Lecture Note
Teacher: B. Mohanty Class: XI
Chapter: Locomotion & Movement Biology
Movement is defined as when organism moves from one location to another location.
When movement result in change in position or location, it is known as locomotion.
For example, walking, climbing, running etc.
All locomotion are movement but all movement are not locomotion.
Locomotion & movement are interlinked. E.g.
In Paramecium, cilia help in the movement of food through cytopharynx and in locomotion.
Hydra use tentacles to capture prey and for locomotion.
Limbs help to change body postures and for locomotion.
Types of movement in Human
1. Ciliary movement:
This type of movement occurs in organs lined by ciliated epithelium.
It is used to trap dust particles that enter during inhalation.
It also helps in movement of ova from the fallopian tube into the uterus.
By cilia.
E.g. cilia in trachea (to remove foreign substances) & oviducts (for passage of ova).
2. Amoeboid Movement:
By pseudopodia formed by streaming of protoplasm.
Cytoskeletal elements like microfilaments also help for this.
This type of movement is observed in some immune cells such as macrophages, leucocytes etc.
E.g. Macrophages & leucocytes.
3. Muscular Movement:
Muscular movement is observed in tongue, jaws, limbs etc.
For locomotion, muscular, skeletal, and neural system are involved.
Flagellar movement helps in the swimming of spermatozoa,
maintenance of water current in the canal system of sponges and in locomotion or Protozoans like
Euglena.
Flagellar movement helps in the swimming of spermatozoa, maintenance of water current in the canal
system of sponges and in locomotion or Protozoans like Euglena.
HUMAN MASCULAR SYSTEM
It includes muscles which are mesodermal in origin.
Muscles constitute 40-50% of the body weight.
Muscles have excitability, contractility, extensibility & elasticity.
Based on location, muscles are 3 types:
Lecture Note
Teacher: B. Mohanty Class: XI
Chapter: Locomotion & Movement Biology
Type of Muscle
Skeletal (Straited or Visceral (Non-Straited or
Voluntary) Smooth) Cardiac
1. Skeletal (striated) muscles
Attached to skeleton
Striations present
Voluntary
Rich blood supply
Fatigue muscle
Muscle fibre is multinucleate (syncytium)
More mitochondria
2. Visceral (smooth) muscles
In visceral organs
Striations absent
Involuntary
Poor blood supply
Non-fatigue
Uninucleate
Less mitochondria
3. Cardiac muscles
Found only in heart wall
Striations present
Involuntary
Rich blood supply
Non-fatigue
Uninucleate
More mitochondria
STRUCTURE OF STRIATED MUSCLE
Skeletal muscle is made of many muscle bundles (fascicles).
Fascicles are held together by collagenous connective tissue layer (fascia).
Each fascicle contains many muscle fibres.
Muscle fibres are lined by plasma membrane (sarcolemma) enclosing the sarcoplasm.
Lecture Note
Teacher: B. Mohanty Class: XI
Chapter: Locomotion & Movement Biology
Each muscle fibre contains parallelly arranged myofilaments (myofibrils).
Each myofibril has alternate dark (Anisotropic or A-band) and light striations (Isotropic or I-band).
This is due to the presence of 2 fibrous contractile proteins- thin Actin filament and thick Myosin
filament.
I-bands contain actin.
A-bands contain actin & myosin.
They are arranged parallel to each other.
A-band bears a lighter middle region called H-band. It is formed of only myosin.
A thin dark line (M-line) runs through the centre of H-zone.
I-band is bisected by a dense dark band called Z-line.
Region between two Z-lines is called sarcomere.
Sarcomeres are the structural and functional units of a muscle.
Lecture Note
Teacher: B. Mohanty Class: XI
Chapter: Locomotion & Movement Biology
1. Actin
An actin filament is made of 2 filamentous (F) actins which form double helix.
F actin is a polymer of monomeric Globular (G) actins.
Actin contains 2 other proteins namely tropomyosin & troponin.
Two filaments of tropomyosin run along the grooves of the F-actin double helix.
Troponin has 3 subunits. It is located at regular intervals on the tropomyosin.
In the resting state, a subunit of troponin masks the binding sites for myosin on the actin filaments.
2. Myosin
Each myosin filament is a polymer of many monomeric proteins called Meromyosins.
A meromyosin has 2 parts:
Heavy meromyosin or HMM or cross arm (globular head + short arm): It projects outwards.
Light meromyosin or LMM (tail).
The globular head is an active ATPase enzyme. It has binding sites for ATP and active sites for actin.
Lecture Note
Teacher: B. Mohanty Class: XI
Chapter: Locomotion & Movement Biology
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
According to sliding filament theory, contraction of a muscle fibre occurs by the sliding of the thin
filaments (actin) over the thick filaments (myosin).
Steps:
1. An impulse from CNS reaches the neuromuscular junction (Motor-end plate) via motor neuron.
Neuromuscular junction: Synapse between a motor neuron & sarcolemma of muscle fibre.
A motor neuron + muscle fibres = a motor unit.
2. Synaptic vesicles release a neurotransmitter Acetylcholine.
3. It generates an action potential in the sarcolemma that spreads through the muscle fibre.
4. It causes the release of Ca2+ ions from sarcoplasmic cisternae into sarcoplasm.
5. Ca binds with a subunit of troponin on actin filaments and unmask the active sites for myosin.
6. Using the energy from ATP hydrolysis, myosin head binds to active sites on the actin to form cross
bridge. This pulls the actin filaments on both sides towards the centre of 'A' band. Actin filaments partially
overlap so that H-zone disappears.
7. The Z- line attached to actins is also pulled inwards. It causes the shortening (contraction) of sarcomere.
8. I bands get shortened and A bands retain the length.
9. Myosin releases the ADP and Pi and goes back to its relaxed state. A new ATP binds and the cross-
bridge is broken.
10. The ATP is again hydrolysed by the myosin head and the above processes are repeated causing further
sliding.
Lecture Note
Teacher: B. Mohanty Class: XI
Chapter: Locomotion & Movement Biology
When Ca2+ ions are pumped back to the sarcoplasmic cisternae, the actin filaments are again masked.
As a result, Z lines return to their original position. It results in relaxation.
The reaction time of the fibres varies in different muscles.
Repeated activation of the muscles leads to the accumulation of lactic acid. It causes muscle fatigue.
This is due to anaerobic breakdown of glycogen in muscles.
Red (aerobic) Muscle Fiber White Muscle Fiber
Red colour due to myoglobin White colour due to lesser myoglobin
More mitochondria Less mitochondria
Aerobic metabolism Anaerobic metabolism
Slow & Sustained Contraction Fast contraction for short period
Lactic acid formation in muscles:
Repeated muscle activation leads to lactic acid accumulation in muscles, for example, during exercise or
running. This occurs due to anaerobic breakdown of glycogen in muscles. This causes muscle pain and
fatigue.
HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM
Consists of a framework of bones (206) and few cartilages.
Bone has a very hard matrix due to Ca salts.
Cartilage has slightly pliable matrix due to chondroitin salts.
Lecture Note
Teacher: B. Mohanty Class: XI
Chapter: Locomotion & Movement Biology
AXIAL SKELETON (80 Bones)
Bone of Head (29 bones)
It includes
Skull (22 bones)
Hyoid (1 bone)
Ear ossicles (3×2 = 6 bones)
a. Skull (22): Include cranial bones and facial bones.
Cranial bones (8): Include frontal (1), Parietals (2),
Temporal (2), Occipitals (1), Sphenoid (1) & Ethmoid (1)
Facial bones (14): Include nasals (2), Maxillae (2),
Zygomatics (2), Lachrymal (2), Palatines (2), Inferior nasals (2), Mandible (1), Vomer (1)
b. Hyoid bone (1): U-shaped bone found at the floor of buccal cavity.
c. Ear ossicles: Maleus (2), Incus (2) and stapes (2)
The skull articulates with first vertebra (atlas) of vertebral column with the help of 2 occipital condyles
(dicondylic skull).
Vertebral column
Formed of 26 vertebrae. They are 5 types:
Cervical vertebrae (7)
Thoracic vertebrae (12)
Lumbar vertebrae (5)
Sacral vertebrae (1-fused)
Coccygeal vertebrae (1-fused)
Vertebra has a central hollow portion (neural canal) through which the spinal cord passes.
Number of cervical vertebrae are 7 in almost all mammals.
Vertebral column protects spinal cord, supports the head and serves as the point of attachment for the
ribs and musculature of the back.
Lecture Note
Teacher: B. Mohanty Class: XI
Chapter: Locomotion & Movement Biology
Sternum (Breast bone): A Flat bone on the ventral midline of thorax.
Ribs (12 pair):
3 types:
True ribs (first 7 pairs)
Vertebrochondral (false) ribs (8th, 9th & 10th pairs)
Floating ribs (11th & 12th pairs)
Each rib has 2 articulation surfaces on its dorsal end. So it is called bicephalic.
True ribs are attached to thoracic vertebrae and ventrally connected to sternum with the help of Hyaline
cartilage.
False ribs do not articulate directly with the sternum but join the 7th rib with the help of Hyaline
cartilage.
Floating ribs are not connected ventrally.
APPENDICULAR SKELETON (126 Bones)
Bones of fore-limbs: 30 × 2 = 60 bones. They include
Humerus (1)
Radius (1) & ulna (1)
Carpals (wrist bones- 8)
Metacarpals (palm bones-5)
Phalanges (digits-14)
Bones of Hind-limbs: 30 × 2 = 60 bones. They include:
Femur (thigh bone- 1)
Patella (knee cap- 1)
Tibia (1) & fibula (1)
Tarsals (ankle bones-7)
Metatarsals (5)
Phalanges (digits-14)
Lecture Note
Teacher: B. Mohanty Class: XI
Chapter: Locomotion & Movement Biology
Pectoral girdles: 2 × 2 = 4 bones. They are formed of
Clavicle (collar bone-2)
Scapula (shoulder blade-2)
Scapula is a large triangular flat bone situated in dorsal part of the thorax between second and 7th ribs.
Scapula has a slightly elevated ridge (spine) which projects as a flat, expanded process called the
acromion. The clavicle articulates with this.
Below the acromion is a depression (glenoid cavity) which articulates with the head of humerus to form
the shoulder joint.
Pelvic Girdles:
2 × 1 = 2 bones
Formed of 2 coxal bones (hip bone).
Each coxal bone is formed by the fusion of 3 bones- Ilium, Ischium & pubis.
At the point of fusion of Ilium, Ischium & Pubis is a cavity (Acetabulum) to which the thigh bone
articulates.
The 2 halves of the pelvic girdle meet ventrally to form pubic symphisis containing fibrous cartilage.
JOINTS
Joints are junctions between bones or between bone and cartilage. They are essential for locomotion as
they act as fulcrum for the force applied by the muscles to cause movement. There are three major
structural types of joints:
1. Synovial joints:
A characteristic fluid-filled synovial cavity is present between the two bones.
Lecture Note
Teacher: B. Mohanty Class: XI
Chapter: Locomotion & Movement Biology
This joint gives greater flexibility and more movement.
Some examples are hinge joint (knee and elbow), ball and socket joint (shoulder and hip), pivot
joint (neck), etc.
2. Fibrous joints:
Bones join by means of dense fibrous tissues forming sutures.
They are immovable.
They are seen in the joints between the flat bones of the cranium.
E.g. Sutures b/w flat skull bones.
3. Cartilaginous joints:
Cartilage is present and helps in joining two bones together.
These joints are partially movable.
They are found between the vertebrae.
E.g. joint b/w the adjacent vertebrae.
DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEMS
◉ Myasthenia gravis:
o Affects neuromuscular junction.
o Causes fatigue, weakening and paralysis of skeletal muscles.
o It is an autoimmune disorder.
◉ Muscular dystrophy:
o A genetic disorder causing progressive degradation of skeletal muscle.
o Mostly due to genetic disorder.
◉ Tetany: Low calcium ion levels in body fluid causing rapid spasms in muscles.
Lecture Note
Teacher: B. Mohanty Class: XI
Chapter: Locomotion & Movement Biology
◉ Arthritis: Inflammation of joints.
◉ Gout: Accumulation of uric acid crystals in the joint causing joint inflammation.
◉ Osteoporosis: Decrease in bone mass causing increased risk of fractures. It is age-related and usually
due to decreased oestrogen levels.
Figure 1: Gout Figure 2: Arthri s
Figure 3: Tetany
