Lesson 12 I.

HYDROPOWER

Overview of Hydropower
Hydroelectricity is a well-established technology; it dates back to the beginnings of the electric power industry more than 100 years ago. About 6% of the electric power now generated in the United States comes from our damming the rivers as they flow to the ocean and then releasing the water to turn turbines connected to electric generators. The use of water power is much greater in some other countries; Norway obtains 99% of its electricity from water power, Nepal 95%, Brazil 93%, New Zealand 78%, Canada 58%, and Sweden 50% (half hydro, half nuclear). Hydropower was important long before electricity generation became possible. About 2000 years ago, during the first century B.C., it was discovered that the force of moving water acting on a waterwheel could be used to ease human labor. Various types of ingeniously contrived waterwheel mechanisms were connected by rotating shafts and cogwheels to mills for grinding grain and sawing wood. By the 13th century, water power was used to operate hammers in the ironworks of Western Europe, and by the 16th century the waterwheel was the primary source of industrial power in that part of the world. The steam engine eventually replaced water power in many applications, but in selected locations and for certain purposes, water power continued to be the preferred energy source. As our nation developed, mills were established at sites with reliable water flow of sufficient volume and velocity. Communities then grew up around these mills. Dams were built at many such sites to impound the flowing water and to even out the flow over the seasons. After electricity came into practical use, waterwheels were used to drive generators; it then became reasonable to locate hydroelectric plants at a distance from population centers and to transport the electricity over power lines hundreds of miles to the point of demand. Now we use water power almost exclusively for the generation of electricity, even if there is only a modest distance between the point of generation and the point of use. Water power is, of course, a consequence of the natural cyclical transport of water between the earth's surface and the atmosphere. This hydrologic cycle involves the evaporation of the earth's surface water when it is heated by sunlight, followed by precipitation and the downward course of the water in rivers and streams under the force of gravity. In a sense the water is the working fluid in an enormous heat engine powered by sunlight.

DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

The available energy of water stored at a height above a generator is potential energy in the earth's gravitational field. The solar energy that went into lifting the water upward in this gravitational field can be made available again when, for example, the water falls downward onto a waterwheel. As each element of water of mass m falls freely a distance h, it attains a velocity v and a kinetic energy, 1/2mv2, equal to its original potential energy, which is given by mgh. The acceleration of gravity, g, is 9.8 m/sec2. Thus the potential energy available for conversion to kinetic energy is 9.8 joules per kilogram of water (or anything else) per meter of height above where the kinetic energy is to be utilized. The distance, h, is often called the head. Low-head hydroelectricity can be generated with h as small as 10 feet, whereas high-head hydroelectricity is generated with heads of hundreds up to greater than 1000 feet. The detailed design of the hydraulic turbines is different in the two cases of small and large hydropower systems. It will be apparent on visiting any modern hydroelectric facility that the discussion given above about water falling freely through space before impacting on a turbine is not entirely realistic. Nowhere in a large hydroelectric plant will you see water falling freely through a large vertical distance. Nevertheless, the analysis in terms of potential energy of the water is still correct when the water emerges at high velocity through an opening near the bottom of the dam rather than over the top. The water coming out of the opening and impinging on the blades of a turbine has in effect fallen through a distance equal to that from the surface of the impounded water down to the exit. Modern hydroelectric installations convert the potential energy of water to electric energy at an efficiency of 80 to 90%. Hydroelectric power has many obvious advantages over conventional power plants driven by fossil fuels. There are no polluting emissions into the air or water, and no waste heat is rejected as thermal pollution. The operation of hydro plants relies only on renewable energy resources, and the plants have lifetimes of many decades and small maintenance requirements. They respond well to sudden changes in demand, making hydroelectricity well suited to matching peak loads. The dams can serve multiple purposes; water stored for irrigation, flood control, or a municipal drinking water supply can also power a hydroelectric plant as it flows to its other tasks. Table 12.1 lists some of the larger hydroelectric plants in the United States. These, along with a number of smaller projects, amount to a total capacity of about 78,000 MW. It is apparent that although there has been rather little construction of hydroelectric plants in recent years, there was a flurry of hydroelectric facility development in the decades following the end of World War II in 1945. These trends can be seen in Figure 12.1, which shows the amount of hydroelectric energy produced in the United States from 1949 to 2008. Since 1974 there has been little overall increase. The large year-to-year fluctuations in hydroelectric generation seen in the graph over the last 20 years are largely due to variations in annual precipitation. Figure 12.1 also shows that the percentage of U.S.
DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

electric energy from hydroelectric plants has gradually declined from about 30% in 1950 to about 6% in 2008.
Table 12.1 Sample Large Hydroelectric Projects in the United States Project Grand Coulee John Day Chief Joseph Moses-Niagara Bath County, VA Hoover The Dalles Racoon Mt. Glen Caynon McNary, OR Northfield, MA
Source: EIA

River Columbia Columbia Columbia St. Lawrence Buck Creek Colorado Columbia Tennessee Colorado Columbia Briggs

First Year of Operation 1942 1969 1955 1961 1985 1936 1957 1979 1964 1954 1971

Rated Capacity (MWe) 6810 2500 2300 2160 2100 2080 1870 1530 1300 1130 1080

400 350 Billion KWh/yr 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1949 1952 1955 1958 1961 1964 1967 1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Hydro % in Total Electricity Generation

Figure 12.1 Hydroelectric Generation in the United States

Source: EIA

DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

World Hydro Resources

Hydropower plays a major role in supplying electricity in different countries. Hydropower produces about 20% of the worlds electricity, with production of about 3000 Billion kWh per year in 2007 as shown in Table 12.2. In developed countries, hydropower can still be a major player. Switzerland,

Table 12.2 World Hydroelectric Generation by Region in 2007 (Billion KWh/yr) Region Australia North America Canada Mexico United States Central & South America Brazil Venezuela Europe France Norway Sweden Eurasia Russia Middle East Africa Asia & Oceania China India Japan New Zealand World
Source: EIA

Generation 14 639 365 27 248 660 370 83 536 58 133 65 245 175 22 97 798 430 123 73 23 2999

Canada, Norway, and regions like the Pacific Northwest of the United States rely heavily on hydropower. I developing countries, hydropower can be even more important, supplying on average about one-third of their electricity needs with less than ten percent of the total hydropower potential exploited. Hydropower installations have a reputation of being robust and durable, often operating successfully at specific sites for more than a century. Plants can be large. In fact, the top largest electric power
DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

stations in the world today are hydroelectric (see Table 12.3 for representative examples), and substantial hydropower potential remains undeveloped worldwide. The unexploited potential for hydropower is large. For example, the World Energy Council (2001) estimates the gross theoretical potential to be about 40,000 billion kWh/year, of which 9,000 billion kWh/year is technically and economically feasible. This is about three times the current hydropower production level of 2,999 billion kWh/yr. Without doubt, hydropower is strategically important worldwide.
Table 12.3 Sample Mega-scale Hydropower Project Name Grand Coulee Location Columbia River, Washington, U.S.A. St James Bay, Quebec, Canada Paraguay/Brazil Yangtze River, China Venezuela Russia Type Impoundment Dam, 550 ft (168 m) high Impoundment, Multiple Dams Impoundment Dam, 150 m high Impoundment Dam Impoundment Dam Impoundment Dam Capacity (MWe) 6,810

La Grande Complex Itaipu Three Gorges Guri Krasnoyarsk

10,000 12,600 17,000 10,300 6,000

Currently, further hydropower resource development is limited mainly by available capital and environmental concerns. For hydropower to grow significantly in the 21st century, significant national financial investments will have to be made in the face of more economically and environmentally attractive energy options. A key issue to keep in mind is that generating electricity is not the sole reason for building a dam. Broader water management concerns often dominate policy decisions. These may include flood control, agricultural irrigation needs, or even recreational considerations. Canada and the US are currently the largest producers of hydropower, but this situation is likely to change in the decades ahead as China, Brazil, and other developing countries expand their capacity. Even though hydropower installations in developed OECD countries are mature, with higher-grade resources already exploited, there still is considerable growth potential. For example, consider the expansions that occurred from 1945 to 1990 under the auspices of the Bonneville Power Administration and the Tennessee Valley Authority. The gigantic Grand Coulee Dam in eastern Washington had its generating capacity increased by over 2,000 MWe in the 1980s to its current level of 6,810 MWe.
DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

With newer, more environmentally friendly technologies and proper policy incentives, expanding, repowering, and upgrading turbine generators at existing dams could significantly increase capacity. For example, there is the potential to install 35,000 to 70,000 MWe of new capacity in the US alone using existing dam structures and reservoirs (US Hydropower Association, US Army Corps of Engineers, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), US Department of Energy (USDOE), 2001-2003). If lower-head, run-of-river technologies become feasible, the potential is much higher. As we move from country to country and from region to region, one notes large differences in the relative importance of hydropower as a producer of primary electricity. For example, in Norway, Switzerland, Austria, and Brazil, 80-100% of electricity comes from hydropower, while in the US and China, it is about 10% or less. In South America, about 75% of the continent's electric power is supplied by hydropower dams. The major national players are Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela, with Chile and others not far behind. Large increases in capacity are currently under construction or planned for the near future in South America. Capacity increases in China are not as well documented except for large projects like the Three Gorges Dam complex that eventually will generate 17,000 MWe or more. Although only 1,855 dams are officially listed for China in the World Register of Large Dams, other sources have estimated that an additional 22,000 non-registered dams exist in China (The Economist, 2003). Assuming these estimates are correct, China has more than 45% of all the world's dams followed by the US (6,600), India (4,300), Japan (2,700), Spain, and Canada (International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), 2001, and World Commission on Dams (WCD), 2002). If a significant fraction of China's existing dams are equipped with turbines, then its hydropower capacity could increase markedly. One of the strong attributes of hydropower is the dispatch ability that results from the system's ability to store energy in the water contained behind a dam or by periodically pumping into a temporary storage reservoir. Given the general increase in electrification that is occurring worldwide, the demand for using hydropower reservoirs for both base-load and peaking applications is rising. In addition, pumped energy storage capacity is likely to grow as well. For example, in 1950, the US had less than 5,000 MWe of pumped storage capacity. Today, there is over 25,000 MWe. Worldwide, pumped storage capacity now exceeds 100,000 MWe with about 40% in Europe, 25% in Japan, and 25% in the US (extrapolated from Moreira and Poole1, 1993). In the long term, other factors may also lead to increased interest in hydropower. The variable nature of other renewable energy sources, like wind and solar, make pairing with hydro energy storage an attractive option for integrated supply systems.

Moriera, J.R. and A.D. Poole, 1993, Hydropower and Its Constraints, in Renewable Energy: Sources for Fuel and Electricity. T.B. Johannson, H. Kelly, A.K.N. Reedy, and R.H. Williams, eds. Washington, DC: Island Press. DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

Small and Large Scale Hydropower Systems

Hydropower technologies are classified into two types of operational categories, namely conventional and pumped storage types. Power plants are in turn rated for power capacity (such as big or small), head of water (low, medium, or high), type of turbine used (such as Kaplan, Francis, or Pelton), and finally the location and type of dam or reservoir. There is no agreed formal definition of the term small-scale hydro. The prevailing view places the upper limit at 10 MW capacity (as in Switzerland, for instance) but the UK sets it at 5 MW and the USA at 30 MW - enough power for a small town. Small-scale installations can also be classified by the available head, but the ranges may be very different from those of large plants. Many small-scale plants are run-of-river, with heads of only a few meters, and as little as 10 meters could be regarded as high head for a very small plant. Medium and large scale hydropower systems could produce upward of 12,000 MWe of power. Conventional hydropower systems derive energy from rivers, streams, canal systems, and reservoirs. This category of power generating stations is further divided into two subcategories; one is known as impoundment and the other as diversion. Impoundment-type hydropower generating stations use dam structures to store water. Water from the reservoirs is released and the flow is controlled by vanes that maintain a constant water level. In diversion-type hydropower technology, portions of the river water are diverted through a canal or penstock; however, some installations require a dam. Pumped storage hydropower plants are constructed from two reservoirs built at different altitudes. During periods of high electric demand, water from the high reservoir is released to the lower reservoir to generate electricity. Power generation results from the release of kinetic energy which is created by the discharge through high-pressure shafts which direct the water through turbines connected to generator-motors. Upon completion of the power generation period during the daytime when the demand and cost of energy is high, water is pumped back to the upper reservoir at nighttime for storage when the cost of energy and the energy demand are low. . Even though pumped storage facilities consume more energy than they can generate, they are used by power utility companies to provide peak power production when needed. In some installations, pumped storage plants operate on a full-cycle basis. The major components and machinery used in hydroelectric plants consist of dam water flow controls, reservoir controls, turbine controls, electric generator controls, power transformation equipment needed to convert electricity from low voltages to the high voltages required for power transmission and distribution, transmission lines required to conduct electricity from the hydropower plant to the electric distribution system, and finally the penstock system which carries water to the
DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

turbines. Figure 12.2 is a graphic representation of a pumped type hydroelectric system.

Turbines used in hydroelectric power systems are classified in several ways based on the method of functional operation such as impulse or reaction turbine; another classification is based on the way the turbine is constructed, such as the shaft arrangement or the feed of water; see Figure 12.3. Turbines are also designed in a manner to allow them to operate as a pump or as a combination of both.

Figure 12.2 Schematic of a Conventional (Impoundment) Type Hydroelectric Installation

As an example, impulse turbines use a special nozzle that converts the water under pressure into a fast-moving jet. The jet of water is then directed at the turbine wheel or the runner, which converts the kinetic energy of the water into shaft rotational power. Another example of a turbine is a Francis turbine which uses the full head of water available to generate rotational power. Most hydraulic turbines consist of a shaft-mounted waterwheel or runners that are located within a water passage that conducts water from higher elevations to a lower one below the dam.

DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

Figure 12.3 Various Types of Turbine Runner

Pelton Turbine - is basically based on the same principles as a classic waterwheel. It is essentially a wheel with a set of double cups or buckets mounted around a rim. A high-speed jet of water, formed under the pressure of high head, hits the splitting edge between each pair of cups in turn as the wheel spins. The water passes round curved bowls, and under optimum condition gives almost all its kinetic energy. This type of turbine is used in applications where heads exceed 40 m or more. In some instances the turbine is used for heads as high as 2000 m. In settings where the water head is lower than 250 m, Francis turbines are given preference. Francis Turbine - The main difference of this technology compared to the Pelton turbine is that the runner is completely submerged in water, which results in a decrease of water pressure from the inlet to the outlet. Water flow into the turbine is directed radially toward the center. The guide vanes within the turbine are arranged so that the energy of the water is largely converted into rotary motion. Kaplan/Propeller Turbine - This type of turbine is designed for use in the situation where the water head is low but there are high flow rates. In the Kaplan turbine the water flows through the propeller and sets it in rotation. The design of the turbine is such that the area through which the water flows is as big as it can be to allow the entire blade areas to be swept by water currents. This makes the technology very suitable for large volume flows where the head is only a few meters. Water enters the turbine laterally and is deflected by the guide vanes and then flows axially through the propeller striking the blades when exiting. The construction of this type of turbine is relatively simple. The applications of this type of turbines are limited to heads that range from 1 to 30 m, which also requires a relatively larger flow of water.
DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

Turgo Turbine This type of turbine is essentially a variant of the Pelton turbine. Here the double cups are replaced by single shallower ones, with water entering one side and leaving on the other. Its ability to handle a larger volume of water than a Pelton of the same diameter gives it an advantage for power generations at medium heads. Cross-flow Turbine In this turbine, the water enters a flat sheet rather than a round jet. The water flows across blades, around the central shaft, and across the blades on the opposite side as it leaves. Cross-flow turbines are often used instead of Francis turbine in small-scale plants with outputs below 100 kW or so. It was mentioned that Pelton is suitable for high heads, propellers for low heads and Francis for intermediate range. While available head is an important factor in selecting the best turbine for a particular site, it is not the only factor in determining the most appropriate type for a given situation as the available power is also important. The range of applications of various turbines, considering the head and water flow rate (defining the power available), is shown in Figure 12.4.

Figure 12.4 Application Range for Different Types of Turbine

Environmental, Health, and Social Considerations

The environmental issues associated with hydroelectricity are no less controversial than those for other energy sources. There are environmental benefits of hydroelectricity compared with other types of power plant. It releases no CO2, and negligible quantities of the oxides of sulphur and
DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

nitrogen that lead to acid rain. It produces no particulates or chemical compounds such as dioxins that are directly harmful to human health. It emits no radioactivity. Dams may collapse, but they will not cause major explosions or fires. Moreover, hydroelectric plant is often associated with positive environmental effects such as flood control or irrigation, and in some cases, its development leads to a valued amenity or even a visual improvement to the landscape. However, during the twentieth century, the construction of large dams has led to the displacement of many millions of people from their homes, and dam failures have killed many thousands. Serious other environmental, health, and social issues have also been identified that we will elaborate in this section. Examining these issues, however, needs to be done in a broad context for three reasons. First, no two hydroelectric projects are exactly alike, and many are very different. Thus, while issues can be examined in general terms, one should not draw conclusions that all projects have similar environmental impacts. Second, while this discussion focuses on hydroelectric projects, one should not conclude that all dams are used to produce electricity. Nationally, for instance, only three percent of the nation's 80,000 dams are used to produce electricity. Most dams are used for purposes such as irrigation, flood control, and water treatment. Further, many dams support a combination of activities. For example, dams on the main stem of the Columbia River are used for irrigation, flood control, transportation, recreation, and the production of electricity. Third, this section does not provide detailed information about a host of other activities that can significantly impact a river's ecosystem and the species that rely on it for survival. Examples of other non-hydropower related impacts include grazing, logging, agricultural activities, mining, and land development. Determining the relative impact of these activities versus hydroelectric projects is very complex and the subject of ongoing debate. Environmental Impact - A watercourse is an ecological system that can be seriously affected when disturbed by human intervention. As an example, changes in water flow may affect the quality of the water and the production of fish downstream. Dams and barriers are known to alter ecological conditions of aquatic life. Construction of artificial lakes and dam reservoirs often prevents migration of downstream fish to upstream habitats. For instance, macroscopic plants in the Columbia's estuary are an important food source for salmon migrating to the sea. These plants, however, are no longer as prevalent in the estuary as they once were. Part of this decline has been traced back to conditions caused by reservoirs in the main stem of the Columbia and on the Snake river. Environmental changes resulting from construction of dams affects the aquatic ecology along entire stretches of rivers and streams, even affecting life at the inlets to the sea. Reservoir sedimentation often results in increased downstream sedimentation. Changes in water flow resulting from
DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

construction of dams also lead to changes in the transportation of sediments, which in turn reduces the water nutrient quality essential for survival of aquatic life. Dam reservoirs of hydropower plants affect the flow of a watercourse and disturb natural groundwater levels in surrounding areas, which in turn influences the quality of the water and the sediment transport of the watercourse which often results in area runoff and ground erosion. Entrapment of nutrients in reservoirs usually results in excessive accumulation of ground bed fertilization which often leads to an increased growth of algae, which in turn may cause anaerobic conditions and a lack of oxygen in the deep-water layers which can destroy aquatic life. Warm weather conditions which cause water evaporation may also cause concentration of nutrients, leading to excessive fertilization. As a result of changes to water quality a habitat reproduction for some species could be hindered or prevented during the spawning period. Submerged grounds and water flow changes also alter the fauna and vegetation habitats and can cause animal extinctions. Social Impact - Large hydropower plants with dams require large reservoir and discharge areas, which in some instances force habitants to evacuate from the grounds. Adverse social consequences for the local population usually result in relocation and transfer of indigenous groups of people which may endanger their entire cultural system. Evidence of such social disturbance has been associated with the construction of the Three Gorges dam in China where thousands of villagers were forcefully displaced and relocated to newer grounds. Similarly, construction of the Aswan Dam in Egypt resulted in a wholesale displacement of hundreds of villages and damaged or destroyed historical and cultural landscapes, ancient monuments, holy places, and burial grounds of great importance. A dam may fail when the loading exceeds the resistance against overtopping, internal erosion, slope instability, sliding/overturning, excessive deformation etc. Earthquake and excessive rain and flood are typically the culprit. As an example of dam failure resulting in catastrophic environmental and socioeconomic one can mention the failure of dams in China in 1975. An unusual weather pattern led to a typhoon (Pacific hurricane) passing through Fujian Province on the coast of South China continuing north to Henan Province, dropping a meter of water in three days. The Banqiao (on the Ru river) and Shimantan (on the Hong river) dams were designed to handle a maximum of about 0.5 meters over a three day period. After three days of heavy downfall, the Banqiao and Shimantan dam reservoirs had filled to capacity because the runoff so far exceeded the rate at which water could be expelled through their sluice gates. This resulted in the collapse of 62 dams and discharge of more than 600 million cubic meter of water in a matter of hours.
DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

Downstream the dikes and flood diversion projects could not resist such a deluge. They broke as well and the flood spread over more than a million hectares of farm land throughout 29 counties and municipalities. One can imagine the terrible predicament of the city of Huaibin where the waters from the Hong and Ru Rivers came together. Eleven million people throughout the region were severely affected. Over 85 thousand died as a result of the dam failures. There was little or no time for warnings. The wall of water was traveling at about 50 kilometers per hour or about 14 meters per second. The authorities were hampered by the fact that telephone communication was knocked out almost immediately and that they did not expect any of the dams to fail. Health Impact - Hydroelectric power plants increase the incidence of water-related diseases caused by pathogens, such as typhus, cholera, and dysentery, and of infections by tapeworms and roundworms. Some of the diseases that have increased as a result of construction of the Aswan Dam

Figure 12.5 Banqiao Reservoir Dam

include bilharzia, malaria, filariasis, sleeping sickness, and yellow fever. Reservoirs with large, stagnant waters and slow water-level variations offer favorable growth conditions for a variety of pathogens. Excessive aquatic vegetation growth resulting from fertilizer concentrations blocks ultraviolet rays and provides a fertile ground for infection carrier bacteria which would have otherwise been destroyed by sunlight. Vegetation also promotes growth of mosquito species carrying malaria and filariasis. Seepage of contaminated water from reservoirs into groundwater wells increases the risk of infection by the spread of pathogens into drinking water.

DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

Economics and Future Prospects

At least 2 trillion US dollar have been spent on hydropower developments worldwide during the last century, as reported by World Commission on Dams in 2002, and this has created over 635,000 MWe of capacity and contributed roughly 19% of the world's total generation of electricity. In many instances, hydropower provides the lowest cost option for generating electric power in a given area. Furthermore, its dispatchable characteristic makes hydropower an important component for meeting peak and seasonal loads in the generation mix of a particular company or utility. Based on USDOE/EIA statistics, hydropower's annual revenues in the US are in excess of $25 billion for an estimated capital investment of $150 billion. As a renewable asset, its value in displacing carbon dioxide emissions and reducing dependence on depletable fossil resources is significant. Given the maturity of the technology, the costs for hydropower have a long history that correlate with the age of the facility and the environmental concerns that continue to grow. Hydropower costs vary considerably depending on the extent of civil engineering works required, which, in turn, depends on the natural terrain and climate of the region. Compare, for example, placing a hydro plant in the Alps of Europe with significant mountainous relief to the flatter, dryer regions of the US Midwest. As there can be large seasonal variations in available water (by factors of two to ten), the effects that needed reserve capacity has on reservoir and dam structure can be large. Furthermore, there can be significant economies of scale for the energy conversion equipment and effects of different capacity or availability factors. Another aspect that makes hydropower different from other energy sources in economic terms is its low maintenance costs and long lifetimes, with 50 or more years typical and many systems approaching 100 years. For example, most of the mega-scale hydropower projects that were developed in the US between 1930 and 1970, during a period of rapid expansion, still produce power today. The busbar costs for these mature installations are in the 1-2 /kWh range, which represents mostly operating and maintenance costs as the initial capital investment was paid off during the first 20 years of operation at most. For new installations, the situation is completely reversed as projects are capital intensive. The larger the hydro project is the more time it takes to plan and build, thus increasing the impact of invested capital before any revenues from power sales appear. An estimate cost of about $1,000-2,500 per installed kWe of capacity is expected for larger plants (larger than 250 MWe), while smaller-sized plants would be proportionally more costly. For plants smaller than 20 MWe, costs might range from $4,000 to $6,500/kWe, while for those between 20 and 250 MWe, from $2,000 to $4,000/kWe. With these ranges of capital investments and the other risks of hydropower projects in developing countries, agencies like the World Bank and the Inter-American Development Bank provide financial sponsorship only after careful analysis of risks and benefits.
DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

Externalities are playing a larger role in determining the feasibility of sponsoring hydro projects, as environmental and social impacts are factored into the total project cost. In the US, the DOE/EIA estimates capital costs for an average sized hydro installation of 31MWe from $1,700 to 2,300/kWe-annualized to about 1.81 /kWh, operating and maintenance costs of about 0.8 /kWh, for a total levelized generating cost of about 2.6 /kWh assuming a 50 or more year plant lifetime and a 40-50% capacity factor. Although hydropower is currently the largest and most important producer of electricity from a renewable energy source, with over 600 GWe of capacity and 2,600 TWhr produced annually, its future role is less certain for the long-term. While the potential for adding additional hydropower worldwide is substantial in terms of availability and reasonable capital investment (7,300 TWh/yr or more), environment-related concerns, particularly those associated with mega-scale projects that involve dams and their subsequent land inundation, pose substantial barriers to deployment and growth of hydropower as a renewable resource. The possibility of expanding hydropower capacity by utilization of existing dams in countries that already have substantial hydro assets developed also has barriers. For example, a number of studies from credible sources like FERC and the USDOE estimate that the US has the potential to expand its hydro capacity by 30,000 to 73,000 MWe, using currently available technology and with reasonable financial investments on a $/kWe basis. When environmental issues are debated in the current licensing process, the FERC regulatory machinery usually imposes long delays or flow and power reductions, or rejects proposals outright. The result is that many informed groups, including advocates for hydropower like the National Hydropower Association, predict that no new US hydro capacity will be added unless policies are changed. One way of addressing environmental concerns is by accelerating the level of scientific attention being directed at achieving quantitative understanding of the impacts and benefits of hydro and to developing new technologies that will mitigate these effects. There are a number of opportunities for achieving more sustainable hydropower systems, but one must keep in mind that the current level of R&D support for such undertakings is far too low to achieve much in the short term.; for example, see the PCAST recommendations for hydropower R&D for the US, 19972.

PCAST (The presidential Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology), 1997, Chapter 6 Renewable Energy, in Federal Energy research and Development for the Challenges of the Twenty-First Century, report of the Energy R&D Panel, Washington, DC: Office of Science and Technology Policy. DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

Lesson 12 II. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Overview of Geothermal Energy

The word geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and therme (heat), and means the heat of the earth. Earth's interior heat originated from its fiery consolidation from dust and gas over 4 billion years ago and is continually regenerated from the decay of radioactive elements that occur in all rocks. It is almost 6,500 kilometers (4,000 miles) from the surface to the center of the Earth, and the deeper you go, the hotter it gets. The outer layer, the crust, is 3 to 30 miles thick and insulates us from the hot interior. From the surface down through the crust the normal temperature gradient (the increase of temperature with the increase of depth) in the Earths crust is 17 - 30C per kilometer of depth (5087F per mile). Below the crust is the mantle (about 2000 miles thick) which is made of highly viscous, partially molten rock with temperatures between 650 and 1,250C (1,200-2,280F). The Earth's core, having a radius of about 2000 miles, consists of a liquid outer core and a solid inner core, and temperatures may reach 4,000-7,000C (7,200 to 12,600F); see Figure 12.6.

Mantle (Mobile) Core (Hot)

Crust (Very Thin 3-30 miles)

Figure 12.6 Earths Geological Regions

Since heat always moves from hotter regions to colder regions, the Earths heat flows from its interior toward the surface. This outward flow of heat from Earths interior drives convective motion in the mantle rock which in turn drives plate tectonics -- the "drift" of Earth's crustal plates that occurs at 1 to 5 cm per year (about the rate our fingernails grow). Where plates move apart, magma rises up into the rift, forming new crust. Where plates collide, one plate is generally forced (subducted) beneath
DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

the other. As a subducted plate slides slowly downward into regions of ever-increasing heat, it can reach conditions of pressure, temperature and water content that cause melting, forming magma. Plumes of magma ascend by buoyancy and force themselves up into (intrude) the crust, bringing up vast quantities of heat. Where magma reaches the surface it can build volcanoes. But most magma stays well below ground, creating huge subterranean regions of hot rock sometimes underlying areas as large as an entire mountain range. Cooling can take from 5,000 to more than 1 million years. These shallow regions of relatively elevated crustal heat have high temperature gradients. Perhaps the best known of these volcanic regions are in the countries that border the Pacific Ocean -the geologically active area known as the Ring of Fire -- where the oceanic plates are being subducted under the continental plates. Other volcanic chains form along mid-ocean or continental rift zones (where plates move apart) -- in places such as Iceland and Kenya, or over hot spots (magma plumes continuously ascending from deep in the mantle) such as the Hawaiian Islands and Yellowstone.

Figure 12.7 Two Geothermal Sites

Geothermal Resource Size and Distribution

Geothermal resources are commonly considered as mineral resources like oil, gas, and coal. However, because they contain water and their production can affect ground water flows, geothermal
DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

resources may be classified as a particular type of water resource. In addition, there is considerable non-uniformity in the terminology used to describe geothermal resources. For example, the geothermal resource base has been defined several ways: 1) to include all stored heat above 15C to 10 km depths3 2) the potentially useful heat in the earth's crust at temperatures greater than 80C and depths less than 6km4 3) the total heat contained in subsurface rocks and fluids to a depth of 3 km and at temperatures above 15C5. The most widely accepted terminology for geothermal resources is that proposed by Muffler and Guffanti6, described as: Resource Base - All of the thermal energy contained in the earth's crust, whether its existence is known or unknown and regardless of cost considerations. Accessible Resource Base - All of the thermal energy between the earth's surface and a specific depth in the crust beneath a specified area and referenced to a mean annual temperature. Resource - Thermal energy that could be extracted at costs competitive with other forms of energy at a foreseeable time, under reasonable assumptions of technological improvement and economic favorability. Reserve - That part of the geothermal resource that is identified and also can be extracted at a cost competitive with other commercial energy sources at present. It would be misleading to imply that this or any terminology is accepted throughout the geothermal industry. Indeed, these definitions are somewhat simplistic compared to the definitions applied to the same terms in the oil, gas, or mining industry. For example, in the US in 2000, an oil reserve can secure a bank loan, but a geothermal reserve cannot. Currently, there are simply not enough cases of economic exploitation of geothermal energy for it to be considered a good financial risk. Nonetheless, at certain high-grade sites in the US, Europe, and Asia, investments in commercial developments have been significant. Investment in the extraction of natural resources usually proceeds when the likelihood of return on invested capital is high. Consequently, the quality of the resource needs to be carefully characterized. For geothermal resources, this includes depth to the reservoir, consideration of rock type, fluid
3

White, D.E., and Williams, D.L., 1975, Assessment of geothermal resources of the United States - 1975: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 726. 4 Armstead, H.C.H. and J.W. Tester, 1987, Heat Mining, London, E. & F. Spon. 5 Electric Power Research Institute, 1978, Geothermal Energy Prospects for the Next 50 Years, EPRI ER-611 SR. 6 Muffler, L.J.P., editor, 1979, Assessment of geothermal resources of the United States -- 1978: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 790 DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

composition and production rates, and the energy content of the reservoir. Typically, mineral deposits or ore bodies are evaluated according to the grade and accessibility of the deposit, processing costs, and distance to the nearest market. Based on the evaluation, a deposit might be classified as a reserve or a resource. A similar body of terminology is under development in the geothermal energy field; thus far, geothermal terminology has borrowed heavily from the other mineral-related fields. Gaining access to the fluids or hot rock is key to assessing the quality of any geothermal resource. Usually depth is the critical parameter. Drilling costs typically scale exponentially with depth. Rock hardness and stability are also critical as they determine the ease of drilling through the formation. The chemistry of natural geothermal fluids can pose significant challenges to utilization. For instance, the salinity content of a liquid-dominated, hydrothermal reservoir fluid can vary from a few hundred ppm7 total solids (drinking water quality; 100 ppm = 0.01 % by weight) to a concentrated brine (>30% by weight solids). The fact that it is hot and under pressure contributes to difficulties in processing. The presence of dissolved gases, such as H2S and NH3, usually require special abatement procedures to meet air emission standards.
The geothermal resources map of the United States (Figure 12.8) shows the estimated subterranean temperatures at a depth of 6 kilometers(3.7 miles). Most traditional hydrothermal systems being used for

power production in the U.S. are located in the western states, where the geology favors natural geothermal reservoirs being formed at shallower depths.

Figure 12.8 Geothermal Resources of the United States

Source: U.S. Department of Energy
7

ppm part per million DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

Today, U.S. geothermal resources are being used in more than 30 states from New York to Hawaii. The map shown in Figure 13.9, from the Geo-Heat Center of the Oregon Institute of Technology, shows areas where geothermal energy is being used for power, greenhouses, commercial building heating, and other purposes.

Figure 12.9 Location of Geothermal Projects and Resources of the United States
Source: Geo-Heat Center of the Oregon Institute of Technology

In 2006 a report by the Western Governors Association (WGA)8, indicated a potential for the development of new near-term geothermal energy of about 5,600 MW; see Table 12.4. Although geothermal power plants have been producing electricity for decades, only a small fraction of geothermal potential has been tapped. With new technology and rising energy costs, geothermal resources that historically have not been economical to develop will become increasingly more attractive to investors and utilities. New geothermal technologies for direct use, such as for greenhouses, district heating, and fish farms, can also play an important role in reducing a communitys overall need for other energy supplies.

http://www.westgov.org/wga/initiatives/cdeac/Geothermal-full.pdf DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

Table 12.4 Summary of Western States Near-Term New Geothermal Power Capacity
State Alaska Arizona Colorado California Hawaii Idaho Nevada New Mexico Oregon Utah Washington Total Capacity (MW) 20 20 20 2,400 70 860 1500 80 380 230 50 5,630 Number of Sites 3 2 9 25 3 6 63 6 11 5 5 138

Energy Recovery Technology

Geothermal energy is contained in underground reservoirs of steam, hot water, and hot dry rocks. As used at electric generating facilities, hot water or steam extracted from geothermal reservoirs in the Earth's crust is supplied to steam turbines at electric utilities that drive generators to produce electricity. Moderate-to-low temperature geothermal resources are used for direct-use applications such as district and space heating. Lower temperature, shallow ground, geothermal resources are used by geothermal heat pumps to heat and cool buildings.

Power Generation Most power plants need steam to generate electricity. The steam rotates a turbine that activates a generator, which produces electricity. Many power plants still use fossil fuels to boil water for steam. Geothermal power plants, however, use steam produced from reservoirs of hot water found a couple of miles or more below the Earth's surface. There are three types of geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle.

DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

Dry steam power plants draw from underground resources of steam (Figure 12.10). The steam is piped directly from underground wells to the power plant, where it is directed into a turbine/generator unit. There are only two known underground resources of steam in the United States: The Geysers in northern California and Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, where there's a well-known geyser called Old Faithful. Since Yellowstone is protected from development, the only dry steam plants in the country are at The Geysers.

Figure 12.10 Dry Steam Geothermal Power Plant

Flash steam power plants are the most common (Figure 12.11). They use geothermal reservoirs of water with temperatures greater than 360F (182C). This very hot water flows up through wells in

Figure 12.11 Flash Steam Geothermal Power Plant

DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

the ground under its own pressure. As it flows upward, the pressure decreases and some of the hot water boils into steam. The steam is then separated from the water and used to power a turbine/generator. Any leftover water and condensed steam are injected back into the reservoir, making this a sustainable resource. Binary cycle power plants operate on water at lower temperatures of about 225-360F (107-182C); see Figure 12.12. These plants use the heat from the hot water to boil a working fluid, usually an organic compound with a low boiling point. The working fluid is vaporized in a heat exchanger and used to turn a turbine. The water is then injected back into the ground to be reheated. The water and the working fluid are kept separated during the whole process, so there are little or no air emissions.

Figure 12.12 Binary Cycle Geothermal Power Plant

Small-scale geothermal power plants (under 5 megawatts) have the potential for widespread application in rural areas, possibly even as distributed energy resources. Distributed energy resources refer to a variety of small, modular power-generating technologies that can be combined to improve the operation of the electricity delivery system.

Direct Use When a person takes a hot bath, the heat from the water will usually warm up the entire bathroom. Geothermal reservoirs of hot water, which are found a couple of miles or more beneath the Earth's surface, can also be used to provide heat directly. This is called the direct use of geothermal energy.

DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

Geothermal direct use dates back thousands of years, when people began using hot springs for bathing, cooking food, and loosening feathers and skin from game. Today, hot springs are still used as spas. But there are now more sophisticated ways of using this geothermal resource. In modern direct-use systems, a well is drilled into a geothermal reservoir to provide a steady stream of hot water. The water is brought up through the well, and a mechanical system - piping, a heat exchanger, and controls - delivers the heat directly for its intended use. A disposal system then either injects the cooled water underground or disposes of it on the surface. Geothermal hot water can be used for many applications that require heat. Its current uses include heating buildings (either individually or whole towns), raising plants in greenhouses, drying crops, heating water at fish farms, and several industrial processes, such as pasteurizing milk. With some applications, researchers are exploring ways to effectively use the geothermal fluid for generating electricity as well.

Heat Pump The shallow ground, the upper 10 feet of the Earth, maintains a nearly constant temperature between 50 and 60F (10-16C). Like a cave, this ground temperature is warmer than the air above it in the winter and cooler than the air in the summer. Geothermal heat pumps take advantage of this resource to heat and cool buildings. Geothermal heat pump systems consist of basically three parts: the ground heat exchanger, the heat pump unit, and the air delivery system (ductwork). The heat exchanger is basically a system of pipes called a loop, which is buried in the shallow ground near the building. A fluid (usually water or a mixture of water and antifreeze) circulates through the pipes to absorb or relinquish heat within the ground. In the winter, the heat pump removes heat from the heat exchanger and pumps it into the indoor air delivery system. In the summer, the process is reversed, and the heat pump moves heat from the indoor air into the heat exchanger. The heat removed from the indoor air during the summer can also be used to heat water, providing a free source of hot water. Geothermal heat pumps use much less energy than conventional heating systems, since they draw heat from the ground. They are also more efficient when cooling your home. Not only does this save energy and money, it reduces air pollution. All areas of the United States have nearly constant shallow-ground temperatures, which are suitable for geothermal heat pumps.
DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

Environmental Implications

Geothermal resources can be considered renewable on timescales of technological/societal systems and do not need geological times for regeneration as fossil fuel reserves do. Earths heat is a constant source of energy that is essentially inexhaustible, and rainwater and snowmelt continue to feed the underground thermal aquifers. Heat has been radiating from the center of the earth for some 4.5 billion years, and it is estimated that it will continue to radiate for billions of years into the future. Unlike fossil fuel power plants, no smoke is emitted from geothermal power plants, because no burning takes place; only steam is emitted from geothermal facilities. Emissions of nitrous oxide, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, and carbon dioxide are extremely low, especially when compared to fossil fuel emissions; see Table 12.5. The binary geothermal plant, which currently represents around 15% of all geothermal plant capacity, along with the flash/binary plant, produce nearly zero air emissions. Even dry steam plants, which are considered to have the highest levels of air emissions, are considered environmentally benign compared with fossil fuels. For example, Lake County, California, downwind of The Geysers, has met all federal and state ambient air quality standards for almost 25 years. There are 21 power plants at The Geysers, comprising a significant
Table 12.5 Emissions from Geothermal Facilities Compared with Coal Facilities
Emission Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) Lung Irritation, coughing, smog formation, water quality deterioration Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Wheezing, chest tightness, respiratory illness, ecosystem damage 0 0.35 10.39 78
9

Sample Impact

Particulate Matter (PM) Asthma, bronchitis, cancer, atmospheric deposition, visibility impairment 0 2.23 17

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Global warming produced by CO2 increases sea level, flood risk, glacial melting

Geothermal Emissions lb/MWh Coal Emissions, lb/MWh Emissions Offset by Geothermal Use, Tons/yr

0 4.31 32

0 88.8 2191 16000

complex of electric generation facilities, in spite of which, the air quality is excellent. At The Geysers,
9

While most geothermal plants do not emit sulfur dioxide directly, when a small amount of hydrogen sulfide is released as a gas into the atmosphere, it eventually changes into sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid. Therefore, any sulfur dioxide emissions associated with geothermal energy derive from hydrogen sulfide emissions.

DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

air quality has even improved as a result of geothermal development because hydrogen sulfide, which would ordinarily be released naturally into the atmosphere by hot springs and fumaroles, instead now passes through an abatement system that reduces hydrogen sulfide emissions by 99.9% 10. It should be stressed that the gas emissions from low temperature geothermal resources are normally only a fraction of the emissions from the high-temperature fields used for electricity production. The gas content of low-temperature water is in many cases minute, like in Reykjavik (Iceland); where, the CO2 content is lower than that of the cold groundwater. In sedimentary basins, such as the Paris basin, the gas content may be too high to be released, and in such cases, the geothermal fluid is kept at pressure within a closed circuit (the geothermal doublet) and re-injected into the reservoir without any de-gassing taking place. Conventional geothermal schemes in sedimentary basins commonly produce brines which are generally re-injected into the reservoir and thus, never released into the environment. The CO2 emission from these is thus zero.

Sustainability Attributes

Geothermal power is considered to be sustainable because any projected heat extraction is small compared to the Earth's heat content. Even though geothermal power is globally sustainable, extraction must still be monitored to avoid local depletion. Over the course of decades, individual wells draw down local temperatures and water levels until a new equilibrium is reached with natural flows. The three oldest sites, at Larderello, Wairakei, and The Geysers have experienced reduced output because of local depletion. Heat and water, in uncertain proportions, were extracted faster than they were replenished. If production is reduced and water is re-injected, these wells could theoretically recover their full potential. Such mitigation strategies have already been implemented at some sites. The long-term sustainability of geothermal energy has been demonstrated at the Lardarello field in Italy since 1913, at the Wairakei field in New Zealand since 1958, and at The Geysers field in California since 1960. Geothermal power plants offer several advantages. They are simple, safe, modular (1-50 MWe), can be built rapidly (approximately one year for a 50 MWe plant), and are capable of providing base-load, load-following, or peaking capacity. Geothermal plants provide significant societal benefits, including indigenous energy for the long term with benign environmental attributes (negligible emissions of

10

Kagel, Alyssa, Diana Bates, and Karl Gawell, A Guide to Geothermal Energy and the Environment. Geothermal Energy Association, April 2007.

DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012

CO2, SO2, NOx, and particulates, and modest land and water use). These features are compatible with sustainable development objectives at all levels, making geothermal energy an attractive option. The growth in geothermal power capacity has been based exclusively on the use of high-temperature (above 150C), high-grade, hydrothermal resources. If geothermal power is to become more universally available and have a significant impact on global energy supplies in the next century, then lower temperature hydrothermal resources and other advanced concepts, including hot dry rock11 and enhanced geothermal systems, must be vigorously pursued to make them economically competitive. This will require a robust advanced research program to reduce field development (especially drilling and stimulation) costs and increase energy conversion efficiencies. Lower-temperature hydrothermal resources (below 150C) provide an economical source of energy for geothermal heat pumps (GHPs) and for direct use in domestic, industrial, agricultural, and district heating applications. The installation of GHPs in the US has been growing rapidly over the past decade, at a growth rate of over 15% per year. GHPs enable users to obtain an inexpensive source of space heating and cooling, along with domestic hot water, while offering utilities the benefits of reduced peak demands for power and the deferred need for additional plant capacity. New concepts are also appearing that would increase the application of geothermal energy. For example, the idea of using a 2.5 km borehole as a deep GHP heat exchanger for heating and cooling applications in large building complexes is being pursued in Germany. Research efforts continue in Europe, Japan, and the US to improve technology for heat mining in deep, hot formations of low permeability. If these efforts receive sufficient support and are successful, they could make geothermal energy universally available.

11

All conventional geothermal systems rely on the presence of water circulating through the rock to extract heat and bring it to the surface. However, even in a good aquifer more than 90% of the heat is contained in the rock rather than in the water. Moreover, the vast majority of rocks are poorly permeable at best and the occurrence of an exploitable geothermal reservoir is a rarity. On the other hand, heat exists everywhere, and the amount of energy stored within accessible drilling depths (say, down to 7 Km or 4 miles) is colossal. One cubic kilometer of rock (which is about the scale of a geothermal reservoir) will provide the energy equivalent of 70 000 tonnes of coal if cooled by 1C. All over the world, temperatures around 200C are accessible under a high percentage of the landmass; if this store of heat could be exploited, it would give almost every country the opportunity to generate electricity from an indigenous and (for all practical purposes) renewable resource. DVC/Seyyed Khandani/ENGIN130/FALL2012