B2.1.

15*
Sodium–potassium pumps as an
example of exchange
transporters

*HL only
Neurons are cells that send and
receive signals within the nervous
system (C2.2.1).
Sodium-Potassium Pump
For a neuron to send an impulse, there
must be concentration gradients of
sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) across
the membrane. These are generated by
active transport, using the
sodium-potassium pump protein
(B2.1.7).
The pump is an exchange transporter
because it transports different ions in
opposite directions across the
membrane. The resulting imbalance in
charge between the inside and outside of
the membrane is called the resting
membrane potential (C2.2.2).
Sodium-Potassium Pump
Neurons use sodium-potassium
pumps embedded in the cell
membrane to maintain the resting
potential.
Pumps are integral membrane
proteins (B2.1.4) that use ATP to
actively transport (B2.1.7) ions
against the concentration gradient
(from low to high).
Na+-K+ Pump
The sodium-potassium pump is
found in many cell membranes.
Powered by ATP (C1.2.1), the pump
moves sodium and potassium ions in
opposite directions, each against its
concentration gradient.
The sodium-potassium pump has
binding sites for three sodium ions,
two potassium ions and an inorganic
phosphate group.
Na+-K+ Pump
A. Three sodium ions bind with the protein pump
inside the cell.
B. The pump protein is phosphorylated by ATP
and changes shape.
C. By changing shape, the three sodium ions are
released out of the cell.
D. At that point, two potassium ions from outside
the cell bind to the protein pump.
E. The inorganic phosphate (which came from
the ATP) is released from the pump, restoring
the original shape of the protein.
F. The potassium ions are then released into the
cell, and the process repeats.
C2.2.2
Generation of the resting
potential by pumping to
establish and maintain
concentration gradients of
sodium and potassium ions
Neurons are cells that send and
receive signals within the nervous
system (C2.2.1).
Polarized Membrane
For a neuron to send an impulse,
the neuron membrane must be
“polarized.”
A polarized membrane is a
membrane that has a positive
electrical charge on one side and
a negative charge on the other
side. Almost all cells exhibit some
degree of polarity.
Membrane Potential
If microelectrodes are placed inside and
outside the cell, the amount of
polarization can be measured as the
voltage difference between the inside and
outside of the cell membrane. The
difference in charge between the inside
and outside of the cell membrane is
called the "membrane potential."

The inside of cells is generally negatively

charged, so the membrane potential is
expressed as a negative value.
Resting Potential
When not sending an
impulse the neuron is said
to be “at rest.” The resting
membrane potential of a
neuron is about -70mV.

A motor neuron (C3.1.7) with a cross section of the axon. The

cell membrane (B2.1.1) is shown with a solid blue line. The
negative charge inside the axon is depicted by the – and the
positive charge outside the axon is depicted by the +
 Na+ Na+ Na+
Na+

Resting Potential Na+

Na+ Na+

Three factors contribute to the negative charge of the resting

potential:
①
Na+

1. The sodium-potassium pump (B2.1.15*) actively

transports three sodium ions (Na+) out of the cell for
every two potassium ions (K+) it brings in; it pumps
more positive ions out than it brings in, leaving the
inside of the cell relatively negative compared to the
outside.
②
2. K+ ions can leak out through the cell membrane,
leaving the cell and further increasing the charge
imbalance. ③
3. Negatively charged proteins within the neuron also
contribute to the charge imbalance.
C2.2.15*
Perception of pain by neurons
with free nerve endings in the
skin

*HL only
Neurons are cells that send and
receive signals within the nervous
system (C2.2.1).
Stimulus
In order to activate an electrical impulse in a neuron, there must be a stimulus at the dendrites.
A stimulus is any change in the environment that triggers an electrical impulse.

The stimulus can be

a physical input
(light, sound, touch,
temperature) or a
chemical signal
(taste, smell, or
neurotransmitter
from another neuron
C2.1.4*).
 Pain as Stimulus
Pain stimuli are detected by sensory neurons (C3.1.6) in the skin, muscles, and organs. The type of receptor on the dendrite
determines the type of stimulus to which the neuron can respond. There are three general classes of pain stimuli:

Mechanical: Thermal: Chemical:

Pressure, pinch, or rotation beyond a normal range Heat above 42°C or cold below -15°C Acids, alkalis, irritants, or capsaicin
(the active ingredient in chili peppers)
Stimulus Opens Ion Channels
The stimulus causes the opening of gated ion
channels in neurons (B2.1.14*). Gated ion channels
are transmembrane proteins that can open and close
depending on conditions in the cell.
● Voltage-gated channels: Open in response to
changes in electrical charge.
● Ligand-gated channels: Open when a
specific molecule (ligand) binds to them.
● Mechanically gated channels: Open in
response to physical force or pressure.
When an ion channel opens, ions move across the
cell membrane according to their concentration
gradient.
Stimulus Triggers Ion Channels
In neurons, the stimulus
opens gated sodium
channels and sodium ions
enter the cell.
The rapid influx of sodium
ions into the cell alters the
electrical charge
distribution across the
membrane, thereby
changing the membrane
potential (C2.2.2).

Before the stimulus, the gated Na+ channel Due to the stimulus, the gated Na+ channel
is CLOSED. There is more sodium outside is OPEN. The Na+ ions enter the cell via
of the cell because of the pumping of the facilitated diffusion (B2.1.6)
Na+/K+ pump (B2.1.15*)
Stimulus Triggers Action Potential
Entry of the sodium ions causes
Stimulus
a depolarization (change in
electrical charge, C2.2.8*).

As the positive sodium ions

enter the cell through the
membrane, that region of the
cell becomes slightly more
positively charged.
Stimulus Triggers Action Potential
If a threshold potential is
reached, then even more Na+
channels will open, triggering
an action potential (C2.2.3)

Threshold ★
Stimulus Triggers Action Potential
A wave of action potentials spreads
across the neuron membrane,
propagating the electrical signal
down the neuron axon towards the
synaptic terminals.
Stimulus Triggers Action Potential
In the example of the perception of pain, the stimulus activates a sensory neuron (C3.1.6). The
impulse is passed through the sensory neuron to an interneuron in the spinal cord (C3.1.5). The
interneuron relays the message to the cerebral cortex, allowing the brain to become aware of the pain.
C2.2.3
Nerve impulses as action
potentials that are
propagated along nerve
fibers
Neurons are cells that send and
receive signals within the nervous
system (C2.2.1).
Action Potential
The basic unit of neuron function is called an action potential.
An action potential Dendrites receive
information and send
The synaptic terminal is the
region at the end of an axon
is the electrical action potentials
towards the cell body
where the electrical signal from
the action potential is converted
signal that a neuron and axon of the neuron
into a chemical signal that is
sent to a neighboring cell.
generates to
transmit information
along its cell
membrane from the
dendrite to the
synaptic terminal. The sudden flip-flop of the charge of the membrane potential
(C2.2.2) at one position of a neuron is called an action potential
(C2.2.8*). A series of action potentials moves along the neuron,
generating a neural impulse that moves from dendrites to the
synaptic terminals of the neuron.
Action Potential
The action potential is an
all-or-nothing sequence of changes
due to the movement of positively
charged sodium and potassium ions
across the membrane (C2.2.8*).
1. Resting potential (C2.2.2)
2. Stimulus (C2.2.15*)
3. Threshold
4. Depolarization
5. Repolarization
6. Refractory Electrodes can monitor the change in membrane potential at one position within a
neuron. The potential can be displayed on a screen of an oscilloscope (C2.2.10*).
Nerve Impulses
Action potentials are propagated along neurons
because the movement of Na+ that depolarizes one
part of the membrane triggers depolarization in the
neighboring part of the neuron membrane (C2.2.9*).

The “electrical impulse” sent along the neuron is the

result of the wave of action potentials that starts at
one end of the neuron (dendrites) and is propagated
along the axon to the other end of the neuron
(synaptic terminal).
C2.2.8*
Depolarization and
repolarization during
action potentials

*HL only
Neurons are cells that send and
receive signals within the nervous
system (C2.2.1).
Action Potential
The basic unit of neuron function is called an action potential
(C2.2.3).
Dendrites receive
The synaptic terminal is the
information and send
region at the end of an axon
An action potential is action potentials
towards the cell body
where the electrical signal from
the action potential is converted
the electrical signal and axon of the neuron
into a chemical signal that is
sent to a neighboring cell.
that a neuron
generates to transmit
information along its
cell membrane from
the dendrite to the
synaptic terminal.
The sudden flip-flop of the charge of the membrane potential
(C2.2.2) at one position of a neuron is called an action potential.
A series of action potentials moves along the neuron,
generating a neural impulse that moves from dendrites to the
synaptic terminals of the neuron (C2.2.3).
Action Potential
The action potential is an
all-or-nothing sequence of changes
due to the movement of positively
charged sodium and potassium ions
across the membrane.
1. Resting potential (C2.2.2)
2. Stimulus (C2.2.15*)
3. Threshold
4. Depolarization
5. Repolarization
6. Refractory Electrodes can monitor the change in membrane potential at one position within a
neuron. The potential can be displayed on a screen of an oscilloscope (C2.2.10*).
① Resting Potential
When not sending an
impulse the neuron is
said to be “at rest.”
The resting
membrane potential
of a neuron is about
-70mV (C2.2.2) Electrodes can monitor the change in membrane potential at one position within a
neuron. The potential can be displayed on a screen of an oscilloscope (C2.2.10*).
① Resting Potential
The resting potential is primarily maintained
by the action of the sodium-potassium pump
(B2.1.15*) and results in there being an:
● Higher [Na+] outside the membrane.
● Higher [K+] inside the membrane.
● Overall charge difference between the
inside and outside of the membrane,
with the inside being negatively charged
relative to the outside.
② Stimulus
In order to activate an
electrical impulse in a
neuron, there must be
a stimulus at the
neuron dendrites. A
stimulus is any change
in the environment that
Stimulus
triggers an electrical
impulse (C2.2.15*).
② Stimulus
Stimulus
The stimulus opens
gated sodium channels
(B2.1.14*) and sodium
ions enter the cell.
As the positive sodium
ions enter the cell through
the membrane, that
region of the cell
becomes slightly more
positively charged.

Electrodes can monitor the change in membrane potential at one position within a
neuron. The potential can be displayed on a screen of an oscilloscope (C2.2.10*).
③ Threshold
An action potential is only initiated if
the threshold potential is reached.

The threshold potential is the minimum

membrane potential value at which a
neuron will fire an action potential,
typically around -55 mV.

Once the membrane potential reaches

this level, an action potential will be
generated; if the potential does not
reach this point, no action potential will
occur.
Electrodes can monitor the change in membrane potential at one position within a
neuron. The potential can be displayed on a screen of an oscilloscope (C2.2.10*).
④ Depolarization
When the threshold potential Extracellular
is reached, additional
voltage-gated sodium
channels open (B2.1.14).

This allows sodium to move

into the neuron via facilitated
diffusion (B2.1.6).
Intracellular
 The voltage gated sodium
channels close at around

④ Depolarization +30mV, stopping sodium from

crossing the membrane.

The entry of positively charged

sodium ions (Na+) causes the
inside of the membrane to
become positively charged
relative to the outside, raising
the membrane potential to
about +30mV.
Depolarization is the process of The voltage gated sodium
channels open at around
the membrane potential -55mV, allowing sodium to
enter the cell through the
becoming more positive membrane.
relative to the outside of the
Electrodes can monitor the change in membrane potential at one position within a
cell. neuron. The potential can be displayed on a screen of an oscilloscope (C2.2.10*).
⑤ Repolarization
At about +30 mV Extracellular
voltage-gated
potassium channels
open (B2.1.14*).

This allows
potassium to move
out of the neuron via
facilitated diffusion
(B2.1.6). Intracellular
 The voltage gated potassium
channels open at around

⑤ Repolarization +30mV, allowing potassium to

exit through the cell membrane

The exit of positively charged

potassium ions (K+) causes the
inside of the membrane to again
become more negatively charged
relative to the outside, dropping the
membrane potential back to -70mV.

The voltage gated

Repolarization is the process of the potassium channels begin
to close at around -70mV,
membrane potential becoming stopping potassium from
exiting the cell through the
more negative relative to the membrane.
outside of the cell. Electrodes can monitor the change in membrane potential at one position within a
neuron. The potential can be displayed on a screen of an oscilloscope (C2.2.10*).
⑥ Refractory
The concentration gradients of sodium and
potassium must be restored by the Na/K
pump (B2.1.15*). This takes a few
milliseconds and therefore causes a slight
delay before there can be another action
potential.

The refractory period is the brief period

of time during which the membrane is
incapable of repeating an action
potential.

Electrodes can monitor the change in membrane potential at one position within a
neuron. The potential can be displayed on a screen of an oscilloscope (C2.2.10*).
⑥ Refractory
In vertebrates, including humans, the electrical
impulse always moves in one direction along the
neuron. This is because the refractory period
prevents propagation of the action potential
backwards along the neuron membrane.
● The part of the membrane that has just fired
is unresponsive until the action potential has
moved out of range.
● Only the unfired part of the membrane can
respond with an action potential, so the
action potential moves forward.
✔ = active
❌= inactive Na+/K+ Pump Na+ Channels K+ Channels

Moves 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in Allow Na+ to move into cell Allow K+ to move out of cell

Resting ✔ ❌ ❌
The Na+/K+ pump establishes the
membrane to the resting potential

Stimulus ✔ ❌→✔ ❌
Stimulus triggers opening of Na+
channels

Threshold ✔ ✔ ❌
if threshold is reached, more voltage
gated Na+ channels open

Depolarization ✔ ✔ ❌
Voltage gated Na+ channels open
and Na+ rushes in. Charge increases.

Repolarization ✔ ❌ ✔
Voltage gated K+ channels open and
K+ rushes out. Charge decreases.

Refractory ✔ ❌ ✔→❌
The Na+/K+ pump returns the Voltage gated K+ channels close
membrane to the resting potential
B2.1.14*
Gated ion channels in
neurons

*HL only
Channel Proteins
Channel proteins are a type of membrane
transport protein that form pores through
the lipid bilayer (B2.1.6); when these pores
are open, they facilitate diffusion of specific
solutes (usually inorganic ions) across the Potassium channel
membrane passively: for facilitated
diffusion of K+ ions
◎ Without use of ATP energy in axons during
neuron action
◎ Moves the solute with the potential
concentration gradient (from areas of repolarization
(C2.2.8*)
higher concentration to areas of lower
concentration).
Gated Channel Proteins
Some channel proteins are “gated,” meaning they can open or close in response to a
signal. The gating makes the membrane selectively permeable by allowing specific ions
to diffuse through when channels are open but not when they are closed. There are two
major types of gated channel proteins:

Voltage Gated Channel Ligand Gated Channel

Channel proteins that open and close in response to Channel proteins that open to allow ions to pass
changes in the electrical potential of a cell membrane. through the membrane only when a chemical
They are responsible for many cellular functions that messenger, or ligand, has also bound to the channel
are mediated by electricity, (C2.1.1). Binding of the
including muscle cell ligand to a receptor causes
contraction (B3.3.2*) and the opening of an ion channel
neuronal signaling (C2.2.8*). in the receptor that allows
positively charged ions to
diffuse into the cell (C2.1.8*).
Examples of Voltage Gated Channels
Voltage Gated Sodium Channel: Voltage Gated Potassium Channel:

Sodium channels typically open at a Different types of potassium channels have

membrane potential around -55 mV different voltage sensitivities, leading to
(considered the threshold potential), allowing variations in their opening and closing
sodium ions to flow into the cell and causing potentials. However, they all open to allow
depolarization, while they begin to close again potassium ions to flow out of the cell, causing
when the membrane potential reaches repolarization.
approximately +30 mV.
Voltage Gated Channel
An action potential involves the rapid movement of sodium and potassium ions across the neuron
membrane through voltage gated channels (C2.2.8*). Voltage-gated channels are transmembrane
proteins that open and close in response to changes in a cell's electrical membrane potential (C2.2.2).

The gating mechanism involves a conformational Like all channels, voltage gated channels are “specific”
change in the shape of the channel protein. Amino to the transport of a certain ion. Sodium channels allow
acids in the structure of the protein are sensitive to Na+ to pass though, but not the larger K+ ions. Likewise,
charge and will change shape in response to changes in potassium channels
charge. allow K+ to pass
When the through, but not the
amino acids smaller Na+.
shift location in
the protein, the
pore of the
channel will
open or close.
Ligand Gated Channels
Ligand-gated ion channels are
transmembrane channel proteins
that open in response to the
binding of a chemical messenger
(▼), such as a hormone or
neurotransmitter (C2.1.4*).

This process transforms an

extracellular chemical signal into
an intracellular electrical signal,
triggering a cellular response.
Acetylcholine Receptors
The neurotransmitter acetylcholine
(ACh) is essential for muscle
contraction and is also involved in
memory, motivation, arousal,
attention, learning, and REM sleep.

Synapses are junctions between

neurons and between neurons and
effector cells (C2.2.5). At a
synapse, Ach is released from the
presynaptic neuron and diffuses
across the synaptic space to bind
to a transmembrane acetylcholine
receptor on the postsynaptic cell
(C2.2.7).
Acetylcholine Receptors
When Ach binds, the
acetylcholine receptor (AchR)
undergoes a conformational
change. The change in shape
opens a pore in the protein,
allowing sodium ions to move
through facilitated diffusion into
the postsynaptic neuron. When
the Na+ moves in, the
postsynaptic cell is depolarized
(C2.2.8*) and an action
potential may be triggered.
C2.2.9*
Propagation of an action
potential along a nerve
fiber/axon as a result of
local currents

*HL only
Neurons are cells that send and
receive signals within the nervous
system (C2.2.1).
Action Potential
The basic unit of neuron function is called an action potential.
Dendrites receive
The synaptic terminal is the
information and send
region at the end of an axon
An action potential is action potentials
towards the cell body
where the electrical signal from
the action potential is converted
the electrical signal and axon of the neuron
into a chemical signal that is
sent to a neighboring cell.
that a neuron
generates to transmit
information along its
cell membrane from
the dendrite to the
synaptic terminal.
The sudden flip-flop of the charge of the membrane potential
(C2.2.2) at one position of a neuron is called an action potential
(C2.2.8*). A series of action potentials moves along the neuron,
generating a neural impulse that moves from dendrites to the
synaptic terminals of the neuron (C2.2.3).
Nerve Impulses
The “electrical impulse” sent along the neuron is the
result of the wave of action potentials that starts at
one end of the neuron (dendrites) and is propagated
along the axon to the other end of the neuron
(synaptic terminal).
Local Current
Propagation of the action potential relies on a phenomenon called
“local current.” Local current is the process by which sodium ions
move within the neuron to generate action potentials in neighboring
regions of the membrane.

Watch the pink dots representing sodium ions passing through a voltage gated sodium channel. Notice that when
they enter the cell, the ions drift away from the channel protein. The diffusion of the ion away from the channel is
called the “local current.”
Neural Impulse
Propagation of neural impulse involves the following steps:

1. Sodium ions enter the membrane through a channel during the depolarization
phase of the action potential (C2.2.8*)

2. The sodium ions that have entered the cell diffuse to both neighboring sides of
the channel from which the ion entered the cell. This movement is called the
Local Current.

3. The Na+ ions that move through the local current bring their positive charge to
the neighboring region of the membrane. This makes the neighboring membrane
potential rise from the resting potential of -70mV.

4. If the charge in the adjacent region rises to the threshold potential of -50mV, then
the voltage-gated sodium channels (B2.1.14) in that region of the membrane will
open, causing an action potential.

5. The process is repeated, causing a wave of action potentials along the neuron
membrane.
Neuron Impulses
Even though Na+ diffuses via local current in both
directions, an action potential will only be propagated
forward.
This is because the
region of the
membrane that has
just had an action
potential will not be
able to depolarize
again for a brief
moment of time (it
is hyperpolarized in
the refractory
period).
C2.2.10*
Oscilloscope traces
showing resting potentials
and action potentials

*HL only
Oscilloscopes
An oscilloscope is an
instrument that
graphically displays
electrical signals as
waveforms, creating
visualization of the
change of voltage over
time.

The vertical (Y) access

represents the voltage
measurement and the
horizontal (X) axis
represents time.
Oscilloscopes
Membrane potentials in neurons can be measured by
placing electrodes on either side of the membrane.
The electrodes
connect to the
oscilloscope which
displays the change
in charge between
the electrodes
during resting and
action potentials in
a section of neuron
cell membrane.
Oscilloscope Trace
The oscilloscope trace is a
graph depicting the resting and
action potentials in a section of
neuron cell membrane.
Resting potential (C2.2.2)
Stimulus (C2.2.15*)
Threshold
Depolarization (C2.2.8*)
Repolarization (C2.2.8*)
Refractory
Oscilloscope Trace
A fictional oscilloscope
trace is shown.

Estimate the
frequency of an
action potential in
the neuron.

Estimate the time

taken for a single
action potential
within the neuron.

Estimate the
refractory period of
the neuron.
Oscilloscope Trace
6.5 ms - 1.5 ms = 5.0 ms
A fictional oscilloscope
trace is shown.

Estimate the
frequency of an
action potential in
the neuron.

Estimate the time

taken for a single
action potential
14.0 ms - 12.5 ms =
within the neuron. 1.5 ms
7.5 ms - 5.9 ms =
Estimate the 1.6 ms
refractory period of
the neuron.
C2.2.4
Variation in the speed of
nerve impulses
Neurons are cells that send and
receive signals within the nervous
system (C2.2.1).
Action Potential
The basic unit of neuron function is called an action potential.
Dendrites receive
The synaptic terminal is the
information and send
region at the end of an axon
An action potential is action potentials
towards the cell body
where the electrical signal from
the action potential is converted
the electrical signal and axon of the neuron
into a chemical signal that is
sent to a neighboring cell.
that a neuron
generates to transmit
information along its
cell membrane from
the dendrite to the
synaptic terminal.
The sudden flip-flop of the charge of the membrane potential
(C2.2.2) at one position of a neuron is called an action potential
(C2.2.8*). A series of action potentials moves along the neuron,
generating a neural impulse that moves from dendrites to the
synaptic terminals of the neuron (C2.2.3).
Neuron Impulses
The “electrical impulse” sent along the neuron is the
result of the wave of action potentials that starts at
one end of the neuron (dendrites) and is propagated
along the axon to the other end of the neuron
(synaptic terminal).
Speed of Neuron Impulse
There is variability in
the speed of the
neural impulse as it is
propagated along an
axon. The speed may
depend on:
● The body size of
the animal
● The axon
diameter size
● Whether or not
the axon is
myelinated
Body Size and Neuron Impulse Speed
Generally, an animal's body size does not significantly affect the speed of its neuron
impulses, meaning that nerve conduction velocity remains relatively constant across
different sized animals.

However, larger animals experience

longer delays in nerve signal
transmission simply because their
neurons need to travel further distances
due to their larger bodies; this results in
slower reflexes in larger animals
compared to smaller ones.
Scaling of sensorimotor delays in terrestrial mammals
Heather L. More and J. Maxwell Donelan (2018)
[Link] Body Mass (kg)
Axon Diameter and Neuron Impulse Speed
The conduction velocity of an
action potential is directly As diameter increases, conduction velocity
also increases in both myelinated (X) and
proportional to the diameter of unmyelinated (◆) axons

the axon, meaning that larger

diameter axons have a faster
conduction velocity, allowing
for quicker signal
transmission. This is because
a larger axon experiences less
resistance to ion flow*,
facilitating faster propagation
of the action potential.
*A wider space allows ions to move more freely
Basu, Kaustuv & Appukuttan, Shailesh & Manchanda, Rohit & Sík, Attila. (2022).
without colliding with obstacles, leading to less
Difference in axon diameter and myelin thickness between excitatory and inhibitory
resistance callosally projecting axons in mice. Cerebral Cortex. 33. 10.1093/cercor/bhac329.
Axon Diameter and Neuron Impulse Speed
There is variation in the diameter of axons in neurons and some Giant axon of a neuron
organisms have giant axons. For example, axons in the giant squid within a nerve (C3.1.8)
(Loligo pealeii) can be up to 500 μm and conduct impulses at 25
meters per second.
The giant axon in a squid
allows for a very fast escape
response. By enabling rapid
signal transmission to the
muscles controlling jet
propulsion, the squid is able to
quickly flee from predators.
This is a key evolutionary
adaptation for the squid in its
marine environment.
Typical axon of a neuron
within a nerve (C3.1.8)
Myelination and Speed of the Neuron Impulse
The conduction speed of neural impulse
depends on whether the axon is myelinated
Myelinated neurons (X) have a higher
or unmyelinated. Myelination increases the conduction velocity than unmyelinated (◆)

speed of neuron impulses.

Myelination and Speed of the Neuron Impulse
Schwann cells grow around the neuron
axon creating layers of myelin. Myelin
is a fatty substance that insulates
nerve axons.
Myelination and Speed of the Neuron Impulse
Gaps between the Schwann cells are
called Nodes of Ranvier.

In myelinated neuron axons, the

impulse can jump from one Node of
Ranvier to the next, speeding the
transmission to as quick as 100
meters per second (C2.2.11*)
Correlation Coefficient (r)
The correlation coefficient (r) is used to understand the strength and
direction of a linear relationship between two variables.

● Ranges from -1 to +1.

● A value of +1 indicates a perfect
positive correlation.
● A value of -1 indicates a perfect
negative correlation.
● A value of 0 indicates no linear
relationship.
Sulaxane and Bhavasar
(2017) measured the nerve conduction
rate in the sural sensory nerve in the leg
of 37 human volunteers. They found that
there was a significant negative
correlation between height and the nerve
velocity.

The correlation of r = -0.762 indicates

a strong negative linear relationship
between two variables. This means
that as height increases, the conduction
velocity tends to decrease, and that the
relationship between them is quite pronounced.

Why? Change in height of the limb causes gradual

tapering of nerve with decrease in diameter and
myelination, both of which will decrease neuron
conduction velocity.

Height (cm)
Coefficient of Determination (R2)
The Coefficient of Determination (R2)
is used to communicate how close
the data are to the line of best fit. If
the line passes directly through every
data point, than R2 = 1.

● Ranges from 0 to 1.
● Represents the percentage of variance
explained by the line of best fit.
● Calculated by squaring the correlation
coefficient (r^2).
Shields (2023) measured the change
in nerve cross section area (CSA) and
nerve conduction velocity in 27
volunteers who were participating in
an exercise training program. They
found that there was a coefficients of
determination of R2 = 0.24. The
relatively low R2 means that only 24%
of the variation in the surface area
can be explained by the velocity. The
remaining 76% of the variation
remains unexplained.

Why? Complex phenomena with

many influencing factors often have
lower R-squared values. Many
variables affect nerve surface area
and conduction velocity.
C2.2.11*
Saltatory conduction in
myelinated fibers to
achieve faster impulses

*HL only
Neurons are cells that send and
receive signals within the nervous
system (C2.2.1).
Action Potential
The basic unit of neuron function is called an action potential.
Dendrites receive
The synaptic terminal is the
information and send
region at the end of an axon
An action potential is action potentials
towards the cell body
where the electrical signal from
the action potential is converted
the electrical signal and axon of the neuron
into a chemical signal that is
sent to a neighboring cell.
that a neuron
generates to transmit
information along its
cell membrane from
the dendrite to the
synaptic terminal.
The sudden flip-flop of the charge of the membrane potential
(C2.2.2) at one position of a neuron is called an action potential
(C2.2.8*). A series of action potentials moves along the neuron,
generating a neural impulse that moves from dendrites to the
synaptic terminals of the neuron (C2.2.3).
Neuron Impulses
The “electrical impulse” sent along the neuron is the
result of the wave of action potentials that starts at
one end of the neuron (dendrites) and is propagated
(C2.2.9*) along the axon to the other end of the
neuron (synaptic terminal)
Myelination of Axons
Axons form narrow cylindrical tubes
through which action potentials are
propagated through the neuron.

Schwann cells are cells that grow

around axons of neurons in the
peripheral nervous system. A
Schwann cell wraps around a
segment of an axon creating
multiple layers of its cell membrane
to form the myelin sheath.
Saltatory Conduction
Gaps between the Schwann cells
are called Nodes of Ranvier.

Saltatory conduction is a process

by which nerve impulses travel
rapidly down a myelinated axon,
jumping from one Node of Ranvier
to the next. Saltatory conduction
can speed the transmission of the
neuron impulse to as quick as 100
meters per second.
Saltatory Conduction Continuous
Conduction
Saltatory
Conduction

Neurons will concentrate Na+ and K+

ion channels in the Nodes of Ranvier,
allowing the action potential to "leap"
between the nodes.