary line currents and line to-
line voltages are identical to those of
the actual circuit of Part-a.
• The single-phase equivalent circuit is
shown in Part-d.

134
• The turns ratio of this equivalent Y-Y transformer is

• Also, for the actual transformer bank

• Therefore, the turns ratio for the equivalent single-phase transformer is the ratio
of the line to-line voltages on the primary and secondary sides of the actual
transformer bank.
135
Ratings of Ideal 3-phase
Transformer
Apparent Power (3-phase)

100 MVA, 13.8/138 KV

Primary Voltage Secondary Voltage

line-to-line line-to-line
136
3-PHASE 120/208 V
SECONDARY:
3-PHASE 120/208V TRANSFORMER
FED FROM UNDERGROUND CABLES
MULTI-SECONDARY WINDINGS

Center-tapped
transformer

El-Sharkawi@University of Washington 139

 E XERCISE 12

• Three 1φ, 50 kVA, 2300/230 V, 60 Hz transformers are connected to form a 3φ,

4000/230 V transformer bank. The equivalent impedance of each transformer
referred to low voltage is 0.012+ j0.016 Ω. The 3φ transformer supplies a 3φ, 120
kVA, 230 V, 0.85 PF (lag) load.
• (a) Draw a schematic diagram showing the transformer connection.
• (b) Determine the transformer winding currents.
• (c) Determine the primary voltage (line-to-line) required.
• (d) Determine the voltage regulation.

140
S OLUTION

141
S OLUTION

142
E XERCISE 13

• A3φ, 230 V, 27 kVA, 0.9 PF (lag) load is supplied by three 10 kVA, 1330/230
V, 60 Hz transformers connected in Y-Δ by means of a common 3φ feeder
whose impedance is 0.003+ j0.015 Ω per phase. The transformers are supplied
from a 3φ source through a 3φ feeder whose impedance is 0.8+ j5.0 Ω per
phase. The equivalent impedance of one transformer referred to the low-voltage
side is 0.12+ j0.25 Ω. Determine the required supply voltage if the load voltage
is 230 V.

143
S OLUTION

144
S OLUTION

145
S OLUTION

146