9 Nervous System

Introduction to the Nervous System

Major aspects of nervous system: sensory input, integration and processing (decision-
making), and motor output (response)
Functions of the nervous system: thinking, movement, internal processes of physiology
Main cell types in the nervous system:
Neurons: cells that communicate, via electrical impulses, with other neurons or other
cells
Neuroglia: cells that support, nourish, protect, and insulate neurons
Neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers in a synapse, that convey an electrical
impulse from a neuron to another cell
Nervous system controls most of the endocrine system, to regulate body functions and
maintain homeostasis via secretion of hormones

Classifications of the Nervous System

Structural classification is based on the structures of the nervous system
Central nervous system
Peripheral nervous system
Functional classification is based on the activities of the nervous system
Sensory (afferent) division
Motor (efferent) division

Structural Classification
Central nervous system (CNS)
Brain
Spinal cord
Functions
Integration; command center
Interprets incoming sensory information
Issues outgoing instructions
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Nerves extending from the brain and spinal cord
Spinal nerves carry impulses to and from the spinal cord
Cranial nerves carry impulses to and from the brain
Functions
Communication lines among sensory organs, brain and spinal cord, and glands or muscles

Functional Classification
Sensory (afferent) division
Nerve fibers that carry information toward the central nervous system
Somatic sensory (afferent) fibers carry information from the skin, skeletal muscles, and
joints
Visceral sensory (afferent) fibers carry information from visceral organs
Motor (efferent) division
Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous system organs to effector
organs (muscles and glands)
Somatic nervous system = voluntary
Consciously (voluntarily) controls skeletal muscles
Autonomic nervous system = involuntary
Automatically controls smooth and cardiac muscles and glands
Divided into
 sympathetic – during activity
parasympathetic – at rest

General Functions of the Nervous System

Sensory function:
Provided by sensory receptors, which detect internal or external changes
Information travels from receptors to sensory neurons, which transport information into
the CNS
Integrative function:
Coordination of sensory information in the CNS
Processing of this information is the basis for decision-making
Motor function:
Nerve impulses (CNS) are conducted along motor neurons to effectors
Effectors are muscles or glands that respond to decisions made in the CNS

Neuron (Nerve Cell) Structure

A neuron contains a cell body, tubular cytoplasm-filled dendrites, and a tubular, cytoplasm-
filled axon
The cell body (soma) contains mitochondria, lysosomes, a Golgi apparatus, chromatophilic
substance (Nissl bodies – similar to RER), neurofilaments, and a large nucleus with a
nucleolus
Dendrites conduct impulses toward the cell body; they are short and branching, and they
provide the receptive surface for communication with other neurons
The axon conducts impulses away from the cell body; it arises from a thickening extending
from the cell body, called the axon hillock
There is only one axon in each neuron

Neuron Structure: Myelin Sheath

Larger axons are enclosed by myelin sheaths; they are called myelinated fibers
Narrow gaps in the myelin sheath are called nodes of Ranvier
Myelin sheath increases conduction speed of nerve impulses

Structural Classification of Neurons

There are three types of neurons, based on differences in size, shape, and structure:
Multipolar neurons: have many dendrites and one axon arising from their cell bodies;
most neurons with cell bodies in CNS (interneurons and motor neurons) are multipolar
Bipolar neurons have two processes extending from the cell body, a dendrite and an
axon; found in some of the special senses, such as the eyes, nose, and ears
Unipolar neurons have only one process extending from the cell body; outside the cell
body, it soon splits into two parts that function as one axon; the peripheral process
has dendrites near a peripheral body part, and the central process runs into the CNS;
the cell bodies are found in ganglia outside the CNS; these are sensory neurons

Functional Classification of Neurons

Sensory (afferent) neurons: conduct impulses from peripheral receptors to the CNS; usually
unipolar, although some are bipolar
Interneurons (association or internuncial neurons): multipolar neurons lying within the CNS
that form links between other neurons; the cell bodies of some interneurons aggregate
in specialized masses called nuclei
Motor (efferent) neurons: multipolar neurons that conduct impulses from the CNS to
peripheral effectors (muscles or glands)
Neuroglia
Neuroglia (glial cells, “nerve glue”) are cells that support neurons
Functions: fill spaces, structurally support, protect, and insulate neurons
Do not generate or conduct nerve impulses
Four types in CNS, two types in PNS

CNS Neuroglia
Microglia: small cells that function as phagocytes for bacterial cells and cellular debris and
produce scar tissue in sites of injury
Oligodendrocytes: form the myelin sheath around axons in the brain and spinal cord
Ependymal cells produce cerebrospinal fluid in CNS
Astrocytes: lie between blood vessels and neurons; functions:
Structural support
Regulation of nutrient and ion concentration
Formation of the blood-brain barrier, which protects brain tissue from chemical
fluctuation and prevents entry of many substances

PNS Neuroglia
Schwann cells: produce the myelin sheath around PNS axons
Satellite cells: provide protective coating around cell bodies of neurons in the PNS

Regeneration of Neurons
Damaged PNS neurons are able to regenerate their axons, because the neurilemma of their
Schwann cells helps guide the growing axon to its original connection point
CNS axons are myelinated by oligodendrocytes, which lack a neurilemma, so they usually
do not regenerate

Charges Inside a Cell

Cell membranes of neurons exhibit polarity, meaning that the charge inside the membrane
is different from the charge outside the membrane
Due to unequal distribution of ions on both sides of the cell membrane, the inside of the cell
is more negative than the outside
Neurons and muscle cells are excitable, since they can respond to stimuli by moving their
internal charge into the positive range
Changing the charge inside the cell starts a sequence of events, which allows neurons to
communicate

Membrane Potential and Distribution of Ions

Membrane Potential: the charge inside a cell
Resting Membrane Potential: the charge in a cell when it is at rest; this is about -70 mV in
neurons
Charge inside a neuron results from unequal distribution of ions inside and outside of cells
There is a greater concentration of sodium ions on the outside the cells than inside, and a
greater concentration of potassium ions inside the cells than outside
Many large negatively charged ions and proteins are found on the inside of cells

Stimulation and the Action Potential

A neuron remains at rest until stimulated
A stimulus can change resting potential in either direction
An excitatory stimulus opens chemically-gated Na + channels, Na+ ions flow into cell
due to concentration gradient, causing inside of neuron to become less negative
Threshold stimulus: a stimulus strong enough to cause so many Na + ions to enter
 neuron, that potential changes from -70 to -55 mV (the threshold potential)
Upon reaching threshold potential, voltage-gated Na + channels open, changing charge
to about +30 mV; this begins an action potential
Change from negative to positive charge inside neuron is called depolarization, since now,
inside and outside are both positive
Reaching an action potential is all-or-none response:
Action potential either occurs or does not
An action potential occurs when the charge reaches -55 mV
Action potentials of a neuron are all of the same strength
When an action potential is reached, cell responds by returning to resting potential (-70
mV) by process of repolarization
Repolarization returns the polarized state and is accomplished by outward flow of
potassium ions through potassium channels
At end of repolarization, a slight overshoot called hyperpolarization occurs, in which
potential dips below -70 mV
Finally, the Na*/K+ pump moves Na+ ions back out of the cell and K+ ions back into the
cell

Transmission of the signal at synapses

Step 1: When the action potential reaches the axon terminal, the electrical charge opens
calcium channels and calcium enters the axon terminal
Step 2: The entry of calcium into the axon terminal causes the tiny vesicles containing the
neurotransmitter chemical to fuse with the axonal membrane
Step 3: The vesicles fusing with the membrane creates pore-like openings to form, releasing
the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
Step 4: The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to
receptors on the membrane of the next neuron
Step 5: If enough neurotransmitter is released, the opening of ligand-gated channels
generates a graded potential
Eventually an action potential (nerve impulse) will occur in the neuron beyond the synapse
Step 6: The electrical changes prompted by neurotransmitter binding are brief
Within a few milliseconds, the neurotransmitter effect is terminated by
enzymatic degradation
reuptake through transport proteins,
diffusion away from the synaptic cleft

Impulse Conduction
An action potential at the trigger zone causes an electrical current to flow to adjacent
regions of the axon’s membrane
This spreads by a local current flowing down the fiber that stimulates the next region and
continues down the axon to the axon terminal
This process is called impulse conduction
Refractory period: period during and after an action potential, during which a threshold
stimulus will not cause another action potential:
Limits frequency of action potentials
Ensures the impulse is only transmitted in one direction – down the axon

Types of Impulse Conduction

Continuous conduction:
Occurs in unmyelinated axons
Conduct impulses sequentially over the entire length of their membrane
Saltatory conduction:
 Occurs in myelinated axons
The myelin sheath insulates axons from ion movement across the cell membrane
Impulses “jump” from one Node of Ranvier to the next, since sodium and potassium
channels occur only at the nodes
Speed of impulse conduction is proportional to axon diameter:
Thick, myelinated motor axons conduct at 120 m/s
Thin, unmyelinated sensory axons conduct at 0.5 m/s

The Synapse
A synapse is a junction between 2 communicating neurons
The small gap between the neurons is called the synaptic cleft; the impulse must be
conveyed across the cleft
The neuron sending the impulse is the presynaptic neuron
The neuron receiving the impulse is the postsynaptic neuron
Neural communication across the cleft is called synaptic transmission
Communication is accomplished by a chemical called a neurotransmitter, which is stored in
synaptic vesicles and released from an expansion at the distal end of the presynaptic
neuron, called the synaptic knob
Neurotransmitters are released in response to a nerve impulse reaching the synaptic knob;
they diffuse across the cleft and bind to receptors on the membrane of the
postsynaptic neuron

Excitatory and Inhibitory Actions:

Excitatory Neurotransmitters:
Increase entry of Na+ ions into postsynaptic neuron
Bring membrane closer to threshold, making action potential more likely
Inhibitory Neurotransmitters:
Increase flow of Cl- ions into neuron or flow od K+ ions out of neuron
Makes charge inside the neuron more negative, making action potential less likely
The postsynaptic neuron may have many presynaptic neurons influencing it, so it sums
the excitatory and inhibitory inputs from all of these neurons to derive its response

Neurotransmitters
More than 100 neurotransmitters are produced in synaptic knobs and stored in synaptic
vesicles
Neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, monoamines, amino acids, neuropeptides
The action of the neurotransmitter depends on type of receptors in a specific synapse
Some neurons produce one type of neurotransmitter, while others produce two or three

Neurotransmitter Recycling
After acting on postsynaptic cell, neurotransmitter effects must be stopped
Destruction or removal of the neurotransmitter prevents continuous stimulation of the
postsynaptic neuron
Enzymes in synaptic clefts and on postsynaptic membranes rapidly decompose the
neurotransmitters after their release; example: acetylcholinesterase breaks down
acetylcholine
Some neurotransmitters travel back into the presynaptic neuron for reuse; this is called
reuptake
Some neurotransmitters diffuse away

Impulse Processing
How impulses are processed is dependent upon how neurons are organized in the brain and
 spinal cord
Neuronal Pools:
Neurons within the CNS are organized into neuronal pools with varying numbers of cells
that work together
Each pool receives input from afferent neurons and processes the information according
to the special characteristics of the pool
A neuron in a pool might receive both excitatory and inhibitory input
If net input is excitatory, but does not sum to the threshold potential, there will be no
nerve impulse
If net excitatory input sums to the threshold potential, a nerve impulse occurs

Facilitation, Convergence, and Divergence

Facilitation:
An increase in the release of neurotransmitter in response to one impulse, which occurs in
an excitatory presynaptic neuron upon repeated stimulation; this response increases
the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will reach threshold
Convergence:
The transmission of nerve impulses to a single neuron within a pool from two or more
fibers; this makes it possible for the neuron to summate impulses from different
sources
Divergence:
The transmission of nerve impulses from a neuron in a pool to several output fibers; this
serves to amplify an impulse

Types of Nerves
A nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers (axons) in the PNS
Types of nerves:
Sensory (afferent) nerves conduct impulses to the CNS; their axons are called sensory or
afferent fibers
Motor (efferent) nerves carry impulses from the CNS to effectors; their axons are called
motor or efferent fibers
Mixed nerves carry both sensory and motor fibers; most nerves are of this type
Connective tissue coverings:
Epineurium: outer covering of a nerve
Perineurium: covering around fascicles (bundles) of nerve fibers
Endoneurium: covering around individual nerve fibers (axons)

Neural Pathways
The routes nerve impulses travel are called neural pathways, the simplest of which is a
reflex arc
Reflex arcs provide the basis for involuntary actions called reflexes
Components of a reflex arc:
A sensory receptor that detects changes
A sensory neuron, that carries the information from a receptor toward the CNS
An interneuron in the CNS (reflex center)
A motor neuron, that carries a command to effectors
An effector (muscle or gland that carries out the reflex) that responds to the initial
change

Reflexes
Rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli
Occur over neural pathways called reflex arcs
Somatic reflexes
Reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles
Involuntary, although skeletal muscle is normally under voluntary control
Example: pulling your hand away from a hot object
Autonomic reflexes
Regulate the activity of smooth muscles, the heart, and glands
Example: vasoconstriction/dilation, heart and blood pressure, etc.
Stimuli (response): the aroma of your favorite food (salivation), a nasty odor
(nausea), a bright light to your eye (pupil contraction), an insect flying toward
your eyes (blinking)

Reflex Behavior
The patellar (knee-jerk) reflex is an example of a simple reflex; it contains only two
neurons, sensory and motor, and lacks an interneuron
Striking the patellar ligament stretches the quadriceps femoris muscle and tendon,
stimulating stretch receptors
Sensory neurons transmit nerve impulses to the spinal cord, where they synapse with
motor neurons, and issue a motor command
Motor neurons transmit the impulses to the quadriceps femoris muscle group, which
contracts in response; this extends the knee
This reflex helps maintain upright posture

Withdrawal reflex:
Occurs in response to touching something painful, such as stepping on a tack (or laying a
hand on a hot stove)
Involves sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons:
Sensory receptors send pain messages along sensory neurons to the spinal cord
Sensory neurons send impulses to interneurons, where information is coordinated
Interneurons issue motor commands to motor neurons
Motor signals are sent to flexor muscles to contract
At the same time, the antagonistic extensor muscles are inhibited, and message is
sent to the brain for awareness
Serves a protective function, as it limits tissue damage

Nervous System Terminology

White matter: collections of myelinated fibers (tracts)
Gray matter: mostly unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies
Nuclei: clusters of cell bodies in the CNS
Ganglia: collections of cell bodies in the PNS
Tracts: bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS
Nerves: bundles of nerve fibers in the PNS

Central Nervous System

Meninges
The brain and spinal cord are surrounded by 3 membranes called meninges that lie
between the skull bones & vertebrae and the soft CNS tissues
The meninges consist of the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater

Dura mater:
Outermost layer of meninges
Made up of tough, dense connective tissue, and is very thick
Contains many blood vessels
Forms the internal periosteum of the skull bones
In some areas, the dura mater forms partitions between lobes of the brain, and in others, it
forms dural sinuses
The sheath around the spinal cord is separated from the vertebrae by an epidural space

Arachnoid mater:
The middle layer of meninges
Thin, web-like layer that lacks blood vessels
Between the arachnoid and pia mater is the subarachnoid space, which contains
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Pia mater:
The innermost layer of the meninges
Thin layer, which contains many blood vessels and nerves
Attached to the surface of the brain and spinal cord and follows their contours
Meninges of the Brain
The Meninges of the Brain
The Meninges of the Spinal Cord
Meninges – spinal cord

Spinal cord:
Begins at the base of the brain at the foramen magnum
Extends as a thin cord to the level of the intervertebral disc between the 1 st and 2nd
lumbar vertebrae
Cervical enlargement:
A thickened area near top of spinal cord
Provides nerves to upper limbs
Lumbar enlargement:
A thickened region near the bottom of the spinal cord
Gives rise to nerves that serve the lower limbs
Cauda equina (horse’s tail):
Structure formed where spinal cord tapers to a point inferiorly
Consists of spinal nerves in the lumbar & sacral areas

Structure of the Spinal Cord

Spinal cord consists of 31 segments, each of which connects to a pair of spinal nerves
Two deep grooves (anterior median fissure and posterior median sulcus) divide the cord
into right and left halves
White matter, made up of bundles of myelinated nerve fibers (nerve tracts), surrounds a
butterfly-shaped core of gray matter housing interneurons and neuron cell bodies
Cell bodies of sensory neurons that enter the spinal cord are found in the posterior root
ganglia outside the spinal cord
The upper and lower wings of gray matter form the posterior and anterior horns; between
them is the lateral horn
The gray matter divides the white matter into three regions: anterior, lateral and posterior
funiculi (columns), each consisting of longitudinal bundles of axons called tracts

Functions of the Spinal Cord

Major functions: transmit impulses to and from the brain, and house spinal reflexes
Ascending tracts carry sensory information to the brain; descending tracts carry motor
information from brain to muscles or glands
The names that identify nerve tracts identify the origin and termination of the fibers in the
tract:
Spinothalamic tracts: carry sensory information from the spinal cord to the thalamus
Corticospinal tracts (pyramidal tracts): carry motor impulses from the cerebral cortex to the
spinal cord; pass through pyramid-shaped areas in the medulla oblongata
Extrapyramidal tracts: descending tracts involved with balance and posture
Spinal reflexes: controlled by reflex arcs that pass through the spinal cord

The Brain
The brain is the largest, most complex portion of the nervous system, containing 100 billion
multipolar neurons and many neuroglia to support the neurons

The 4 main parts of the brain:

Cerebrum:
Diencephalon:
Cerebellum:
Brainstem:

Structure of the Cerebrum

The cerebrum is the largest portion of the mature brain
Consists of 2 cerebral hemispheres, which are mirror images
Corpus callosum: flat bundle of nerve fibers that connects the hemispheres
The surface of the brain is marked by these features:
Gyri (singular is gyrus):
Sulci (singular is sulcus):
Fissures (longitudinal and transverse): deep grooves
A thin layer of gray matter, the cerebral cortex, lies on the outside of the cerebrum, and
contains 75% of the neuron cell bodies in the nervous system
Beneath the cortex lies a mass of white matter made up of myelinated nerve fibers
connecting the cell bodies of the cerebral cortex with the rest of the nervous system

Cerebrum
Each hemisphere is divided into lobes:
Frontal lobe: important in the control of voluntary motor functions, motivation, aggression,
mood, and olfactory reception
Parietal lobe: reception and conscious perception of most sensory information such as
touch, taste, temperature, pain and balance
Occipital lobe: reception and perception of visual input
Temporal lobe: olfactory and auditory sensations, memory, and abstract thought and
judgment (anterior and inferior portions)
The fifth lobe is the insula; it lies deep in the lateral sulcus

Functions of the Cerebrum

The cerebrum provides higher brain functions:
Interpretation of sensory input
Initiating voluntary muscular movements
Stores information for memory
Integrates information for reasoning
Intelligence
Personality

Functional Areas of the Cerebral Cortex

The functional areas of the brain overlap, but the cortex can generally be divided into
sensory, association, and motor areas

The sensory areas are located in several areas of the cerebrum; they interpret sensory
input, producing feelings or sensations:
Cutaneous (somatic) senses: anterior parietal lobe (primary somatic sensory area)
Visual area
Auditory area
Taste area
Smell area
Sensory fibers from the PNS cross over in the spinal cord or the brainstem; this results in
sensory impulses from the right side of the body being interpreted by centers in the left
cerebral hemisphere

Association areas of the brain analyze and interpret sensory impulses, and function in
reasoning, judgment, emotions, verbalizing ideas, and storing memory:
Association areas of the frontal lobe control many higher intellectual processes (planning,
problem solving)
Association areas of the parietal lobe function in understanding speech and choosing the
proper words
Association areas in occipital lobe help analyze visual patterns and combine visual images
with other sensory information
Association areas next to sensory areas are important for analyzing the sensory input
A general interpretive area is found at the junction of the parietal, temporal, and occipital
lobes
Not all association areas are bilateral; Wernicke’s area of the temporal lobe is usually on
the left side only; it helps with understanding of written and spoken language

The primary motor areas lie in the posterior frontal lobes, anterior to the central sulcus
Includes the pyramidal cells (upper motor neurons); synapse with lower motor neurons that
exit the spinal cord and reach the skeletal muscles
There is crossover (decussation) in the brainstem in motor systems
Broca’s motor speech area is in the frontal lobe, usually on the left side; controls muscle
movements for speech
Frontal eye field in the frontal lobe controls voluntary eye movements

Hemisphere Dominance
Both cerebral hemispheres receive and analyze sensory input and send motor impulses to
the opposite side of the body, but one side is the dominant hemisphere in most people
For most people, the left hemisphere is dominant for the language-related activities of
speech, writing, and reading, as well as complex intellectual functions
In some individuals, the right hemisphere is dominant, and others show equal dominance in
both hemispheres
The nondominant hemisphere specializes in nonverbal functions, such as body orientation
in space, and controls emotions and intuitive thinking
The nerve fibers of the corpus callosum connect the two hemispheres

The Basal Nuclei

The basal nuclei are masses of gray matter (nuclei) located deep within the cerebral
hemispheres
Basal nuclei are also called basal ganglia
Consist of the caudate nucleus, the putamen, and the globus pallidus, and the substantia
nigra
Produce the inhibitory neurotransmitter, dopamine
Relay motor impulses from the cerebrum and help facilitate and control motor activities
(movement) by interacting with the motor cortex, thalamus, and cerebellum

The Diencephalon
The diencephalon lies between the cerebral hemispheres and above the midbrain:
Surrounds the third ventricle
Consists of mainly gray matter
Main parts are the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus
Other portions of the diencephalon:
Optic tracts and optic chiasma
Infundibulum (attachment of the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus)
Posterior pituitary
Mammillary bodies
Pineal gland

Functions of the Thalamus

Functions of the thalamus include:
Sorting and directing sensory information arriving from other parts of the nervous
system to the cerebral cortex
Producing general awareness of the sensation, such as pain, touch and temperature

Functions of the Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus maintains homeostasis by regulating a wide variety of visceral activities,
and by linking the endocrine system with the nervous system:
Regulates heart rate and arterial blood pressure
Controls movements and secretions of the digestive tract
Helps to regulate sleep and wakefulness
Stimulates the posterior pituitary gland to secrete stored hormones
Produces hormones that cause the anterior pituitary gland to secrete its hormones

Diencephalon: Epithalamus
Dorsal portion of diencephalon; forms the roof of the third ventricle
Includes the choroid plexus - forms cerebrospinal fluid

The Limbic System

The limbic system (aka the paleomammalian cortex), in the area of the diencephalon,
controls emotional experience and expression
Consists of several structures, including parts of the cerebral cortex, deep masses of gray
matter (thalamus, hypothalamus, basal nuclei)
Modifies behavior by producing feelings of fear, anger, pleasure, sorrow
By generating pleasant or unpleasant feelings about experiences, the limbic system guides
behavior that may enhance the chance of survival

The Brainstem
The brainstem consists of:
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata
Lies at the base of the cerebrum
Connects the cerebrum, diencephalon, and cerebellum to the spinal cord
The Brainstem: Midbrain
Located between the diencephalon and pons
Contains bundles of myelinated nerve fibers that convey impulses to and from higher
centers of the brain
Contains masses of gray matter that serve as centers for auditory and visual reflexes
Contains main motor pathways between cerebrum and lower portions of the nervous
system

The Brainstem: Pons

Lies between the midbrain and medulla oblongata
Transmits impulses to and from medulla oblongata and cerebrum
Also conducts impulses from cerebrum to cerebellum
Contains centers that help regulate the rate and depth of breathing

The Brainstem: Medulla Oblongata

The medulla oblongata extends from pons to foramen magnum
Transmits all ascending and descending impulses between brain and spinal cord
Most of the corticospinal tracts cross over in the pyramids of the medulla oblongata
The medulla oblongata houses nuclei that control visceral functions:
Cardiac center: alters heart rate
Vasomotor center: controls vasoconstriction and vasodilation of blood vessels; helps
control blood pressure
Respiratory center: Controls rate and depth of breathing
Also contains nuclei that control reflexes such as coughing, sneezing, swallowing, vomiting

The Brainstem: Reticular Formation

Reticular formation or reticular activating system:
Network of nerve fibers connecting small masses of gray matter scattered throughout the
brainstem
Neurons in reticular formation connect parts of hypothalamus, basal nuclei, cerebellum,
and cerebrum with the major ascending and descending tracts
Injury to the reticular formation results in a comatose state
The reticular formation filters incoming sensory impulses (99% of repetitive and weak
stimuli)

Cerebellum
The cerebellum is located beneath the occipital lobes of the cerebrum, posterior to the
brainstem
Consists of two hemispheres connected by the vermis
A thin layer of gray matter called the cerebellar cortex lies outside a core of white matter
called the arbor vitae
The cerebellum communicates with other parts of the CNS through three pairs of tracts, the
cerebellar peduncles
Functions of cerebellum:
Integrates sensory information about the position of body parts
Coordinates skeletal muscle activity
Maintains posture
Ensures that movement occurs in the desired manner

Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

Ventricles: a series of connected cavities within the cerebral hemispheres and brainstem
Continuous with central canal of spinal cord and subarachnoid space; all of these cavities
are filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Flow of CSF proceeds through the ventricles and channels in this order:
Two lateral ventricles
Interventricular foramina
Third ventricle
Cerebral aqueduct
Fourth ventricle, which is continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord and the
subarachnoid space of the meninges

Choroid Plexuses
Choroid plexuses are masses containing specialized capillaries from the pia mater and
ependymal cells
Found in all four ventricles
Secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) into the ventricles; most CSF arises in the lateral ventricles
CSF circulates through ventricles and connecting passageways into the subarachnoid space,
where it is reabsorbed back into the blood through the arachnoid villi
CSF completely surrounds brain and spinal cord
CSF has nutritive as well as protective (cushioning) functions

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Consists of nerves that connect the CNS to body parts
Consists of cranial nerves, arising from the brain, and spinal nerves, arising from the spinal
cord
Contains sensory and motor divisions
The motor part of the PNS is made up of 2 portions:
Somatic nervous system, which connects the CNS to skeletal muscles and the skin
and oversees conscious activities
Autonomic nervous system, which connects the CNS to viscera, and controls
subconscious activities

Cranial Nerves
Twelve pairs of cranial nerves arise from the underside of the brain
Most are mixed nerves, containing sensory and motor nerve fibers, but some are only
sensory, and others are primarily motor
The first pair arises from the cerebrum, and the second pair from the thalamus, and the rest
arise from the brainstem
The 12 pairs are designated by number and name; the numbers are in order, from superior
to inferior
Cranial Nerves
I Olfactory nerve – sensory for smell
II Optic nerve – sensory for vision
III Oculomotor nerve – motor fibers to eye muscles
IV Trochlear nerve – motor to superior oblique eye muscle
V Trigeminal nerve – mixed, sensory for the face; motor fibers to chewing muscles
VI Abducens nerve – motor fibers to eye muscles
VII Facial nerve – mixed, sensory for taste; motor fibers to the face
VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve – sensory for balance and hearing
IX Glossopharyngeal nerve – sensory for taste; motor fibers to the pharynx
X Vagus nerve – mixed, sensory and motor fibers for pharynx, larynx, and viscera
XI Accessory nerve – motor fibers to neck and upper back
XII Hypoglossal nerve – motor fibers to tongue

Spinal Nerves
31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from spinal cord
All except the first pair are mixed nerves
Grouped according to the level from which they arise
Numbered in sequence: 8 pairs of cervical nerves, 12 pairs of thoracic nerves, 5 pairs
of lumbar nerves, 5 pairs of sacral nerves and 1 pair of coccygeal nerves
Each arises from two roots: a sensory posterior root, and a motor anterior root
Each posterior root contains a posterior root ganglion, which houses the cell bodies of
sensory neurons entering the spinal cord
The anterior and posterior roots unite to form a spinal nerve, which extends out of the
vertebral canal through the intervertebral foramen
Location and Branching of the Spinal Nerves

Spinal Nerve Plexuses

The main branches of spinal nerves, except in the thoracic region, form networks called
plexuses:
Cervical Plexuses (C1 to C4): lie on either side of the neck; supply muscles and skin of the
neck; include the phrenic nerves, which control the diaphragm
Brachial Plexuses (C5 to T1): arise from lower cervical and upper thoracic nerves; supply
muscles and skin of arms, forearms, and hands; lead into the upper limbs; include the
musculocutaneous, ulnar, median, radial, and axillary nerves
Lumbosacral Plexuses (L1 to S4): arise from the lower spinal cord; supply muscles and skin
of the lower abdomen, external genitalia, buttocks, and legs; include the obturator,
femoral, and sciatic nerves
Anterior branches of the thoracic spinal nerves do not form plexuses but become the
intercostal nerves
Plexuses serve to sort and recombine spinal nerve axons, so that axons derived from
different spinal nerves extend to the same part of the body in the same peripheral nerve

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Portion of the PNS that functions constantly and independently, without conscious effort
Controls visceral motor functions of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
Helps maintain homeostasis, responds to emotional stress, and prepares the body for
strenuous activity
Controls heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, body temperature

General Characteristics of the ANS

Autonomic activities are regulated by reflexes that have sensory receptors in the viscera
and skin
Impulses are conducted to the brain or spinal cord; then motor impulses travel through
cranial and spinal nerves, then through ganglia, and finally to effectors (muscles or glands)
Two divisions of the ANS, which exert opposing effects on target organs in many cases:
Sympathetic division: active in conditions of stress or emergency (fight or flight)
Parasympathetic division: active under normal, restful conditions (rest and digest)
Autonomic Neurons
ANS neurons are all motor neurons
In the ANS, motor pathways consist of two neurons:
A preganglionic neuron, that leaves the CNS, and synapses with one or more neurons,
which have cell bodies in an autonomic ganglion in the PNS
A postganglionic neuron, whose fiber (axon) leaves an autonomic ganglion, and innervates
 a visceral effector

Sympathetic Division
Short preganglionic fibers in the sympathetic division arise from neurons in the gray matter
in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord (T1 to L2); aka thoracolumbar
division
Axons exit the spinal cord via ventral roots of spinal nerves
The axons then leave the spinal nerves, and proceed into the sympathetic (paravertebral)
ganglia, a chain of sympathetic ganglia close to the vertebral column on each side
There they synapse with postganglionic neurons, whose long axons return to spinal nerves
and then proceed to a visceral effector
Sometimes, preganglionic fibers pass right through the paravertebral ganglia, and synapse
in collateral ganglia, closer to the target organs

Parasympathetic Division
Long preganglionic fibers in the parasympathetic division arise from the brainstem and
sacral region of the spinal cord; aka craniosacral division
The preganglionic fibers extend outward in cranial or sacral nerves, and synapse in terminal
ganglia close to or in visceral effector organs
Short postganglionic fibers continue into the effector organs (muscles or glands)

Autonomic Neurotransmitters
Preganglionic fibers of sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions all release acetylcholine;
they are called cholinergic fibers
Parasympathetic postganglionic fibers are cholinergic fibers and release acetylcholine
Most sympathetic postganglionic fibers release norepinephrine (noradrenalin); they are
called adrenergic fibers
The effects of the two divisions of the ANS are often different, due to the effects of the
different postganglionic neurotransmitters
Most organs receive innervation from both divisions, usually with opposing effects
Some effectors are innervated by only one division; example: blood vessels are only under
sympathetic control

Control of Autonomic Activity

The autonomic nervous system is mainly controlled by control centers in the brain and
spinal cord
The limbic system and cerebral cortex alter the reactions of the autonomic nervous system
through emotional influence