History of Refrigeration

• The invention of refrigeration revolutionized food preservation. Before

refrigeration, people used ice blocks, salt curing, and underground
storage to keep food fresh.
• The first mechanical refrigeration system was invented by Jacob
Perkins in 1834, but it wasn’t widely used until the 20th century.
• Ice harvesting was a billion-dollar industry in the 19th century before
artificial refrigeration replaced it.
• The first-ever air-conditioned building was the New York Stock
Exchange in 1902.
• The first air-conditioned car was introduced by Packard in 1939, but it
was bulky and expensive.
 Air Conditioning and Human Productivity

• Studies show that productivity drops by 2% for every 1°C increase

above 25°C in a workspace.
• The introduction of air conditioning in offices, factories, and schools
increased efficiency and made year-round working possible.

Refrigeration’s Impact on Medicine

• Refrigeration is crucial for storing vaccines, blood, and other medical

supplies. The development of the polio vaccine in the 1950s was
possible because of refrigeration technology.
• MRI machines also rely on cryogenic cooling with liquid helium to
function properly.
 Energy Consumption and Environmental Impact

• Air conditioning alone accounts for nearly 10% of global electricity

consumption. Which contributes in 1 billion tonnes of 𝐶𝑂 emission.
• If global air conditioner usage continues to grow at the current rate, by
2050, the world will need three times more energy for cooling than today.
• 1 Ton of Refrigeration running 24/7 on coal power emits approximately
10.25 tons of 𝐶𝑂 per year.
 Unit of Refrigeration

The standard unit of refrigeration in vogue is ton refrigeration or simply

ton denoted by the symbol TR. It is equivalent to the production of cold at
the rate at which heat is to be removed from one US tonne of water at
32°F to freeze it to ice at 32°F in one day or 24 hours.

1 𝑈𝑆 𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 907.2 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝐽
𝐼 𝑇𝑅 = (907.2 𝑘𝑔 × 334 )/(24 × 3600)
𝑘𝑔
𝐼 𝑇𝑅 ≃ 3.5 𝐾𝑊
 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

Clausius Statement

It is impossible to construct a device that operates in

a cycle and produces no effect other than the transfer
of heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher
temperature body.
 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

The transfer of heat from a low

temperature medium to a high-
temperature one requires special devices
called refrigerators.
The working fluid used in the refrigeration
cycle is called a refrigerant.
The efficiency of a refrigerator is
expressed in terms of the coefficient of
performance (COP).
 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

Another device that transfers heat from a low-

temperature medium to a high temperature one is
the heat pump.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
How Refrigeration effect can be produced
10
 Modes of Operations

1. Ideal - vapor-compression refrigeration cycle

2. Actual - vapor-compression refrigeration cycle

11
 Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

►Most common refrigeration cycle in use today

►There are four principal control

volumes involving these
components:
►Evaporator
►Compressor
►Condenser
►Expansion device Two-phase
liquid-vapor mixture
 Reverse Carnot VCR Cycle

• Process 1—2 Isentropic compression

• Process 2—3 Isothermal heat rejection
• Process 3—4 Isentropic expansion
• Process 4—1 Isothermal heat absorption
Reverse Carnot VCR Cycle
Modified Reverse Carnot VCR Cycle
 Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
►The processes of this cycle are

Process 4-1: two-phase liquid-vapor mixture of

refrigerant is evaporated through heat transfer from
the refrigerated space.
Process 1-2: vapor refrigerant is compressed to a
relatively high temperature and pressure requiring
work input.
Process 2-3: vapor refrigerant condenses to liquid
through heat transfer to the cooler surroundings. Two-phase
liquid-vapor mixture
Process 3-4: liquid refrigerant expands to the
evaporator pressure.

Why only these process? What is the use of compressor?

 Standard VCR Cycle

• Process 1—2 Isentropic compression

• Process 2—3 Constant pressure heat rejection
• Process 3—4 Isenthalpic expansion
• Process 4—1 Constant pressure heat absorption

Figures - Schematic and T-s diagram for the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle. 17
 Standard VCR Cycle

• Process 1—2 Isentropic compression

• Process 2—3 Constant pressure heat rejection
• Process 3—4 Isenthalpic expansion
• Process 4—1 Constant pressure heat absorption

Can we use ideal gas in this cycle?

Figures - T-s diagram for the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle. 18

Comparison between reverse Carnot and
Standard VCR Cycle

19
Comparison between reverse Carnot and
Standard VCR Cycle

20
Comparison between reverse Carnot and
Standard VCR Cycle

21
Comparison between reverse Carnot and
Standard VCR Cycle

22
P-h diagram of VCR Cycle

23
 COP of the VCR Cycle

COP = (Refrigeration effect produced)/(Work consumed)

COP = (h1 – h4)/(h2 – h1)
 Effect of evaporator pressure

• Decrease in refrigerating effect

• Increase in the specific volume of
suction vapour
• Decrease in volumetric efficiency,
due to increase in the pressure ratio
• Increase in compressor work
 Effect of Condenser Pressure

• Decrease in refrigerating effect

• Decrease in volumetric efficiency,
due to increase in the pressure ratio
• Increase in compressor work

The effect of increase in condenser pressure

is not as severe, on the refrigerating
capacity and power consumption per ton of
refrigeration, as that of the decrease in
evaporator pressure.
 Effect of Superheat

• Increase in specific volume of

suction vapour
• Increase in refrigerating effect
• Increase in specific work
Effect of sub cooling
 Liquid –vapor regenerative heat exchanger
Superheating and subcooling can be performed simultaneously by a single device
namely liquid vapour regenerative heat exchanger
A Freon 12 vapour compression system operating at a condenser temperature of
40°C and an evaporator temperature of 0°C develops 15 tons of refrigeration.
Using the p-h diagram for Freon 12, determine.
(a) the discharge temperature and mass flow rate of the refrigerant circulated,
(b) the theoretical piston displacement of the compressor and piston displacement
per ton of refrigeration,
(c) the theoretical horsepower of the compressor and horsepower per ton of
refrigeration
(d) the heat rejected in the condenser, and
(e) the Carnot COP and actual COP of the cycle.
An ammonia ice plant operates between a condenser temperature of 35°C and an
evaporator temperature of –15°C. It produces 10 tons of ice per day from water at 30°C
to ice at –5°C. Assuming simple saturation cycle, using tables or chart for ammonia,
determine;
(a) the capacity of the refrigeration plant,
(b) the mass flow rate of refrigerant,
(c) the discharge temperature,
(d) the compressor cylinder diameter and stroke if its volumetric efficiency is 0.65, rpm
N 1200 and stroke/bore ratio L/D is 1.2,
(e) the horsepower of the compressor motor if the adiabatic efficiency of the
compressors 0.85 and mechanical efficiency is 0.95, and
(f) the theoretical and actual COP.
An ammonia ice plant operates between a
condenser temperature of 35°C and an
a) Refrigerating capacity = 55 KW
evaporator temperature of –15°C. It produces
b) Mass flow rate = 0.05 kg/s
10 tons of ice per day from water at 30°C to ice c) Discharge temperature = 112.1°C
at –5°C. Assuming simple saturation cycle, d) Piston displacement of compressor
using tables or chart for ammonia, determine; 𝜋𝐷 ṁ𝑣
𝐿𝑁 = Ṽ =
(a) the capacity of the refrigeration plant, 4 ղ
(b) the mass flow rate of refrigerant, D = 0.128 m & L = 0.154 m
e) Power consumption = 16.21 KW
(c) the discharge temperature,
f) COP = 4.16
(d) the compressor cylinder diameter and stroke g) Actual COP = 3.36
if its volumetric efficiency is 0.65, rpm N 1200
and stroke/bore ratio L/D is 1.2,
(e) the horsepower of the compressor motor if
the adiabatic efficiency of the compressors 0.85
and mechanical efficiency is 0.95, and
(f) the theoretical and actual COP.
Using Liquid-Vapour Regenerative Heat Exchanger in Freon 12
Systems
a) A Freon 12 simple saturation cycle operates at temperatures of
35°C and –15°C for the condenser and evaporator respectively.
Determine the COP and HP/TR of the system.
b) If a liquid-vapour heat exchanger is installed in the system, with
the temperature of the vapour leaving the heat exchanger at
15°C, what will be the change in the COP and HP/TR?

a) COP = 4.09
b) COP = 4.19, Increase by 2.56%
Using Liquid-Vapour Regenerative Heat Exchanger in R 134a Systems
a) An R 134a simple saturation cycle refrigerator operates at 40°C
condenser and –16°C evaporator temperatures. Determine COP and
HP/TR.
b) If a liquid–vapour regenerative heat exchanger is installed in the system,
with the suction vapour at 15°C, what will be the effect on COP and
HP/TR?
 Actual Vapour Compression Cycle

Actual vapour compression cycle on p-h and T-s diagram

Actual Vapour Compression Cycle

• Superheating of the vapour in the evaporator, 1d–1c.

• Heat gain and superheating of the vapour in the suction line,
1c–1b.
• Pressure drop in the suction line, 1b-1a.
• Pressure drop due to wire drawing at the compressor-suction
valve, 1a–1.
• Polytropic compression 1–2 with friction and heat transfer to
the surroundings instead of isentropic compression.
• Pressure drop at the compressor-discharge valve, 2–2a.
• Pressure drop in the delivery line, 2a–2b.
• Heat loss and de-superheating of the vapour in the delivery
line, 2b–2c.
• Pressure drop in the condenser, 2b–3.
• Subcooling of the liquid in the condenser or subcooler, 3–3a.
• Heat gain in the liquid line, 3a–3b. The lines 3–3a and 3a–3b
are along the saturated liquid line on the T-s diagram as the
constant pressure lines in liquid region run close to it.
• Pressure drop in the evaporator, 4–1d.
Actual Vapour Compression Cycle

The pressure drop in the evaporator is large. This

is due to the cumulative effect of two factors.
Firstly, the pressure drops in the evaporator due
to friction. This is called the frictional pressure
drop. Secondly, as evaporation proceeds, the
volume increases, and hence the velocity must
also increase. The increase in kinetic energy
comes from a decrease in enthalpy and, therefore,
from a further pressure drop. This pressure drop
is called the momentum pressure drop.
In the condenser, the pressure drop is not
significant, since the frictional pressure drop is
positive and the momentum pressure drop is
negative.
Refrigerants
 Designation of Refrigerants

𝐶 𝐻 𝐹 𝐶𝑙

Where n + p + q = 2m + 2

R(m-1)(n+1)(p) R 700 Series for inorganic

refrigerants
CCL - R 10
CCL 𝐹 - R 11 R 7(molecular weight)
CCL F - R 12
CCLF - R 13 NH - R717
CF - R 14 H 𝑂 - R718
C𝑂 - R744
 No of H atoms
No. of F atoms 4-H 3-H 2-H 1-H 0-H

0-F CH CH 𝐶𝐿 CH C𝐿 𝐶𝐻C𝐿 CCL

-164°C -23.74°C 40°C 61.2°C 76.7°C
R 50 R 40 R 30 R 20 R 10
1-F CH 𝐹 CH CLF CHC𝐿 F CCL 𝐹
-78°C -9°C 8.9°C 23.7°C
R 41 R 31 R 21 R 11
2-F CH F CHCLF CCL F
-51.6°C -40.8°C -29.8°C
R 32 R 22 R 12
3-F CHF CCLF
-82.2°C -81.5°C
R 23 R 13
4-F CF
-127.8°C
R 14
• H atom increases flammability
• Cl atom increases Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP)
• F atom increases Global Warming Potential
 Refrigerants
Selection of a Refrigerant
The choice of a refrigerant for a given application is governed mainly by the
refrigerating capacity (very small, small, medium or large), and refrigeration
temperature required, such as for air conditioning (5°C), cold-storage (–10 to
2°C), refrigerator (– 25°C), food freezing (– 40°C), etc

• Thermodynamic requirements

1. Significance of Normal Boiling Point

2. Standing and Condensing and Evaporating Pressures
3. Critical Temperature and Pressure
4. Freezing Point
5. Volume of Suction Vapour
6. Isentropic Discharge Temperatures
7. Coefficient of Performance and Horsepower per Ton
 Refrigerants
Selection of a refrigerant

• Chemical requirements
1. Flammability
2. Toxicity
3. Action of Refrigerant with Water
4. Action with Oil
5. Action with Materials of Construction

• Physical requirements
1. Dielectric Strength
2. Thermal Conductivity
3. Viscosity
4. Heat Capacity, Leak Tendency, Cost of Refrigerant
 Selection of a refrigerant
Refrigerant NBP (°C) 𝑷𝟎 at 5°C (bar) 𝑷𝒌 at 40°C (bar) 𝑷𝒌 /𝑷𝟎 𝒉𝒉𝒈 (𝑲𝑱/𝒌𝒈)
R 12 -29.8 3.62 9.6 2.65 117.0
R 134a -26.07 3.5 10.167 2.55 148.0
R 11 23.7 0.5 1.75 3.52 155.9
R 123 27.82 0.41 1.55 3.78 142.3
R 22 -40.81 5.84 15.33 2.63 162.7
R 717 -33.33 5.16 15.54 3.01 1103.1

Suction vapor volumes (𝒎𝟑 /h/TR) and discharge temperature of refrigerants for 𝑻𝒌 =
30°C and 𝑻𝟎 = -15°C
R 12 R 134a R 11 R 123 R 22 R 717
10.857 10.567 65.9 79.3 6.67 6.12
38°C 37°C 43°C 33°C 53°C 39°C
Ozone depletion potential and global warming potential
R 11, R 12, R 113 have been phased out from 2000.
R 22 will be phased out till 2030.

Sunlight
𝐶𝐶𝐿 𝐹 CCL𝐹 + 𝐶𝐿

Sunlight
𝑂 + 𝐶𝐿 CLO + 𝑂

One single atom of CL reacts with 1,00,000 𝑂 molecules.

R 12 is replaced with R 134a (NBP -26.1°C)

R 11 is replaced with R 123 (27.82°C)
R 22 is replaced with R 717 and R410a
Air Cycle Refrigeration
Systems
 Reversed Carnot Cycle
• Process 1-2: Reversible, adiabatic compression in a compressor
• Process 2-3: Reversible, isothermal heat rejection in a compressor
• Process 3-4: Reversible, adiabatic expansion in a turbine
• Process 4-1: Reversible, isothermal heat absorption in a turbine
 The Carnot Cycle or Carnot heat engine

1. Reversible Isothermal Expansion

(process 1-2)
2. Reversible Adiabatic Expansion
(process 2-3)
3. Reversible Isothermal Compression
(process 3-4)
4. Reversible Adiabatic Compression
(process 4-1)
 The Carnot Cycle or Carnot heat engine

1. Reversible Isothermal Expansion

(process 1-2)
2. Reversible Adiabatic Expansion
(process 2-3)
3. Reversible Isothermal Compression
(process 3-4)
4. Reversible Adiabatic Compression
(process 4-1)
Reversed Carnot Cycle
Reversed Carnot Cycle
 Limitations of Reversed Carnot cycle

• Extreme pressures and large volumes

• Isothermal heat-transfer processes
• The p-h diagram of the cycle working with a gas is narrow
 Ideal reverse Brayton cycle or Bell Coleman cycle

• Process 1-2: Reversible, adiabatic

compression in a compressor
• Process 2-3: Reversible, isobaric heat
rejection
• Process 3-4: Reversible, adiabatic
expansion in a turbine
• Process 4-1: Reversible, isobaric heat
absorption
 Bell Coleman cycle

2
3 2

P T 3 1

4
4 1

V S
Comparison between Reverse Carnot and
Reverse Brayton cycle
Effect of Discharge Pressure on the Performance of
the Gas Cycle

• T1 as the highest
refrigeration temperature
• T3 as the lowest ambient
temperature.
 Aircraft cooling systems
Requirement of cooling system
• Large internal heat generation due to occupants, equipment etc
• Heat generation due to skin friction caused by the fast-moving aircraft
• Ramming process
• Solar radiations

Why air refrigeration cycle

• Air is cheap, safe, non-toxic and non-flammable. Leakage of air is not a
problem
• Cold air can directly be used for cooling thus eliminating the low
temperature heat exchanger (open systems) leading to lower weight
• The aircraft engine already consists of a high-speed turbo-compressor,
hence separate compressor for cooling system is not required.
• Simple design of air refrigeration cycle
 Simple Air Cooling System

• Process 1: Ramming
• Process 2: Compression
• Process 3: Cooling
• Process 4: Expansion
• Process 5: Refrigeration
Boot-strap Air Cooling System
Regenerative Air Cooling System
Reduced Ambient Air Cooling System
Comparison of different Air Cooling Systems
Q.1 An aircraft refrigeration plants has to handle a cabin load of 30 TR. The ambient temperature is
17°C. the ambient air is compressed to pressure of 0.95 bar and temperature of 30°C due to ram
effect. This air is then further compressed in a compressor to 4.75 bar, cooled in a heat exchanger to
67°C, expanded in a turbine to 1 bar pressure and supplied to the cabin. The air leaves the cabin at a
temperature of 27°C. the isentropic efficiencies of both compressor and turbine are 0.9. Calculate
the mass of air circulated per minute and COP.

𝑇 = 290𝐾 𝑇 = 303𝐾 𝑃 = 0.95 bar

𝑃 = 𝑃 = 𝑃 = 4.75 bar 𝑇 = 340𝐾

𝑃 = 𝑃 = 1 bar 𝑇 = 300𝐾 ղ = ղ = 0.9

𝑇 𝑃
= 𝑇 = 480𝐾 𝑇 = 218.8𝐾
𝑇 𝑃

Due to inefficiency

𝑇 = 500𝐾 𝑇 = 230𝐾
Q.2 An aircraft moving with speed of 1000 km/h uses single gas refrigeration cycle for air-
conditioning. The ambient pressure and temperature are .35 bar and -10°C. respectively. The
pressure ratio of compressor is 4.5. the heat exchanger effectiveness is 0.95. the isentropic
efficiencies of compressor and expander are 0.8 each. The cabin pressure and temperature are 1.06
bar and 25°C. determine temperatures and pressure at all points of the cycle. Also find the volume
flow rate through compressor inlet and expander outlet for 100TR.
Q.2 An aircraft moving with speed of 1000 km/h uses single gas refrigeration cycle for air-
conditioning. The ambient pressure and temperature are .35 bar and -10°C. respectively. The
pressure ratio of compressor is 4.5. the heat exchanger effectiveness is 0.95. the isentropic
efficiencies of compressor and expander are 0.8 each. The cabin pressure and temperature are 1.06
bar and 25°C. determine temperatures and pressure at all points of the cycle. Also find the volume
flow rate through compressor inlet and expander outlet for 100TR.
 Stagnation Properties
During a stagnation process, the kinetic energy of a fluid is
converted to enthalpy (internal energy + flow energy), which results
in an increase in the fluid temperature and pressure. The properties
of a fluid at the stagnation state are called stagnation
properties. The 𝑇 is called the stagnation (or total) temperature,
and it represents the temperature an ideal gas attains when it is
brought to rest adiabatically.
Q.3 The speed of an aircraft flying at an altitude of 8000 meters, where the ambient air is at 0.341 bar pressure
and 263 k temperature, is 900km/h. the compression ratio of the air compressor is 5. the cabin pressure is
1.013 bar and the temperature is 27°C. determine: 1. the power requirement of the aircraft for pressurization
(excluding the ram work); 2. the additional power required for refrigeration; and 3. the refrigeration capacity
for simple air craft refrigeration cycle on the basic of 1 kg/s flow of air.
Also find the change in values if we consider the following terms.
compressor efficiency= 82% , turbine efficiency = 77%, effectiveness of heat exchanger = .8 and ram
efficiency = 84%
Q.4 A boot-strap cooling system of 10 TR capacity is
used in an aero plane. The ambient air temperature and
pressure are 20°C and 0.85 bar respectively. The pressure
of air increases from 0.85 bar to 1 bar due to ramming
action of air. The pressure of air discharged from the
main compressor is 3 bar. The discharge pressure of air
from the secondary compressor is 4 bar. The isentropic
efficiency of each compressor is 80%, while that of
turbine is 85%. 50% of the enthalpy of air discharged
from the main compressor is removed in the first heat
exchanger and 30% of the enthalpy of air discharged
from the compressor is removed in the second heat
exchanger using rammed air. Assuming ramming action
to be isentropic , the required cabin pressure of 0.9 bar
and temperature of the air leaving the cabin not more
than 20°C, find 1. the power required to operate the
system, 2. the COP of the system.
 Properties of Moist Air
moist air, is a mixture of two gases. One of these is dry air which itself is a
mixture of a number of gases and the other is water vapour which may exist in a
saturated or superheated state.
 Properties of Moist Air
PSYCHROMETRIC PROPERTIES
The properties of moist air are called psychometric properties and the subject
which deals with the behavior of moist air is known as psychrometry.
 Psychometric properties of Moist Air
Specific Humidity or Humidity Ratio
Specific or absolute humidity or humidity ratio or moisture content as it is
variously called denoted by the symbol ω is defined as the ratio of the mass of
water vapour to the mass of dry air in a given volume of the mixture. Thus
 Psychometric properties of Moist Air

Dew Point Temperature

If a sample of unsaturated moist air is cooled at
constant pressure, the moist air will eventually
reach the saturation temperature td of water vapour
corresponding to its partial pressure p, at which
point the first drop of dew will be formed, i.e.,
the water vapour in the mixture will start
condensing. This temperature td is called the dew
point temperature (DPT).
 Psychometric properties of Moist Air
Degree of Saturation (μ)

Consider water vapour is added in this

control volume V at temperature T . The
partial pressure 𝑃 will go on increasing
with the addition of water vapour until it
reaches a value 𝑃 corresponding to state 2.
 Psychometric properties of Moist Air
Relative humidity (Φ or RH)
Relative humidity denoted by the symbol Φ or RH is defined as the ratio of the
mass of water vapour in a certain volume of moist air at a given temperature to
the mass of water vapour in the air with same volume and same temperature,
when it is saturated.
 Psychometric properties of Moist Air

Enthalpy of moist air

Thus the enthalpy of moist air h
is equal to the sum of the
enthalpies of dry air and
associated water vapour
 Psychometric properties of Moist Air

Specific heat of moist air

 Psychometric properties of Moist Air
Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT) and Wet Bulb
Temperature (WBT)
The dry bulb thermometer is directly exposed to
the air and measures the actual temperature of air.
The bulb of the wet bulb thermometer is covered
by a wick thoroughly wetted by water. The
temperature which is measured by the wick
covered bulb of such a thermometer indicates the
temperature of liquid-water in the wick and is
called the wet bulb temperature.
The difference between the dry bulb and wet bulb
temperatures is called wet bulb depression
(WBD).
Q.1 : A mixture of dry air and water vapour is at a temperature of 21°C
under a total pressure of 736 mm Hg. The dew-point temperature is 15°C.
Find:
(i) Partial pressure of water vapour.
(ii) Relative humidity.
(iii) Specific humidity.
(iv) Specific enthalpy of water vapour
(v) Enthalpy of air per kg of dry air.
(vi) Specific volume of air per kg of dry air.

Q.2: Calculate, (i) relative humidity, (ii) humidity ratio, (iii) dew point
temperature, (iv) density and (v) enthalpy of atmospheric air when the DBT
is 35°C, WBT is 23°C and the barometer reads 750 mm Hg.