AC power circuit analysis
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
POWER ANALYSIS
Power is the most important quantity in electric utilities, electronic, and
communication systems, because such systems involve transmission of power
from one point to another.
Also, every industrial and household electrical device every fan, motor, lamp,
pressing iron, TV, personal computer—has a power rating that indicates how
much power the equipment requires; exceeding the power rating can do
permanent damage to an appliance.
The most common form of electric power is 50- or 60-Hz ac power. The choice
of ac over dc allowed high-voltage power transmission from the power
generating plant to the consumer.
As we mentioned in the previous chapter, the instantaneous power p(t) absorbed
by an element is the product of the instantaneous voltage v(t) across the element
and the instantaneous current i(t) through it. Assuming the passive sign
convention.
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This shows us that the instantaneous power has two parts. The first part
is constant or time independent. Its value depends on the phase
difference between the voltage and the current. The second part is a
sinusoidal function whose frequency is 2ω, which is twice the angular
frequency of the voltage or current.
A sketch of p(t) in Eq. (11.5) is shown in Fig. 11.2, where T =2π/ω is
the period of voltage or current. We observe that p(t) is periodic ,p(t) =
p(t + T0), and has a period of T0 = T /2, since its frequency is twice that
of voltage or current. We also observe that p(t) is positive for some part
of each cycle and negative for the rest of the cycle.
When p(t) is positive, power is absorbed by the circuit. When p(t) is
negative, power is absorbed by the source; that is, power is transferred
from the circuit to the source. This is possible because of the storage
elements (capacitors and inductors) in the circuit
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Following the passive sign convention (see Fig. 1.8), this average power
is absorbed by the source, in view of the direction of I2 and the polarity of the voltage
source. That is, the circuit is delivering average power to the voltage source.
Fig. 1.8)
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11.3 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER
we solved the problem of maximizing the power delivered by a power-supplying
resistive network to a load R L. Representing the circuit by its Thevenin
equivalent, we proved that the maximum power would be delivered to the load if
the load resistance is equal to the Thevenin resistance R L = RTh . We now
extend that result to ac circuits.
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From Eq. (11.36), the power factor may be seen as that factor by which
the apparent power must be multiplied to obtain the real or average
power. The value of pf ranges between zero and unity.
For a purely resistive load, the voltage and current are in phase, so
that θ v − θ i = 0 and pf= 1. This implies that the apparent power is
equal to the average power.
For a purely reactive load, θ v − θ i = ±90◦ and pf = 0. In this case the
average power is zero. In between these two extreme cases, pf is said
to be leading or lagging.
Leading power factor means that current leads voltage, which implies
a capacitive load. Lagging power factor means that current lags
voltage, implying an inductive load.
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It is a standard practice to represent S, P , and Q in the form of a
triangle, known as the power triangle, shown in Fig. 11.21(a).
This is similar to the impedance triangle showing the relationship
bet ween Z, R, and X, illustrated in Fig. 11.21(b).
The power triangle has four items—the apparent/complex power,
real power, reactive power, and the power factor angle. Given two of
these items, the other two can easily be obtained from the triangle.
As shown in Fig. 11.22, when S lies in the first quadrant, we have an
inductive load and a lagging pf. When S lies in the fourth quadrant,
the load is capacitive and the pf is leading.
It is also possible for the complex power to lie in the second or third
quadrant.
This requires that the load impedance have a negative resistance,
which is possible with active circuits.
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11.8. POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
Most domestic loads (such as washing machines, air conditioners, and
refrigerators) and industrial loads (such as induction motors) are
inductive and operate at a low lagging power factor.
Although the inductive nature of the load cannot be changed, we can
increase its power factor Since most loads are inductive, as shown in
Fig. 11.27(a), a load’s power factor is improved or corrected by
deliberately installing a capacitor in parallel with the load, as shown in
Fig. 11.27(b).
The effect of adding the capacitor can be illustrated using either the
power triangle or the phasor diagram of the currents involved. Figure
11.28 shows the latter, where it is assumed that the circuit in Fig.
11.27(a) has a power factor of cos θ1 , while the one in Fig. 11.27(b) has
a power factor of cos θ2 .
It is evident from Fig. 11.28 that adding the capacitor has caused the phase
angle between the supplied voltage and current to reduce from θ1 to θ2 ,
thereby increasing the power factor.
We also notice from the magnitudes of the vectors in Fig. 11.28 that with
the same supplied voltage, the circuit in Fig. 11.27(a) draws larger current
IL than the current I drawn by the circuit in Fig. 11.27(b). Power
companies charge more for larger currents, because they result in
increased power losses (by a squared factor, since
P = I ^2L R.
Therefore, it is beneficial to both the power company and the consumer
that every effort is made to minimize current level or keep the power factor
as close to unity as possible. By choosing a suitable size for the capacitor,
the current can be made to be completely in phase with the voltage,
implying unity power factor.
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