Marks

SL. Name of the Date Signature Signature

(Max10)
No. experiment Conduction Repetition
(Student) ( Staff )
Transistor
1 characteristics
LCR (series &
2 parallel)
3 Photo diode
characteristics
4 Diffraction Grating

5 Newtons Rings

6 Numerical aperture
and angle
acceptance
7 Four Probe Method

8 Planck’s constant

9 Energy Gap of
Semiconductory
10 Quantum Gate

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 1

 Transistor characteristics
Experiment No:1 Date:
Aim :

To draw the input and output characteristics of transister & hence determine the knee
voltage (Vk), input resistance (Ri ), output resistance (Ro), current gain (α) and current
amplification factor (

Apparatus :

Transistor, Resistor, Ammeter, voltmeter, including variable DC sources.

Formula :

1. Current gain α =

2. Current amplification factor β = .

Where,
∆Ic = IC2 - IC1= Change in collector current in mA..
∆IB = IB2- IB1 = Change in base current in µA.
Procedure:

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 2

 The emitter, base and collector terminals of a transistor are identified. The measuring
electrical instruments are checked for good working conditions. The circuit connections are
made as shown in the diagram. For every characteristic, before the circuit is closed, the
potentiometer knobs must be set to read the minimum.

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS :

1. Circuit connections are made as shown in the figure.

2. The output voltage VCE is set to 4 volt & is kept constant.
3. The input current IB is noted for different values input voltage V BE. All reading are
tabulated.
4. Plot a graph IB verses VBE. The Knee voltage is measured by taking the X-Intercept of
extra plotted linear portion of the cure.

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS :

1. Input current IB is set to 25μA & is kept constant.

[Link] current IC is noted for different values output voltage V CE & all readings are
tabulated.
3. The procedure is repeated for IB=50μA also .
4. Plot a graph IC verses VCE for each value of Iband determine the transistor parameters.

Result :

1. Knee voltage (Vk) = ………….. Volt.

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 3
 2. DC current gain (α) = ……………
3. Current amplification factor (β) = ………….

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION

Circuit diagram :

Input chraracteristics : Graph :

VCE = 4 volt
VBE in
Volts IB in µA
0.1
0.2
0.3
Engg. Physics
0.4 Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Output characteristics : Graph :
IB1 = 25 µA IB2 = 50 µA
VCE in Volt
Ic1 in mA Ic2in mA
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0

Calculations :

Knee voltage for CE mode, Vk = …………….. Volt.

DC current gain (α) = = …………… = ………………..

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 5

Current amplification factor β= =

LCR Series and parallel Resonance

Experiment No:2 Date:

Aim :

To study the frequency response of a series and parallel LCR circuits & hence determine the
co-efficient of self inductance, resonant frequency , band width & Quality factor And also
compared with theoretical values.
Formula :

1. Self inductance L = mH; f0= resonant frequency in Hz,

C = Capacitance of the capacitor in μF.

2. Band width BW = f2-f1 in KHz

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 6

 Where, f1 & f2 are the cut off frequencies at for series ; & for parallel

resonance. f0 ( Theoritical ) = in KHz.

3. Quality factor, Q = .

ocedure :

For series :

1. The circuit connections are made as shown in figure (1).

2. Current through the circuit at different frequencies is recorded.
3. A graph of current verses frequency is plotted. From graph the required practical values
to be calculated.
4. The graph shows a peak indicating maximum current at particular frequency. This
frequency is the resonant frequency. Using this inductance l is calculated.
For Parallel :

1. Circuit connections are made as shown in figure (2).

2. Experimental procedure is repeated as same as in the series circuit.

Result : For series :

fo(experimental)=……………KHz, fo(Theoritical)=…………………KHz.

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 7

 Q ( experimental)=………………..,

Q ( Theoiritical)=…………………..

Band width BW = ………………KHz,

Self inductance L = …………………….mH

For Parallel :
fo (experimental)=………,,,……KHz, fo(Theoritical)=…………………KHz.
Q ( experimental)=………………
Q ( Theoiritical)=………………….
Band width BW = ………,,,,……KHz,
Self inductance L = …………….mH

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION

LCR series Resonance :

Circuit diagram : Nature of Graph

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 8

Tabular column :

Sl. Frequency Current in mA

No. in KHz
1 1
2 1.5
3 2
4 2.5 Calculations :
5 3
6 3.5
7 4 fo(Theoritical)=
8 4.5
9 5 =…………………………………………
10 5.5
11 6
12 6.5
13 7 =
14 ………………….KHz
15
16

Self inductance L= =………………………………………

=……………………..mH

Q ( Theoiritical)= =……………………………

C = …………… µF
R = ……………Ω
Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 9
L = ……………mH

LCR parallel Resonance :

Circuit diagram : Nature of Graph

Tabular column :

Sl. Frequency Current in mA Calculations :

No. in KHz
1 1 fo(Theoritical) =
2 1.5
3 2 =…………………………………………
4 2.5
5 3
6 3.5 =………………….KHz
7 4
8 4.5
9 5
10 5.5
Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 10
11 6
12 6.5
13 7
14
15
16
 Self inductance L = =……………………………………

=………………………..mH

Q ( Theoiritical)= =…………………………….

C = …………… µF

R = ……………Ω
L = ……………mH

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 11

 I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF A PHOTO DIODE

Experiment No : 3 Date :

Aim: I-V characteristic curves are drawn and the variation of PD current with input light power
is studied

Apparatus : 0-3V regulated power supply, 0-2mA digital dc current meter, 0-20V digital dc
volt meter, white light LED module, and photo diode LED type.

Procedure :
1. The LED (white light) and PD are placed face to face as shown in Figure-4, and the light
arrangement is switched on. LED power is set to 10mW by turning the knob to its
minimum position. After ensuring that the LED is glowing and while noting the PD
current in the meter, the cover is placed so that any external light will not affect the
readings. Positive terminal of the PD (p) is connected to the negative terminal of the
power supply and negative of the PD is connected to positive terminal of the power
supply. This reverse biases the photo diode.
2. The voltage across PD is set to -1V by varying 0-3V power supply. The PD current I PD is
noted.
VPD = -1V, IPD =-393µA

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 12

 3. The LED power is increased to 11mW and V PD is again set to -1V and the corresponding
PD current is noted in Table-1.
4. The trial is repeated by varying the input power to 12mW, 13mW etc. reaching up to
50mW. In each case VPD is set to -1V and IPD is noted in Table-1.
5. A graph showing the variation of LED power on X-axis and PD current on Y axis is
drawn as shown in Figure-6. A straight line graph is obtained, slope of which gives the
value of responsivity.
6. The LED power is set to 10mW on the dial and V PD is set to -0.10V and the
corresponding IPD is noted
IPD=-19µA
7. The trial is repeated by increasing V PD in suitable steps up to a maximum of -2V. The
corresponding IPD values are noted.
8. The experiment is repeated by increasing the LED power to 20, 30, 40 and 50mW in
steps. In each case variation in VPD and corresponding IPD are noted.
9. A graph is drawn taking VPD along X-axis and IPD along Y-axis as shown in Figure-8. The
equal spacing between characteristic curves indicates linearity of photo current with light
intensity which is clearly indicated in fig..
10. Another graph showing the PD resistance variation with light is shown Figure. From
which one can see how the pn-junction resistance vary with light power.

Result: Photo diode Characteristic is studied.

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 13

 OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION

Circuit:
0-2mA
+5V
2.2K
LED
IPD
0-3V VPD
PD
100K

220

LED
Calibrated Current
in mW 500
Adjus tment

sl Voltag IMAX IN IMIN in

e in v A A

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 14

 I-V characteristic curves of PD

PD reverse resistance variation with LED power

Result: Photo diode Characteristic is studied.

DIFFRACTION GRATING
Experiment No : 4 Date :

Aim : Determination of wavelength of the given source of Laser diode using diffraction grating.

Apparatus:625nm diode laser, Indian assembled 500LPI (lines per inch), Indian assembled
15000LPI and imported 15000 LPI gratings, image screen.

Procedure:

1. The laser is placed on a sturdy table and switched on. At about two meters away on the path
of the laser a white laminated wooden screen is placed. The leveling screws of the laser are
adjusted such that the laser beam exactly falls on the centre of the screen. The exact distance
between the grating stand and image screen are noted
f = 2.0m = 200cm

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 15

2. The 500LPI grating is now placed on the grating stand close to the laser source and the
diffraction pattern is observed as shown in the Figure-8. Equally spaced diffracted laser light
spots are observed. The total numbers of spots are counted. The central direct ray is very
bright in the picture as the order increased the brightness deceased.
Maximum order of diffraction observed = 8.
3. The centre of the spots of the diffraction pattern are marked on the screen using a pencil and
after marking all the diffraction pattern, the image screen is removed and the distances
between consecutive order of diffraction is measured using a scale and tabulated in Table-1.
The distance between the two first orders diffraction spots are measured.
2x1 = 5.3 cm
Similarly the distance between two second order diffraction spots are measured and recorded
in Table-1.
2x2 = 10.5cm
This is continued up to 8th order
2x8 = 42.5cms
4. Using equation-2 diffraction angles are calculated for first order diffraction and noted in
Table-1

θ m = tan-1 = tan-1

θ 1 = 0.759º
Similar calculations are made for different orders of the diffraction and the diffraction angle
is calculated and presented in Table-1.
5. Grating constant is calculated for first order diffraction using equation-3.

Similar calculations are done for different orders of the diffraction and the grating constant
obtained is tabulated in Table-1. And the average value of grating constant is calculated.
6. Number of rulings per unit area N of the grating is calculated from the average value of
grating constant as follows

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 16

 Lines per meter

7. Trial is repeated for f =1.5m and f =1m. The readings obtained are tabulated in Table-2 and
Table-3 respectively for 1.5m and 1m.

Result: Wavelength of monochromatic source of diode laser,λ= nm

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION

Formula:
λ = d(Sinθn/n) in m

Where: λ =wavelength of diode laser source in m

d=grating space in m

Θn=Angle of diffraction for nth order in degree

2x
2 N=1,2,3,.... Are the
2x
1
Im a g e s c re e n
order of maxima
O rd e r m 2 1 1 2 m
xm

D if f r a c t io n p a t t e r e n

L e ft R ig h t

x m = d ist a n c e b e t w w e n
c e n t r a l m a x im a n d m t h
o r d e r m a x im a f

f = d ist a n c e b e t w e e n
g r a t in g a n d im a g e
sc r e e n
xm
Tan =
m f
Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara
m
Page 17
G r a t in g
L a s e r S o u rc e
 Distance between the grating and the screen,L=--------cm

N order of Dn in cm Yn=Dn/2 tanθn=Yn/L Θn=tan-1 (Yn/L) λ = d(Sinθn/n)

maxima in m

Average value of λ=-------------------m-----------------------nm

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 18

 NEWTON’S RINGS

Experiment No : 5 Date :

Aim: To determine the radius of curvature of given plano convex lens by Newtons rings.

Apparatus: Plano convex lens ,glass plate ,inclined glass plate, traveeling microscope,reading
lens, sodium lamp, etc.,

Procedure: The given plano convex is placed on the glass [Link] light coming from the
sodium light is made to fall on the plano convex lensplaced over the optical flat by reflecting it
with the help of a glass plate inclined at an angle of [Link] incident and reflected light interfere
with each other to form concentric alternative bright and dark circular [Link] centre of the
circular fringe system is focussed by travelling [Link] least count of the travelling
microscope is [Link] by counting the circular fringes, the cross-wire of TM is made to
coincide for 8th fringe in left side and reading of travelling microscope is taken by the relation
Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 19
R=MSR+(CVSDXLC).Similarly the reading s are taken for 6 th,4th and 2nd fringes in the left
[Link] reading of travelling microscope for 2 nd,4th,6th and 8th fringes in right side is also
[Link] diameter of each ring is calculated by the method of [Link] two difference
rings ‘m’ and ‘n’ are the value of D2m-D2n is calculated for corresponding value of m-n=4 .The
average value of D2m-D2n is [Link] knowing the wavelength of sodium light(λ=5893 X10 -
10
m),the radius of curvature of the given plano convex lens is calculated using the formula.

R=(D2m-D2n)mean/4(m-n)λ in m

Result: Radius of curvature of the given plano convex lens , R=.............

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION

Formula: R=(D2m-D2n)mean/4(m-n)λ in m

Where:

R=Radius of curvature of the plano convex in m.

Dm=Diameter of the mth ring in m

Dn=Diameter of the nth ring in m

λ =Wavelength of monochromatic light (5893 X10-10m)

m-n=Order of fringes

Figure:

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 20

Least count of T.M= =---------------cm=--------------cm

R=MSR+(CVSDXLC).

R=(D2m-D2n)mean/4(m-n)λ in m

Result:Radius of curvature of the given plano convex lens , R=.............m

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 21

Ring TM Reading for mth ring in cm Dm2 in Ring TM reading for Dn2 in D2m-D2n
No.m cm2 No. n nth ring in cm cm2 in cm2

LHS RL RHS RR Dm LH RHS Dn

S RR RL~R
R
RL ~ R R RL

08 04

06 02

Numerical aperture and Angle of acceptance of optical fiber

Experiment No : 6 Date :

AIM : To determine the angle of acceptance & Numerical Aperture

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 22

Materials required: Single strand plastic optical fibers of different core diameter/length, Laser
Source, screen
Introduction:
Numerical aperture represents the light gathering capacity of an optical fiber.

It is given by N.A = no sinθA = √n² - n²

1 2

Here no is the refractive index of the medium from which light is entering.

θA is the angle of acceptance

n1 is the refractive index of the core

n2 is the refractive index of cladding

Procedure:

1. Connect the fibre to the Laser source.

2. Take the other end of the fibre and project the light output on to the screen to obtain a bright
Circular spot of size say 5mm.

3. Determine the diameter D of the bright spot and the distance L from the fibre end to the screen
and measure the diameter of the spot (D) and the distance between the screen & the optical fibre
end (L).

4. Calculate the acceptance angle using the formula θA = tan -²(D/2L)

[Link] aperture is given by N.A = no sin. θA

Here n0 is the refractive index of the medium from which light is entering (no =1 for air)

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 23

6. Now for the same fiber repeat this procedure for at least four other values of distance L and
calculate the acceptance angle and numerical aperture in each case. Finally take the average of
the four numerical aperture values.

7. Now repeat the above procedure for the remaining fibers.

[Link] the catalogue and find out refractive index of core and cladding (n1 & n2) and evaluate
numerical aperture using the formula N.A= √n²1- n²2 and compare it with the experimental
value.

Result: The Numerical aperture for the given optical fiber is found to be …………..

1. This exercise maybe repeated for optical fibers of different length.

2. Replace solar panel with LDR. Find the attenuatiuon constant.
Reference book : Optical fiber communication by John M Senior, Pearson Publication, page no
429, 911,912

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 24

 Four Probe Method

Experiment No : 7 Date :

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 25

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 26
Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 27
 PLANCK'S CONSTANT

Experiment-8 Date:

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 28

Aim: To determine Planck's constant using LED characteristics

eV k λ
Formula used: Planck's constant, h = Js
c
e = Charge on electron = 1.6 x 1019 C
Vk = Knee voltage in volts
c = Speed of light in vacuum = 3 x 108 m/s
λ = Wavelength of emitted light by LED in m (6900 Ao)

Theory: A 'Light Emitting Diode' is a semiconductor PN junction intended to convert electrical

energy into light energy under forward bias condition. It is known that the light energy can be
used to excite an electron from a valance band into conduction band. If the electron falls back to
the valance band from the conduction band the energy is released. In case of PN unction
semiconductor, charge carriers are created by an electric current passing through the junction.
The free electron nearing across the junction core recombines with the holes near the junction.
For each recombination the energy is released either in the form of heat or light depending upon
the band gap through which it falls.
Semiconductor may be classified into two groups. It may be direct gap semiconductor
such as those based on gallium arsenic (Ga, As) where direct transition takes place between
conduction band and valance band. Second one is the indirect gap semiconductor such as
silicon or germanium where the transition takes place via trapping level. Here it is dealt only
with the direct gap semiconductors as the radiation emitted from there are in the visible or
infrared region.
For direct recombination the width of the forbidden gap or band energy is given by,
Eg = hν J
Where, h = plank’s constant = 6.624 x 10-34 Js
ν = Frequency of emitted radiation Hz.
Procedure:
1. Circuit connection is made as shown in the Fig-1.
2. The voltage is varied gradually and the corresponding current is recorded.
3. The characteristic curve of the LED I vs V is plotted.
4. The current in LED increases exponentially with voltage.

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 29

5. The voltage, at which the rise in the current becomes sharp, is the knee voltage of LED.
The knee voltage of the diode is found from the graph.

Result: Plank’s constant determined from red LED =__________ Js

Observation: R=Resistor, V= Voltmeter

V (0-20V)
Current (mA)

mA (0-25mA)
R

LED
Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 30
 Vk Voltage (V)

Ba
Fig-1: Circuit diagram Fig-2: I-V characteristic curve of LED
R=Resistor, V= Voltmeter,
Ba=Battery, LED= Light Emitting Diode
mA = Milli ammeter

Tabular column:
Voltage in volts Current in mA

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 31

Calculation:

eV k λ
Planck's constant, h = Js
c

= --------

= -------- Js

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 32

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 33
Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 34
Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 35
 QUANTUM GATE
Experiment No. : 10 Date:

Lab Manual
Experiment: Predicting the Outputs of Various Combinations of Single- and Two-Qubit Gates using
QUIRK Quantum Simulator

Aim
To study the functioning of single-qubit and two-qubit quantum gates and predict their outputs using
the QUIRK quantum simulator.

Apparatus / Software Required

1. Computer system with internet access.
2. QUIRK quantum simulator (available at: [Link]

Theory
Quantum computation uses qubits, which can exist in a superposition of states. Quantum gates are
unitary operations applied to qubits to manipulate their states. Single-Qubit Gates
- Pauli-X Gate (NOT Gate): Flips |0n to |1n and |1n to |0n.
- Pauli-Y Gate: Similar to X but introduces a phase shift.
- Pauli-Z Gate: Leaves |0n unchanged, introduces phase (-1) to |1n.
- Hadamard (H) Gate: Creates superposition; maps |0n (|0n+|1n)/2.
- Phase (S) Gate: Applies a phase shift of /2 to |1n.

Two-Qubit Gates
- CNOT (Controlled-NOT): Flips the target qubit if control is |1n.
- SWAP Gate: Interchanges two qubits.
- Controlled-Z (CZ): Applies Z to target if control is |1n.

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 36

Table 1: Single-Qubit Gates
Input State Gate Applied Output State (Ket) Output (Binary)
|0n X |1n 1
|1n X |0n 0
|0n H (|0n+|1n)/2 Superposition
|1n H (|0n|1n)/2 Superposition
|0n Z |0n 0
|1n Z |1n 1 (with phase)

Table 2: Two-Qubit Gates

Input State Gate Applied Output State (Ket) Output (Binary)
|00n CNOT |00n 00
|01n CNOT |01n 01
|10n CNOT |11n 11
|11n CNOT |10n 10
|01n SWAP |10n 10
|10n SWAP |01n 01
|11n CZ |11n 11 (with phase)
Procedure
1. Open the QUIRK quantum simulator at [Link]
2. Initialize qubits to desired input states (|0n, |1n, |00n, |01n, etc.).
3. Drag and drop required gates (X, H, Z, CNOT, SWAP, CZ) into the circuit.
4. Run the simulator and observe the resulting output states.
5. Record the outputs in the tabular column.
6. Compare the simulated results with theoretical predictions.
Observations
The simulated outputs match theoretical expectations for all gates. Superposition states cannot be
represented in binary but are expressed in terms of probability amplitudes.
Result
The outputs of various combinations of single- and two-qubit gates were successfully predicted and
verified using the QUIRK quantum simulator.

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 37

Engg. Physics Lab Manual, GMIT Bharathinagara Page 38