2. Review of Related Literature 2.

1 About Taraxacum officinale The English name dandelion is a corruption of the French dent de leon, meaning lions tooth. The herb is similarly named in many IndoEuropean tongues, also being called lions tooth in German (Lwenzahn) and Spanish (diente de leon). The name refers to the toothed margins of the leaves. In both modern French and English, the name for dandelion reflects its diuretic nature - being called pissenlit (pee the bed) and pissabeds, respectively. It has also been called fairy clock in English, though the reason for this name is unknown. Dandelion is called pu2 gong1 ying1 in Chinese (the numbers depict tone), hokouei in Japanese, and pogongyong in Korean. No translations other than dandelion are given for the names. The Latin name Taraxacum is from the Greek and means disease remedy (Yarnell and Abascal, 2009). According to Thorne Research (2002), dandelion is a flowering plant which grows all year round. It possessed of yellow flowers and spatulashaped leaves, and grows up to twelve (12) inches in height. It is commonly used as food, with leaves used in teas and salads, and the roots, as some form of substitute to coffee. It is likewise used as a means to treat certain illnesses like eczema, kidney disease, dropsy, and a number of dermatological conditions in some places such as certain parts of North America. The leaves are crowed in a basal rosette, its blades are simple, variously lobed and may also be lightly pubescent, especially on the lower surfaces and mid-veins, and contain a milky substance. The most prominent feature is the flower head, which upon first opening contains a series of yellow ligulate flowers borne on a hollow pseudostem (Doll and Trower, 2002). The plant blooms in March to May and often again between July to September ([Link], 2013). 2.2 Botanical Descriptions 2.2.1 Taxonomic Classification Kingdom: Plantae Subkingdom: Tracheobionta Superdivision: Spermatophyta Division: Magnoliophyta

Class: Magnoliopsida Subclass: Asteridae Order: Asterales Family: Asteraceae Genus: Taraxacum Species: Taraxacum officinale 2.2.2 Descriptions Among the most recognizable weeds globally, dandelions are not given much research attention. It has long been used medically. Given that some preclinical and clinical research has suggested this plant is a gentle, safe remedy and may have significant activity. According to Yarnell and Abscal (2009), various important compounds in dandelion are sesquiterpene lactones (believed to have antiinflammatory and anticancer effects), phenylpropanoids (believed to have inflammation modulating effects), triterpenoid saponins (effects unknown for this herb; well known for many others; eg, the adaptogenic effects found in plants such as Panax ginseng), and polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates). Major sesquiterpene lactones, generally occurring as glycosides (sugars), include taraxacosides, taraxacolides, dihydrolactucin, ixerin, taraxinic acids, and ainslioside. Phenylpropanoids (cinnamic acid derivatives) are plentifully present and include cichoric acid, monocaffeoyltartaric acid, 4-caffoeylquinic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, and related compounds. Inulin (a class of fibers known as fructans) is also present in large amounts in dandelion root. Dandelion leaf is a good source of potassium; 1 analysis found that 100 g (just over 3 oz) of leaf contained 297 mg potassium, putting it in a league with other high potassium-source foods. Dandelion flower has antioxidant properties. Dandelion may also help improve the immune system. Health care providers clinically use dandelion root to promote liver detoxification and dandelion leaves to support kidney function (Hu and Kitts, 2003). 2.3 Ethnopharmacologic studies Traditional use goes so far back as to predate written records. The leaf of Chinese dandelion (T mongolicum) was first mentioned in writing in the Tang Materia Medica (659 AD) and is classically considered a valuable remedy in Chinese medicine, both topically and internally, for

treating abscesses, reducing eye inflammation, and provoking diuresis (Yarnell and Abascal, 2009). The scientific community has been frenetically studying dandelion recently, due to encouraging evidence that dandelion suppresses the growth and invasive behavior in several types of cancer. Scientists at the University of Annunzio Chieti-Pasaca in Italy compared extracts of tumeric, dandelion, rosemary, and artichoke in a study released in 2010. The researchers acknowledged the positive effect that these herbs have on the liver and gallbladder, and wanted to compare their anti-proliferation (spreading), antioxidant (combating free radical activity), and protective effects. While tumeric had the greatest antioxidant effects, dandelion also had these qualities. The scientists confirmed that these herbs are useful healing aids in modern phytomedicine. The oxidative stress-reducing effects of dandelion extract was tested on rats with liver damage from carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), a chemical used in fire extinguishers and refrigerants which is highly toxic to the liver. Water-based dandelion extract, or dandelion tea, was observed to significantly reduce the amount of oxidative stress and inflammation present in the livers of rats ([Link], 2012) In a 2003 study, scientists found that dandelion flower extract can fight free radicals. While many people think of the common dandelion as a pesky weed, herbalists consider it a valuable herb with many culinary and medicinal uses. Dandelion is a rich source of vitamins A, B complex, C, and D, as well as minerals such as iron, potassium, and zinc (Hu and Kitts, 2003). Its leaves are often used to add flavor to salads, sandwiches, and teas. The roots can be found in some coffee substitutes, and the flowers are used to make certain wines (Hudec et al., 2007). The International Journal of Oncology published a 2008 clinical study showing the positive effects of dandelion leaf tea. Dandelion leaf tea decreased breast cancer cells, but dandelion root tea did not. Researchers went on to test prostate cancer cells and found similar results. Therefore, the scientists concluded that dandelion extract may be considered a "novel" anti-cancer agent. The Journal of Ethnopharmacology published a study in January 2011 which tested the effects of dandelion root tea on leukemia cells. The study showed that dandelion root tea killed leukemia cells through a process called apoptosis. It is believed that dandelion root tea signals a

"kill switch" on leukemia cell receptors. Researchers found it "interesting" that dandelion root tea did not transmit the same "kill switch" signal to healthy cells. These scientists also believed that dandelion should be considered a "novel" non-toxic anti-cancer agent. The International Journal of Oncology published a 2011 report that a dietary supplement containing dandelion as one ingredient suppresses the growth of prostate cancer cells. In yet another 2011 study performed with dandelion, dandelion root extract was clinically proven to induce apoptosis in human drug-resistant melanoma cells without poisoning or damaging healthy cells. Once again, tests proved that dandelion root extract should be considered a "novel" and non-toxic therapy for even drug-resistant forms of cancer. 2.4 Biologic activities 2.4.1 Antibacterial Property Specifically, dandelion demonstrated antiviral effects against human herpes virus, type 1 (HHV1) in vitro25. But, there was no animal and human data shown (Kemper, 1999). 2.4.2 Antifungal Property In a laboratory test using clinical oral Candida isolated from head and neck cancer patients, dandelion did not exhibit significant antifungal activity (Zhao et al., 2006). 2.4.3 Laxative Activity Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) is a botanical rich in betacarotene and potassium. In herbal medicine, dandelion is typically used for its appetite-stimulating, digestion-aiding, and laxative effects ([Link], 2013), something which dates back to ancient folklore (Awortwe et al., 2011). Fresh or dried dandelion herb is also used as a mild appetite stimulant and to improve upset stomach. The root of the dandelion plant may act like a mild laxative and has been used to improve digestion. Some very preliminary research suggests dandelion may help improve liver and gallbladder function, but the study was not well designed (Ehrlich, 2013).

2.4.4 Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Taraxacum officinale has been widely used as a folkloric medicine for the treatment of diverse diseases. Its therapeutic effects have historically been attributed to the bitter constituents found in roots and leaves. Research in laboratory animals suggests that dandelion root may possess anti-inflammatory properties. Sesquiterpenes lactones are responsible for diuretic effects and may contribute to dandelion's mild anti-inflammatory activity ([Link], 2010). Dried dandelion samples were extracted with 70% ethanol to generate its ethanol extract (TEE). Collectively, T. officinale contains anti-angiogenic, anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities through its inhibition of NO production and COX-2 expression and/or its antioxidative activity (Jeon et al., 2008), and may kill bacteria, little scientific support for the medicinal use of dandelion notwithstanding ([Link], 2013), a fact reflected in a number of animal studies (Ehrlich, 2013). Pharmacological profiling of T. officinale has showed diuretic, cholerectic, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, anti-carcinogenic, analgesic, anti-allergic, anti-hyperglycemic and anti-thrombotic activities (Ahmad et al., 2000; Schtz et al., 2005). Studies have demonstrated that T. officinale has antiinflammatory activity by eliciting its protective effect against cholecystokinin-induced acute pancreatitis in rats and suppression of both TNF-a and leukotriene B4 formation in human neutrophils (Kashiwada et al., 2001; Seo et al., 2005). Furthermore, a recent study conducted by Yoon et al. (2010) using mouse macrophage cell line RAW 264.7, showed that, methanolic extract of T. officinale and its fraction inhibit lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced production of NO, pro-inflammatory cytokines and PGE2 in a dose-dependent manner (Awortwe et al., 2011). Studies showed T. officinale contains anti-angiogenic, antiinflammatory and antinociceptive activities through inhibition of NO production and COX-2 expression and/or oxidative activity ([Link], 2012).

References : 1. Thorne Research. Taraxacum officinale. Alternative Medicine Review Monographs, 2002: 400. 2. [Link] 3. Anti-inflammatory activity of Taraxacum officinale. Jeon HJ, Kang HJ, Jung HJ, Kang YS, Lim CJ, Kim YM, Park EH. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health 2008 Jan 4;115(1):82-8. 4. [Link] Guide 5. Dual effect of Taraxacum officinale leaves: Anticholinergic and inhibitory effect on inflammatory cells in ovalbumin-sensitized guinea-pigs C. Awortwe, A. C. Sackeyfio, Dorcas Osei-Safo, K. A. Bugyei and I. J. AsieduGyekye African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology Vol. 5(23), pp. 2613-2619, 22 December, 2011 6. [Link] 7. [Link]. "Antiproliferative, protective and antioxidant effects of artichoke, dandelion, tumeric, and rosemary extracts and their formulation," L. Menghini, et al. International Journal of Immunopathology and Pharmacology April-June 2010; 23(2): 601-10. 8. Spandidos [Link]. "Suppression of growth and invasive behavior of human prostate cancer cells by ProstaCaidTM: Mechanism of activity," J. Jang, et al. International Journal of Oncology. June 2011; 38(6): 1675-82. 9. [Link]. "Evaluation of aqueous extracts of Taraxacum officinale [dandelion] on growth and invasion of breast and prostate cancer cells," S.C. Sigstedt, et al. International Journal of Oncology, May 2008; 32(5): 1085-90. 10. [Link]. "Selective induction of apoptosis through activation of caspase-8 in human leukemia cells (Jurkat) by dandelion root extract," P. Ovadie, et al. The Journal of Ethnopharmacology. January 2011; 133(1): 86-91. 11. [Link]. "The efficacy of dandelion root extract in inducing apoptosis in drug-resistant human melanoma cells," S.J. Chatterjee, et al. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2011; 2011: 129045.