India's Contribution to Mathematics

James Taylor 2002 james@[Link] In India, mathematics has its roots in Vedic literature which is nearly 4000 years old. Between 000 B.!. and 000 ".#. various treatises on mathematics were authored $y Indian mathematicians in which were set %orth %or the %irst time, the concept o% &ero, the techni'ues o% al(e$ra and al(orithm, s'uare root and cu$e root. " method o% (raduated calculation was documented in the )ancha*+iddhanti,a -.ive )rinciples/ in the 0th !entury, $ut the techni'ue is said to date %rom Vedic times circa 2000 B.!. It has now $een (enerally accepted that the techni'ue o% al(e$ra and the concept o% &ero ori(inated in India. The rudiments o% 1eometry, called 2e,ha*1anita in ancient India, were %ormulated and applied in the dra%tin( o% 3andalas %or architectural purposes. They were also displayed in the (eometric patterns used in many temple moti%s. 3any moti%s in 4indu temples and )alaces display a mi5 o% %loral and 1eometric patterns. They can also $e credited with the concept o% ne(ative num$ers. They showed that these new num$ers could $e as use%ul as positive num$ers $y employin( them to represent de$ts. In %act, they %ormulated the arithmetic operations on ne(ative num$ers with this application in mind. Algebra- The Other Mathematics? In ancient India conventional mathematics termed 1anitam was ,nown $e%ore the development o% al(e$ra. This is $orne out $y the name * Bija(anitam, which was (iven to the al(e$raic %orm o% computation. Bija(anitam means 6the other mathematics6 -Bija means 6another6 or 6second6 and 1anitam means mathematics/. The %act that this name was chosen %or this system o% computation implies that it was reco(nised as a parallel system o% computation, di%%erent %rom the conventional one which was used since the past and was till then the only one. "rya$hatta -478 9 000 "#/ has re%erred to Bija(anitam in his treatise on 3athematics, Aryabhattiya. This wor,, %inished in 4::, is a summary o% 4indu mathematics up to that time, written in verse. It covers astronomy, spherical tri(onometry, arithmetic, al(e$ra and plane tri(onometry. "rya$hata (ives %ormulas %or the areas o% a trian(le and a circle which are correct, $ut the %ormulas %or the volumes o% a sphere and a pyramid are wron(. Aryabhatiya also contains continued %ractions, 'uadratic e'uations, sums o% power series and a ta$le o% sines. "rya$hata (ave an accurate appro5imation %or -e'uivalent to ;. 4 8/ and was one o% the %irst ,nown to use al(e$ra. The %irst appearance o% the sine o% an an(le appears in this wor,, and he also introduced the versine - versin < 9 cos/ into tri(onometry. 4e (ave ta$les o% hal% chords which now really are sine ta$les and used jya %or our sine. This same ta$le was reproduced in the wor, o% Brahma(upta -in 82=/ and detailed method %or constructin( a ta$le o% sines %or any an(le were (ive $y Bhas,ara in 00. By a tortuous path, the word sine itsel% can $e traced $ac, to the "rya$hata. The 4indu word jya %or the sine was adopted $y the "ra$s who called the sine jiba , a meanin(less word with the same sound as jya. >ow jiba $ecame jaib in later "ra$ writin(s and this word does have a meanin(, namely a 6%old6. ?hen @uropean authors translated the "ra$ic mathematical wor,s into Aatin they translated jaib into the word sinus meanin( fold in Aatin. In particular .i$onacci6s use o% the term sinus rectus arcus soon encoura(ed the universal use o% sine. "rya$hata also wrote the astronomy te5t Siddhanta which tau(ht that the apparent rotation o% the heavens was due to the a5ial rotation o% the @arth. The wor, is written in 2 stan&as. It (ives a remar,a$ly modern view o% the nature o% the solar system.

"rya$hata (ives the radius o% the planetary or$its in terms o% the radius o% the @arthB+un or$it as essentially their periods o% rotation around the +un. 4e $elieves that the 3oon and planets shine $y re%lected sunli(ht, and incredi$ly he $elieves that the or$its o% the planets are ellipses. 4e correctly e5plains the causes o% eclipses o% the +un and the 3oon. 4is value %or the len(th o% the year at ;80 days 8 hours 2 minutes ;0 seconds is an overestimate since the true value is less than ;80 days 8 hours "round the 2th century ".# Bhas,aracharya wrote 6+iddhanta*+hiromani6 o% which one section is entitled Bija(anitam. Thus the techni'ue o% al(e$raic computation was ,nown and was developed in India in earlier times. .rom the ;th century onwards, India was su$ject to invasions %rom the "ra$s and other Islamised communities li,e the Tur,s and "%(hans. "lon( with these invaderC came chroniclers and critics li,e "l*$eruni who studied Indian society and polity. It was also the a(e o% the Islamic 2enaissance and the "ra$s (enerally improved upon the arts and sciences that they im$i$ed %rom the land they overran durin( their (reat Jehad. )erhaps the most important person mathematically was the splendidly named "$u "$d*"llah i$n 3usa al6Dhwari&mi -7:0*=40/ "l6Dhwari&mi6s most important wor, Hisab al-jabr w'al-muqabala written in =;0 (ives us the word algebra, %rom the latinised title Ludus algebra at almucgrabalaeque . "l*je$r means Ethe reunionF. This treatise classi%ies the solution o% 'uadratic e'uations and (ives (eometric methods %or completin( the s'uare -see $elow/ >o sym$ols are used and no ne(ative or &ero coe%%icients were allowed. Between the 0th to ;th centuries, the !hristian ,in(doms o% @urope made numerous attempts to recon'uer the 4oly Aand %rom its 3ohammedan*"ra$ rulers. These !rusades %ailed in their military o$jective, $ut the contacts they created $etween oriental and occidental nations resulted in a massive e5chan(e o% ideas. The techni'ue o% al(e$ra could have passed on to the west at this time. #urin( the 2enaissance in @urope, %ollowed $y the industrial revolution, the ,nowled(e received %rom the east was %urther developed. "l(e$ra as we ,now it today has lost any characteristics that $etrays its eastern ori(in save the %act that the term reminds us o% the title 6"l ja$r6 which the "ra$s (ave to Bija(anitam. Incidentally the term Bija(anit is still use in India to re%er to this su$ject. Bhas,ara4 9 =0 "#/ represents the pea, o% mathematical ,nowled(e in the 2th !entury and reached an understandin( o% the num$er systems and solvin( e'uations which was not to $e reached in @urope %or several centuries. Bhas,ara was head o% the astronomical o$servatory at Gjjain, the leadin( mathematical centre in India at that time. 4e understood a$out 0 and ne(ative num$ers, and he ,new that 5 < : had two solutions. 4e (ives the %ormula
+ 2 b a a2 b 2 2 2 2 Bhas,ara also studied )ell6s e'uation x = 1 + %or p < =, , ;2, 8 and 87. ?hen p < 8 he
a =

%ound the solutions x < 778; :04:, y < 228 0;:0. 4e studied many #iophantine pro$lems. Bhas,ara6s mathematical wor,s include Ailavati -The Beauti%ul/ and Bija(anita -+eed !ountin(/ while he also wrote on astronomy. httpCBBwww*[Link]*[Link].u,BhistoryB3athematiciansBBhas,[Link] In the year = 8, an @n(lishman $y the name James Taylor translated Bhas,ara6s Ailavati into @n(lish. " second @n(lish translation appeared in the %ollowin( year - = 7/ $y the @n(lish astronomer 4enry Thomas !ole$ru,e.. Thus the wor,s o% this Indian mathematician astronomer were made ,nown to the western world nearly 700 years a%ter he had penned them, althou(h his ideas had already reached the west throu(h the "ra$s many centuries earlier. In the words o% the "ustralian Indolo(ist ".A. Basham -".A. BashamH The ?onder That was India./ I... the world owes most to India in the realm o% mathematics, which was developed in the 1upta period to a sta(e more advanced than that reached $y any other nation o% anti'uity. The success o% Indian mathematics was mainly due to the %act that Indians

had a clear conception o% the a$stract num$er as distinct %rom the numerical 'uantity o% o$jects or spatial e5tension.I Thus Indians could ta,e their mathematical concepts to an a$stract plane and with the aid o% a simple numerical notation devise a rudimentary al(e$ra as a(ainst the 1ree,s or the ancient @(yptians who due to their concern with the immediate measurement o% physical o$jects remained con%ined to 3ensuration and 1eometry. Geometry And Algorithm But even in the area o% 1eometry, Indian mathematicians had their contri$ution. There was an area o% mathematical applications called 2e,ha 1anita -Aine !omputation/. The Sulva Sutras, which literally mean 62ule o% the !hord6 (ive (eometrical methods o% constructin( altars and temples. The temple layouts were called 3andalas. +ome o% important wor,s in this %ield are $y "pastam$a, Baudhayana, 4iranya,esin, 3anava, Varaha and Vadhula.. The Buddhist )a(odas $orrowed their plan o% construction %rom the (eometric (rid o% the 3andala used %or constructin( temples in India The "ra$ scholar 3ohammed I$n Ju$air al Battani studied Indian use o% ratios %rom 2e,ha 1anita and introduced them amon( the "ra$ scholars li,e "l Dhwara&mi, ?ashiya and "$e 3ashar who incorporated the newly ac'uired ,nowled(e o% al(e$ra and other $ranches o% Indian mathematics into the "ra$ ideas a$out the su$ject. It was "l Dhwara&miJs second $oo, that $rou(ht the 4indu num$er system to the "ra$ world, leadin( to the most success%ul num$er system o% all * the 4indu* "ra$ic num$er system . It is instructive to realise that it was not an immediate success * merchants thorou(hly %amiliar with the 2oman system and %ound the new "ra$ic system very con%usin(, and early e5amples o%ten contain mista,es or mi5 the two systemsC 300iv < 004 In an account o% the !ommune o% 1enoa in ;40, the e5penses %or a transaction were 2 07; li$$re, written as as IIAKKIII. IThe initial IIIII meant two o% what you would e5pect to %ind at the $e(innin( o% such a $i( num$er, thousandsI " $i( impetus was (iven to the system with the pu$lication o% .ra6 Auca )acioli6s Summa de Arithmetica geometria proportioni et proportionalita, pu$lished %irst in 4:4. >early every num$er in it was written in the new, convenient 4indu*"ra$ic numerals. In $oo,,eepin(, )acioli used 2oman numerals only %or the year. IGse the ancient letters in ma,in( this entryI,he advised6 I i% only %or the sa,e o% more $eautyI. Incidentally, accordin( to the L5%ord #ictionary, the word al(orithm which we use in the @n(lish lan(ua(e is a corruption o% the name Dhwara&mi which literally means 6-a person/ %rom Dhawari&m6, which was the name o% the town where "l Dhwara&mi lived. Lur de$t to "l Dhwara&mi has $een ac,nowled(ed in another wayC there is a Crater Al-Khwarizmi on the moonM Today, un%ortunately, the ori(inal Indian te5ts that "l Dhwara&mi studied are lost to us, only the translations are availa$le . The "ra$s $orrowed so much %rom India in the %ield o% mathematics that even the su$ject o% mathematics in "ra$ic came to ,nown as 4indsa, which means NJ%rom IndiaJ and a mathematician or en(ineer in "ra$ic is called 3uhandis which means 6an e5pert in 3athematics6. The word 3uhandis possi$ly derived %rom the "ra$ic term mathematics vi&. 4indsa. The Concept of Zero The concept o% &ero also ori(inated in ancient India. This numeral indicated $y a dot and was termed )ujyam. @ven today the Indians use this term %or &ero alon( with the more current term +hunyam meanin( a $lan,. Interestin(ly, the term )ujyam also means holy. )aram*)ujya is a pre%i5 used in written communication with elders. In this case it means respected or esteemed. The reason why the term )ujya * meanin( $lan, * came to $e sancti%ied can only $e (uessed. Indian philosophy has (lori%ied concepts li,e the material world $ein( an illusion -3aya/, the act o% renouncin( the material world -Tya(a/ and the (oal o% mer(in( into the void o% eternity ->irvana/. 4erein could lie the reason how the mathematical concept o% &ero (ot a philosophical connotation o% reverence. concept o% 6&ero6 or Shunya is derived %rom

the concept o% a void. The concept o% void e5isted in 4indu )hilosophy and so possi$ly the derivation o% a sym$ol %or it. The concept o% +hunyata, in%luenced +outh*east asian culture throu(h the Buddhist concept o% >irvana 6attainin( salvation $y mer(in( into the void o% eternity6 -Lrnate @ntrance o% a Buddhist temple in Aaos/ It is possi$le that li,e the techni'ue o% al(e$raH the concept o% &ero also reached the west throu(h the "ra$s. In ancient India the terms used to descri$e &ero included )ujyam, +hunyam, Bindu the concept o% a void or $lan, was termed as +hu,la and +hu$ra. The "ra$s re%er to the &ero as +iphra or +i%r %rom which we have the @n(lish terms !ipher or !ypher. In @n(lish the term !ipher connotes &ero or any "ra$ic numeral. Thus it is evident that the term !ipher is derived %rom the "ra$ic +i%r which in turn is 'uite close to the +ans,rit term +hu$ra. The ancient India astronomer Brahma(upta is credited with havin( put %orth the concept o% &ero %or the %irst timeC Brahma(upta is said to have $een $orn the year 0:= ".#. at Bhillamala -today6s Bhinmal / in 1ujarat, ?estern India, and died in 870/ >ot much is ,nown a$out Brahma(upta6s early li%e. ?e are told that his name as a mathematician was well esta$lished when D Vya(hramu,ha o% the !hapa dynasty re%erred to as him the court astronomer. L% his two treatises, Brahma*sputa siddhanta and Darana,handa,hadya,a, the %irst is more %amous. It was a corrected version o% the old "stronomical te5t, Brahma siddhanta. It was in his Brahma*sphu siddhanta, that, %or the %irst time ever, the rules o% the operation &ero were %ormulated, %oreshadowin( the decimal system numeration. . Aater, &ero appeared in "ra$ic $oo,s in 770 "# and %rom there was carried to @urope in =00 "#. ?ith the inte(ration o% &ero into the numerals it $ecame possi$le to note hi(her numerals with limited characters. In the earlier 2oman and Ba$ylonian systems o% numeration, a lar(e num$er o% characters were re'uired to denote hi(her numerals. "part %rom developin( the decimal system $ased on the incorporation o% &ero in enumeration, Brahma(upta also arrived at solutions %or indeterminate e'uations o% the type a52O <y2 . Brahma(upta (ives us an, almost modern, method %or solvin( e'uations which admits ne(ative 'uantities. 4e also used a$$reviations %or the un,nown, usually the initial letter o% a colour was used, and sometimes several di%%erent un,nowns occur in a sin(le pro$lem. "t that sta(e, the "ra$s did not ,now a$out the advances o% the 4indus so they had neither ne(ative 'uantities nor a$$reviations %or their un,nowns. 4owever al6Dhwari&mi (ave a classi%ication o% di%%erent types o% 'uadratics -althou(h only numerical e5amples o% each/. The di%%erent types arise since al6Dhwari&mi had no &ero or ne(atives. 4e has si5 chapters each devoted to a di%%erent type o% e'uation, the e'uations $ein( made up o% three types o% 'uantities namelyC roots, s'uares o% roots and num$ers i.e. 5, 52 and num$ers. . 2. ;. 4. 0. 8. +'uares e'ual to roots. +'uares e'ual to num$ers. 2oots e'ual to num$ers. +'uares and roots e'ual to num$ers, e.(. 52 O 05 < ;:. +'uares and num$ers e'ual to roots, e.(. 52 O 2 < 05. 2oots and num$ers e'ual to s'uares, e.(. ;5 O 4 < 52.

al6Dhwari&mi (ives the rule %or solvin( each type o% e'uation, essentially the %amiliar 'uadratic %ormula (iven %or a numerical e5ample in each case, and then a proo% %or each e5ample which is a (eometrical completing the square

Brahma(upta was head o% the astronomical o$servatory at Gjjain which was the %oremost mathematical centre o% ancient India. 4e wrote important wor,s on mathematics and astronomy. 4e wrote Brahma* sphuta* siddhanta -The Lpenin( o% the Gniverse/, in 2 chapters, at Bhillamala in 82=. 4is second wor, on mathematics and astronomy is Dhanda,hadya,a written in 880. Brahma(upta6s understandin( o% the num$er systems was %ar $eyond others o% the period. 4e developed some al(e$raic notation. 4e (ave remar,a$le %ormulas %or the area o% a cyclic 'uadrilateral -see pa(e P./ and %or the len(ths o% the dia(onals in terms o% the sides. Brahma(upta also studied arithmetic pro(ressions, 'uadratic e'uations, theorems on ri(ht*an(led trian(les, sur%aces and volumes. The remainin( chapters deal with solar and lunar eclipses, planetary conjunctions and positions o% the planets. Brahma(upta $elieved in a static @arth and he (ave the len(th o% the year as ;80 days 8 hours 0 minutes : seconds in the %irst wor,, chan(in( the value to ;80 days 8 hours 2 minutes ;8 seconds in the second $oo,. Brahma(upta6s treatise Brahma*sputa*siddhanta was translated into "ra$ic under the title +ind 4ind. .or several centuries this translation remained a standard te5t o% re%erence in the "ra$ world. It was %rom this translation o% an Indian te5t on 3athematics that the "ra$ mathematicians per%ected the decimal system and (ave the world its current system o% enumeration which we call the "ra$ numerals. Ln other matters, we note that in 800 B!, 00 years $e%ore )ytha(oras, in his $oo, !audhayana Sulba Sutra , Baudhayana states, IThe area produced $y the dia(onal o% a ri(ht*an(led trian(le is e'ual to the sum o% the areas produced $uy its two sides.I in the Surya Siddhanta, dated 400*000 "#, the ancient 4indu "stronomer Bhas,aracharya states, IL$jects %all on the earth due to a %orce o% attraction $y the earth. There%ore, the earth, planets, constellations, moon and sun are held in or$it due to this %orce.I

Jagadguru
I would now li,e to discuss the wor, o% a most interestin( person, with the %ormida$le name o% 4is 4oliness Ja(ad(uru +an,aracarya +ri Bharati Drsna Tirthaji 3aharaja. Better ,nown as NJa(ad(uruJ or N1urudevaJ to his disciples, he was $orn o% learned and hi(hly pious parents in 3arch, ==4. 4e died in Bom$ay on ;rd .e$ruary, :80, a%ter an e5traordinary li%e devoted to his %aith, and mathematics. There appears to $e some controversy a$out his assertion that the mathematics he presented as comin( %rom the historic Vedas actually can $e %ound there, $ut there is no dou$t that what he presents is startlin(, and to western eyes, ori(inal. The %ollowin( e5amples are ta,en %rom the $oo, "edic #athematics, and represent a summary $y Ja(ad(uru o% the si5teen mathematical %ormulae that he reconstructed %rom the "tharvaveda. In his introduction to this pu$lication, 3anjula Trevedi says C $bviously these formulae are not to be found in the present recensions of the Atharvaveda% they were actually reconstructed on the basis of intuitive revelation from materials scattered here and there in the Atharvaveda& Arithmetic The concept o% the e'adhi'a is central to Ja(ad(uruJs num$er wor,. and he de%ines it as %ollowsC I% a num$er ends in :, then the e'adhi'a is one more than the previous num$er. .or e5ample, the e'adhi'aJs %or :, :,2:,;: are ,2,;,4. This provides the model %or other num$ersC

 .or ;, ;,2;,;; etc multiply $y ;. The e'adhi'aJs are then ,4,7, 0 etc c/ .or 7, 7,27,;7 etc. multiply $y 7. The e'adhi'aJs are then 0, 2, :,28 etc d/ .or , ,2 ,; etc. multiply $y :. The e'adhi'aJs are then , 0, :,2= etc -p270/ >ote that not all num$ers have an e'adhi'a Application to ec!rring decimals !onsider the decimal e5pression %or %ractions o% the %orm Ta,e the %irst %raction,
1 . 19 1 1 1 , , , ... 19 29 39

Ja(ad(uru o$serves that in every recurring decimal with the standard numerator ie ( it will be observed that ) will invariably be the last digit of the product of the last digit of the denominator and the last digit of its recurring decimal equivalent& .or e5ample, the last di(it in the recurrin( pattern %or
1 must $e 7 7

4ence the last digit o% the recurrin( di(its %or our present pro$lem must $e . )roceed $y multiplyin( the !nits di(it $y the e'adhi'a 2, from right to left, carryin( any tens over as normal. Ja(ad(uru sets the wor, out as %ollowsC
1 5 263 1 5 7 89 47 3 6842 1 = .1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 19

>ote that the whole = di(its can $e wor,ed out mentally, writin( them down as we proceedM .or
1 , the e'adhi'a o% 2: is ;. 2epeat the process as a$ove, $ut multiply $y ;C 29 1 131 42 48 2 2172 51862 2 0 2 62 81 916155 217 124 112 32 793 1 = .1 0 29

"nd thatJs not all. The process can actually $e speeded up, $y noticin( that the di(its in the %irst hal% o% the e5pansion are the :Js complement o% the di(its in the second hal%M 03448275862068 96551724137931 99999999999999 4ow do you ,now when youJre hal% way throu(hQ ?hen your multiplyin( (enerates less than the denominator -2= in this case/. " %urther e5ample,
1 . +tart with 49

as always, and multiply $y 0. +top when 4= is reached, and

complete the di(its usin( :Js complement. 4ere is the calculation o% the last se'uence o% di(its, startin( %rom the ri(ht and Eendin( withF 4=C
4

83 94 72 9 4 5941183 3361 72 33 4 4 6194 3383 72 72 551

The initial = o% this se'uence is the :Js complement o% the %inal . ?e may now write down the %inal num$erC
R 204081632653012244 4 83 94 72 9 4 5941183 3361 72 33 4 4 6194 3383 72 72 551 .0

2emar,a$leM ItJs almost a pity the calculator was invented. Tests for "i#isibity

Ja(ad(uru uses the e'adhi'a a(ain in a process he calls osculation. Lsculation consists in multiplyin( the last di(it o% a num$er $y an e'adhi'a, and addin( the result to the remainin( di(its o% the num$er. @5amplesC e'adhi'a >um$er Lsculation 7 24; 7; O 24 <40 0 8;42 02 O 8;4 <844 2 078 28 O 07 < 2: >ow %or another remar,a$le resultC *f the result of osculation is the divisor itself or a repetition of a previous result the given number is divisible by the divisor& +p,-./ @5amplesC a/ #etermine whether 2774 is divisi$le $y :. The e'adhi'a o% : is 2. !ontinual osculation o% 2774 $y 2 (ives 2=0, ;= and :. 2774 is divisi$le $y : $/ #etermine whether ;=00 is divisi$le $y 7 The e'adhi'a o% 7 is 0. !ontinual osculation o% ;=00 $y 0 (ives 4 0, 4 and :. ;=00 is not divisi$le $y 7 c/ #etermine whether 4;727 is divisi$le $y 2: The e'adhi'a o% 2: is ;. !ontinual osculation o% 4;7;2 $y ; (ives 4;7:, 484 and 0=, 2:. 4;7;2 is divisi$le $y 2: +ome num$ers have a lar(e e'ahdi'a, and ma,e this approach impractical. Ja(ad(uru has a method %or these as well, usin( negative osculators, which we wonJt (o into here. "i#ision Ja(ad(uru has an intri(uin( way o% simpli%yin( certain divisions usin( the e'ahdi'a. 4e constructs what he calls the auxiliary fraction whose denominator is the e'ahdi'a o% the ori(inal %raction. $raction A!%iliary $raction &A'$'(
1 29 3 59 21863 49999 0.1 3 0.3 6 2.1863 5

?hat happens now is very curious, $ut e%%ective. ?e do a short division usin( the "..., but prefi% each quotient with its remainder to %orm the ne5t dividendM Ta,e the %raction
3 0.3 !onsider now the short division process %or the "... 59 6

8 into ; (oes 0 with remainder ;. ?rite down ) and prefix the 0 with ; 8 into ;0 (oes 0 with remainder 0. ?rite down * and pre%i5 the 0 with 0 8 into 00 (oes 0 with remainder 0. ?rite down ) and pre%i5 the 0 with 0 8 into 00 (oes = with remainder 2. ?rite down + and pre%i5 the = with 2 The wor, is set out as %ollowsC
0.3 3 0.30 0 55 02 84 4 2 73 44 53 716... and so = 0.0508474576 ... 6 59

I% the numerator has more than one di(it, the wor, is done in $loc,s o% di(its. #ivision occurs in the normal way %or the $loc,, and the final remainder is pre%i5ed to the $loc, to %orm the ne5t dividend. !onsider
21863 49999

2.1863 21863 0.3 4372 2 6874 45374 4 9074.... and so = 0.4372687453749074 .... 5 49999

>ow thatJs what I call a party tric,. I havenJt the %aintest idea why it wor,s. M!ltiplication Ja(ad(uru has methods %or s'uare roots and cu$e roots, which are o% only passin( interest in this a(e, $ut his method o% multiplication is intri(uin(. It consists o% %indin( the de%iciency or e5cess %rom a power o% 0, and writin( it ne5t to each num$er. .or e5ample, let us multiply :2 $y :8C
92 8 96 4 88 / 32

The de%iciency %rom 00 is written to the ri(ht as a ne(ative num$er. The %inal answer is o$tained $y multiplyin( the di(its on the ri(ht, and com$inin( :8 and 9= across the dia(onal. -Lr, %or that matter, :2 and 94. Ja(ad(uru wrote that Eold historical tradition descri$e this cross*su$traction process as havin( $een responsi$le %or the acceptance o% the mar, as the si(n o% multiplication./ Below are some %urther e5amplesC

888 112 998 002 886 / 224

888 112 991 009 879 / 1 008 = 880 / 008

The method is o$viously very convenient %or num$ers near the power o% ten. 3ethods are (iven %or dealin( with num$ers %urther away, $ut they are cum$ersome. 4owever, the a$ove method is worthy o% note, i% only $ecause you can rattle o%% such thin(s as the s'uare o% ::= in a matter o% secondsM Algebra Ja(ad(uru is %ond o% mental e5ercise, and $elieves that we should $e a$le to divide
x 3 + 7 2 + 6 + 5 2

111 +11 1026 + 26 109 + 9 997 3 120 /99 1023 /0 7 8 = 1022/ 922

$y si(ht, or $y the Emethod o% ar(umentationF. I a(ree with him. 4owever, I thin, I draw the line at
12 x 4 + 41 3 + 81 2 + 79 + 42 3 2 + 5 + 7 which is one o% his e5amples. 4e has some interestin( methods o% %actorisin(. @ven today, the methods %or %actorisin( 'uadratic e5pressions each have their champions, and Ja(ad(uru (ives (rud(in( approval %or the process o% splittin( the middle termC

x + 7 + 10 = + 2 + 5 + 10 = ( + 2) + 5( + 2) = ( + 2)( + 5)
2

"lthou(h I would not have used this method on such a simple pro$lem, it is certainly the method I show students i% the leadin( coe%%icient is not C
2 x 2 + 5 + 2 = 2 2 + 4 + + 2 = 2 ( + 2) + 1( + 2) = ( + 2)( 2 + 1)

4owever, Ja(ad(uru thin,s this can cause Ereal harmF i% they are never tau(ht the 'uic, method. To him, this means splittin( the middle coe%%icient so that the ratio of the first coefficient to the first part is the same as the ratio of the second part to the last coefficient& In the case a$ove, this yields 2C4 and C2. >ow this means that - x O 2/ is a %actor, and the second %actor can $e written down immediately $y loo,in( at the %irst and last terms. Sou can actually (et 'uite (ood at doin( this, $ut I thin, a com$ination o% methods is pre%era$le. .or e5ample, to %actorise 2x2 O ;x 9 4, %irst %ind two num$ers that multiply to (ive 2 4 and add to (ive ;. They are 8 and 9;. Then write
12 x 2 + 13 4 = 12 2 + 16 3 4 = (3 + 4 )( 4 1)

The last line comes 'uic,ly $y o$servin(, %rom line , that ;x O 4 is a %actor, and so the second %actor %ollows immediately. In %act, the whole process can $e done mentally. Ja(ad(uru also ma,es use o% the ruleC the product of the sum of the coefficients in the factors is equal to the sum of the coefficients in the product& This result is easy enou(h to prove. I%
- x + )( + )....( + ) = + 1 + ... + C

replacin( x < throu(hout (ives the re'uired result. Lne application is in %actorisin( cu$ics. I% we ,now, $y the remainder theorem or otherwise, that -x O / is a %actor o% x 3 + 6 2 + 11 + 6 , we can write down
x 3 + 6 2 + 11 + 6 = ( + 1)( 2 + ... + 6)

$y inspection. ?e could %ind the missin( term $y ar(umentation, considerin( the coe%%icient o% x, perhaps. 4owever, usin( the result a$ove, we see that the sum o% the coe%%icients in the second %actor must $e 2, (ivin( 0 as the re'uired coe%%icient. 2eturnin( to 'uadratics, I donJt thin, many o% us would li,e to %actorise
2 x 2 + 6 2 + 32 + 7 + 11 + 7

Ja(ad(uru proceeds $y puttin( y 0 separately e'ual to 0 and %actorisin( the remainin( 'uadraticsC

y= 0: 2 x + 3z + 7 zx ( x + 3z )(2 x + z )
2 2

z =0 2 x + 6 y + 7 xy ( x + 2 y )( 2 x + 3 y )
2 2

!om$inin( the two results we have the %actors - x + 2 y + 3 z)(2 x + 3 y + z ) . I% two eliminations do not provide su%%icient in%ormation %or the distri$ution o% terms, then the third elimination is considered. .or e5ample, eliminatin( y and 0 %rom the e5pression 2 x 2 + 2 + 2 5 3 2 (ives the two pairs - x )( + 2 y ) and ( x z)( x + 3z ) But these are not su%%icient to determine the distri$ution o% terms. @liminatin( x, thou(h, (ives a %urther pair -* y 1 0/-2y O ;0/ and so we have - x )( + 2 y + 3z ) as the re'uired %actorisation. ?ould you li,e to %ind the 4!. o% x 3 3 2 4 + 12 3 7 2 + 16 12 Q +u$tract themC "dd themC 2 4 x 20 + 24 2 x 3 10 2 + 12 2emove any common %actors %rom eachC 2 2 x 5 + 6 x 5 + 6 "nd thereJs your 4!.. I% the e5treme terms are not as convenient as the ones in the e5ample, multiplyin( $y constants in the normal method %or simultaneous e'uations is used. ,ol#ing -.!ations I% you have a (ood memory %or special cases, Ja(ad(uru has some startlin( results. .or e5ample, the %ollowin( e'uation can $e solved $y si(htC

a+ + 2b a +c + = + + + + + x + 2b x + a + c + 2b + c The answers are x < 0, and x = . !an you see the patternQ )erhaps a numerical e5ample 2

may helpC The solutions %or

are x < 0 and x < *2.0. !onsider now

2 3 4 1 + = + x + 2 + 3 + 4 +1

"ccordin( to Ja(ad(uru,

1 1 1 1 + = + x 7 9 6 10

the "edic Sutra 2tells us that if other elements being equal the sum total of the denominators on he LHS and the total on the 3HS be the same then that total is 0ero& +o the solution to the e'uation is 2x 9 8 < 0, or x < =. ?e mi(ht have to transpose to o$tain 4 terms with plus si(ns, $ut that can $e done mentally. 4ence the solution to
1 1 1 1 = x + + + + + 1 is x = ( b + c ) 2 4avin( trou$le with - x 3)3 + ( x 9)3 = 2( x 6)3 Q

I(norin( the cu$es, we note the sum o% the %actors is the same. There%ore, $y the Sunyam Samuccaye %ormula, we may write down immediately that 2x 9 2 < 0 and hence x < 8. ?hat a$out
- x + 3)3 x + 1 = Q ( x + 5)3 x + 7

The same sutra tells us that since 4 1 + 1 -within the cu$es/ is the same as 4 2 + 2 we may write 2x O = < 0 and hence x < *4 " nice variation %or solvin( normal 'uadratic e'uations is that the differential is e'ual to the root o% the discriminant. @5ampleC +olve ;x2 9 75 9 = < 0 +olutionC
6 x 7 = 145

7 145 6

It is no 'uic,er than usin( the standard %ormula %rom the start, $ut it provides a neat connection. Coordinate Geometry Tuic,, nowC what is the e'uation o% the strai(ht line throu(h the two points -=, *2/ and -;, 7/Q The answer is :5 O0y < 82 The pattern used here is x * y < + where means Ethe di%%erence o% the y coordinatesF means Ethe di%%erence o% the x coordinatesF -in the same order as / + means Esu$stitute a pointF. ,!mmary 3uch o% Ja(ad(uruJs wor, revolves around special cases, and the student is e5pected to remem$er a very (reat deal. In the present day, much o% this seems redundant. 4owever, the startlin( nature o% some o% these patterns can enliven a lesson, or perhaps stimulate a student to try and determine the underlyin( mathematical principle.

Exercises
a/ $/ c/ 2. +ee i% you can write down the decimal e5pansion %or e5ample. Try
1 $y this method and e5plain why it doesnJt wor,. 39 1 without loo,in( throu(h the 29

?rite down another %raction o% this type which will %ail.

Gsin( the method descri$ed a$ove, determine whether the %irst num$er is a divisor o% the secondC ;: ;7408 UnoV 2; ;47= UyesV 7 ;208 UyesV 0: 2 0;4 UnoV .ind the %irst = di(its in the %or the decimal e5pansions o% the %ollowin(, usin( the au5iliary %raction methodC a/
5 29

;.

$/

7.2 79

c/

9 19

d/

3451 e/ 5999

7183 29999

4.

)er%orm the %ollowin( multiplications usin( the e5cessBde%icient methodC

109
88 99 898 995

994

112

1023
15 x 14 8
2 2

0. 8.

.actorise each o% the %ollowin( $y ; di%%erent methodsC a/ c/ 6 x 2 + 11 10 $/ 12 x 2 + 17 7

Gsin( the method o% elimination descri$ed a$ove, %actorise the %ollowin(C 2 3 x2 + 2 2 4 a/ 2 2x 2 + 2 + 5 + 2 5 12 $/ 2 3 x + 2 2 + 19 + 28 2 + 9 30 2 + 19 + 46 c/ 2 3 x 2 + 7 + 2 + 11 + 6 2 + 14 + 8 + 14 + 7 + 8 d/ .ind the 4!. o% the %ollowin( pairsC a/ $/ c/
4 x 3 + 13 2 + 19 + 4 and 2 x 3 + 5 2 + 5 4 6 x 4 113 + 16 2 22 + 8 and 6 x 4 113 8 2 + 22 8 U52*5*2V x 4 + 3 5 2 3 + 2 and x 4 33 + 2 + 3 2

7.

=.

+olve the e'uations

a/ $/ c/ d/ e/ :.

3 4 2 5 + = + x+3 +4 +2 +5 1 1 1 1 + = + x 5 + 7 6 +8 1 1 1 1 = x + + + - x + 2)3 + ( x 8) 3 = 2( x 3)3

- x 4)3 x + 5 = ( x + 6)3 x 3

Veri%y $y e5pandin( the cu$ics that the solution o%

- x 2 a) + ( x 2 b) = 2( x a b )
3 3 3

is the solution (iven $y the Sunyam Samuccaye %ormula. 0. a/ $/ . 2. a/ $/ +olve the 'uadratic e'uation 0x2 9 ;5 9 2 < 0 usin( the %act that the di%%erential is e'ual to the root o% the discriminant.. #erive this property %rom the 'uadratic %ormula.

.ind the e'uation o% the line passin( throu(h the points -4, ;/ and -* , 0/ .ind the point o% intersection o% the line passin( throu(h the points - , / and -*;, *0/ with the line passin( throu(h -* 0, *;/ and -=, * / )rove Bhas,araJs %ormulaC
a =

+ 2 b 2

a a2 b 2

Investigation The Sri-Yantra

The word Santra means E)ower dia(ramF in +ans,rit. The dia(ram may $e descri$ed as a $ilaterally symmetrical %i(ure composed o% nine interwoven isosceles trian(les, usually depicted with %ive trian(les pointin( downwards and %our pointin( upwards. The %ormer are said to correspond to the yoni representin( the dynamic %emale principle o% ener(y -Sa'ti/, while the latter correspond to the linga representin( the static male principle o% wisdom -Siva/. The central dot called bindu represents the ori(inal unity o% the male and %emale principles prior to creation and the parado5ical point %emale principles prior to creation and the parado5ical point %rom which the mani%estation o% the cosmos emer(es. The interpenetration o% the nine $asic trian(les (ives rise to a num$er o% su$sidiary trian(les -4; includin( the central trian(le enclosin( the bindu/ which %orm the a$odes o% the deities, representin( the particulari&ation o% the ori(inal creative %orces into more concrete mani%estations. +ometimes the names o% deities and +ans,rit sylla$les are written into these trian(les, or ima(es o% the deities are placed in them. The two outer trian(les are constructed so that their points will touch a circle %rom the centre o% the dia(ram. There are = three line crossin( points that must cross e5actly. "lterin( the (eometry o% any one trian(le will throw the entire coordination o%%. There have $een several attempts to determine the (eometry used $y the ancient artists. 2eaders mi(ht li,e to try their hand at the dia(ram $e%ore consultin( the method in the appendices. UThe a$ove %rom [Link],elBsriyantraB$[Link]

Srinivasa Aiyangar

amanu!an

BornC 22 #ec ==7 in @rode, Tamil >adu state, India #iedC 28 "pril :20 in Dum$a,onam, Tamil >adu state, India +rinivasa 2amanujan was one o% India6s (reatest mathematical (eniuses. 4e made su$stantial contri$utions to the analytical theory o% num$ers and wor,ed on elliptic %unctions, continued %ractions, and in%inite series. 2amanujan was $orn in his (randmother6s house in @rode, a small villa(e a$out 400 ,m southwest o% 3adras. ?hen 2amanujan was a year old his mother too, him to the town o% Dum$a,onam, a$out 80 ,m nearer 3adras. 4is %ather wor,ed in Dum$a,onam as a cler, in a cloth merchant6s shop. In #ecem$er ==: he contracted smallpo5. ?hen he was nearly %ive years old, 2amanujan entered the primary school in Dum$a,onam althou(h he would attend several di%%erent primary schools $e%ore enterin( the Town 4i(h +chool in Dum$a,onam in January =:=. "t the Town 4i(h +chool, 2amanujan was to do well in all his school su$jects and showed himsel% an a$le all round scholar. In :00 he $e(an to wor, on his own on mathematics summin( (eometric and arithmetic series. 2amanujan was shown how to solve cu$ic e'uations in :02 and he went on to %ind his own method to solve the 'uartic. The %ollowin( year, not ,nowin( that the 'uintic could not $e solved $y radicals, he tried -and o% course %ailed/ to solve the 'uintic. It was in the Town 4i(h +chool that 2amanujan came across a mathematics $oo, $y 1 + !arr called Synopsis of elementary 3results in 5ure #athematics . This $oo,, with its very concise style, allowed 2amanujan to teach himsel% mathematics, $ut the style o% the $oo, was to have a rather un%ortunate e%%ect on the way 2amanujan was later to write down mathematics since it provided the only model that he had o% written mathematical ar(uments. The $oo, contained theorems, %ormulas and short proo%s. It also contained an inde5 to papers on pure mathematics which had $een pu$lished in the @uropean Journals o% Aearned +ocieties durin( the %irst hal% o% the :th century. The $oo,, pu$lished in =08, was o% course well out o% date $y the time 2amanujan used it. By :04 2amanujan had $e(un to underta,e deep research. 4e investi(ated the series - B n/ and calculated @uler6s constant to 0 decimal places. 4e $e(an to study the Bernoulli num$ers, althou(h this was entirely his own independent discovery. 2amanujan, on the stren(th o% his (ood school wor,, was (iven a scholarship to the 1overnment !olle(e in Dum$a,onam which he entered in :04. 4owever, the %ollowin( year his scholarship was not renewed $ecause 2amanujan devoted more and more o% his time to mathematics and ne(lected his other su$jects. ?ithout money he was soon in di%%iculties and, without tellin( his parents, he ran away to the town o% Vi&a(apatnam a$out 800 ,m north o% 3adras. 4e continued his mathematical wor,, however, and at this time he wor,ed on hyper(eometric series and investi(ated relations $etween inte(rals and series. 4e was to discover later that he had $een studyin( elliptic %unctions. In :08 2amanujan went to 3adras where he entered )achaiyappa6s !olle(e. 4is aim was to pass the .irst "rts e5amination which would allow him to $e admitted to the Gniversity o% 3adras. 4e attended lectures at )achaiyappa6s !olle(e $ut $ecame ill a%ter three months study. 4e too, the .irst "rts e5amination a%ter havin( le%t the course. 4e passed in mathematics $ut %ailed all his other su$jects and there%ore %ailed the e5amination. This meant that he could not enter the Gniversity o% 3adras. In the %ollowin( years he wor,ed on mathematics developin( his own ideas without any help and without any real idea o% the then current research topics other than that provided $y !arr6s $oo,. !ontinuin( his mathematical wor, 2amanujan studied continued %ractions and diver(ent series in :0=. "t this sta(e he $ecame seriously ill a(ain and underwent an operation in "pril :0: a%ter which he too, him some considera$le time to recover. 4e married on 4 July, :0: when his mother arran(ed %or him to marry a nine year old (irl + Jana,i "mmal. 2amanujan did not live with his wi%e, however, until she was twelve years old. 2amanujan continued to develop his mathematical ideas and $e(an to pose pro$lems and solve pro$lems in the Journal o% the Indian 3athematical +ociety. 4e developed

relations $etween elliptic modular e'uations in : 0. "%ter pu$lication o% a $rilliant research paper on Bernoulli6s num$ers in : in the Journal o% the Indian 3athematical +ociety he (ained reco(nition %or his wor,. #espite his lac, o% a university education, he was $ecomin( well ,nown in the 3adras area as a mathematical (enius. In : 2amanujan approached the %ounder o% the Indian 3athematical +ociety %or advice on a jo$. "%ter this he was appointed to his %irst jo$, a temporary post in the "ccountant 1eneral6s L%%ice in 3adras. It was then su((ested that he approach 2amachaudra 2ao who was a !ollector at >ellore. 2amachaudra 2ao was a %ounder mem$er o% the Indian 3athematical +ociety who had helped start the mathematics li$rary. 4e writes in X;0YC* A short uncouth figure stout unshaven not over clean with one conspicuous featureshining eyes- wal'ed in with a frayed noteboo' under his arm& He was miserably poor& &&& He opened his boo' and began to explain some of his discoveries& * saw quite at once that there was something out of the way% but my 'nowledge did not permit me to judge whether he tal'ed sense or nonsense& &&& * as'ed him what he wanted& He said he wanted a pittance to live on so that he might pursue his researches& 2amachaudra 2ao told him to return to 3adras and he tried, unsuccess%ully, to arran(e a scholarship %or 2amanujan. In : 2 2amanujan applied %or the post o% cler, in the accounts section o% the 3adras )ort Trust. In his letter o% application he wrote X;YC* * have passed the #atriculation 6xamination and studied up to the 7irst Arts but was prevented from pursuing my studies further owing to several untoward circumstances& * have however been devoting all my time to #athematics and developing the subject& #espite the %act that he had no university education, 2amanujan was clearly well ,nown to the university mathematicians in 3adras %or, with his letter o% application, 2amanujan included a re%erence %rom @ ? 3iddlemast who was the )ro%essor o% 3athematics at The )residency !olle(e in 3adras. 3iddlemast, a (raduate o% +t John6s !olle(e, !am$rid(e, wrote X;YC* I can stron(ly recommend the applicant. 4e is a youn( man o% 'uite e5ceptional capacity in mathematics and especially in wor, relatin( to num$ers. 4e has a natural aptitude %or computation and is very 'uic, at %i(ure wor,. Ln the stren(th o% the recommendation 2amanujan was appointed to the post o% cler, and $e(an his duties on 3arch : 2. >ow 2amanujan was 'uite luc,y to have a num$er o% people wor,in( round him with a trainin( in mathematics. In %act the !hie% "ccountant %or the 3adras )ort Trust, + > "iyar, was trained as a mathematician and pu$lished a paper Ln the distri$ution o% primes in : ; on 2amanujan6s wor,. The pro%essor o% civil en(ineerin( at the 3adras @n(ineerin( !olle(e ! A T 1ri%%ith was also interested in 2amanujan6s a$ilities and, havin( $een educated at Gniversity !olle(e Aondon, ,new the pro%essor o% mathematics there, namely 3 J 3 4ill. 4e wrote to 4ill on 2 >ovem$er : 2 sendin( some o% 2amanujan6s wor, and a copy o% his : paper on Bernoulli num$ers. 4ill replied in a %airly encoura(in( way $ut showed that he had %ailed to understand 2amanujan6s results on diver(ent series. The recommendation to 2amanujan that he read Bromwich6s Theory o% in%inite series did not please 2amanujan much. 2amanujan wrote to @ ? 4o$son and 4 . Ba,er tryin( to interest them in his results $ut neither replied. In January : ; 2amanujan wrote to 1 4 4ardy havin( seen a copy o% his : 0 $oo, $rders of *nfinity. In 2amanujan6s letter to 4ardy he introduced himsel% and his wor, X 0YC* * have had no university education but * have undergone the ordinary school course& After leaving school * have been employing the spare time at my disposal to wor' at mathematics& * have not trodden through the conventional regular course which is followed in a university course but * am stri'ing out a new path for myself& * have made a special investigation of divergent series in general and the results * get are termed by the local mathematicians as 'startling'&

4ardy, to(ether with Aittlewood, studied the lon( list o% unproved theorems which 2amanujan enclosed with his letter. Ln = .e$ruary he replied to 2amanujan X;Y, the letter $e(innin(C* * was exceedingly interested by your letter and by the theorems which you state& 8ou will however understand that before * can judge properly of the value of what you have done it is essential that * should see proofs of some of your assertions& 8our results seem to me to fall into roughly three classes9 +(/ there are a number of results that are already 'nown or easily deducible from 'nown theorems% +,/ there are results which so far as * 'now are new and interesting but interesting rather from their curiosity and apparent difficulty than their importance% +:/ there are results which appear to be new and important&&& 2amanujan was deli(hted with 4ardy6s reply and when he wrote a(ain he said X=YC* * have found a friend in you who views my labours sympathetically& &&& * am already a half starving man& ;o preserve my brains * want food and this is my first consideration& Any sympathetic letter from you will be helpful to me here to get a scholarship either from the university of from the government& Indeed the Gniversity o% 3adras did (ive 2amanujan a scholarship in 3ay : ; %or two years and, in : 4, 4ardy $rou(ht 2amanujan to Trinity !olle(e, !am$rid(e, to $e(in an e5traordinary colla$oration. +ettin( this up was not an easy matter. 2amanujan was an orthodo5 Brahmin and so was a strict ve(etarian. 4is reli(ion should have prevented him %rom travellin( $ut this di%%iculty was overcome, partly $y the wor, o% @ 4 >eville who was a collea(ue o% 4ardy6s at Trinity !olle(e and who met with 2amanujan while lecturin( in India. 2amanujan sailed %rom India on 7 3arch : 4. It was a calm voya(e e5cept %or three days on which 2amanujan was seasic,. 4e arrived in Aondon on 4 "pril : 4 and was met $y >eville. "%ter %our days in Aondon they went to !am$rid(e and 2amanujan spent a couple o% wee,s in >eville6s home $e%ore movin( into rooms in Trinity !olle(e on ;0th "pril. 2i(ht %rom the $e(innin(, however, he had pro$lems with his diet. The out$rea, o% ?orld ?ar I made o$tainin( special items o% %ood harder and it was not lon( $e%ore 2amanujan had health pro$lems. 2i(ht %rom the start 2amanujan6s colla$oration with 4ardy led to important results. 4ardy was, however, unsure how to approach the pro$lem o% 2amanujan6s lac, o% %ormal education. 4e wrote X YC* <hat was to be done in the way of teaching him modern mathematics= ;he limitations of his 'nowledge were as startling as its profundity& Aittlewood was as,ed to help teach 2amanujan ri(orous mathematical methods. 4owever he said -X; Y/C* ... that it was e5tremely di%%icult $ecause every time some matter, which it was thou(ht that 2amanujan needed to ,now, was mentioned, 2amanujan6s response was an avalanche o% ori(inal ideas which made it almost impossi$le %or Aittlewood to persist in his ori(inal intention. The war soon too, Aittlewood away on war duty $ut 4ardy remained in !am$rid(e to wor, with 2amanujan. @ven in his %irst winter in @n(land, 2amanujan was ill and he wrote in 3arch : 0 that he had $een ill due to the winter weather and had not $een a$le to pu$lish anythin( %or %ive months. ?hat he did pu$lish was the wor, he did in @n(land, the decision havin( $een made that the results he had o$tained while in India, many o% which he had communicated to 4ardy in his letters, would not $e pu$lished until the war had ended. Ln 8 3arch : 8 2amanujan (raduated %rom !am$rid(e with a Bachelor o% +cience $y 2esearch -the de(ree was called a )h.#. %rom :20/. 4e had $een allowed to enrol in June : 4 despite not havin( the proper 'uali%ications. 2amanujan6s dissertation was on Highly >omposite 4umbers and consisted o% seven o% his papers pu$lished in @n(land. 2amanujan %ell seriously ill in : 7 and his doctors %eared that he would die. 4e did improve a little $y +eptem$er $ut spent most o% his time in various nursin( homes. In .e$ruary : = 4ardy wrote -see X;Y/C*

!atty Shaw found out what other doctors didn't 'now that he had undergone an operation about four years ago& His worst theory was that this had really been for the removal of a malignant growth wrongly diagnosed& *n view of the fact that 3amanujan is no worse than six months ago he has now abandoned this theory - the other doctors never gave it any support& ;ubercle has been the provisionally accepted theory apart from this since the original idea of gastric ulcer was given up& &&& Li'e all *ndians he is fatalistic and it is terribly hard to get him to ta'e care of himself& Ln = .e$ruary : = 2amanujan was elected a %ellow o% the !am$rid(e )hilosophical +ociety and then three days later, the (reatest honour that he would receive, his name appeared on the list %or election as a %ellow o% the 2oyal +ociety o% Aondon. 4e had $een proposed $y an impressive list o% mathematicians, namely 4ardy, 3ac3ahon, 1race, Aarmor, Bromwich, 4o$son, Ba,er, Aittlewood, >icholson, Soun(, ?hitta,er, .orsyth and ?hitehead. 4is election as a %ellow o% the 2oyal +ociety was con%irmed on 2 3ay : =, then on 0 Lcto$er : = he was elected a .ellow o% Trinity !olle(e !am$rid(e, the %ellowship to run %or si5 years. The honours which were $estowed on 2amanujan seemed to help his health improve a little and he renewed his e%%ors at producin( mathematics. By the end o% >ovem$er : = 2amanujan6s health had (reatly improved. 4ardy wrote in a letter X;YC* * thin' we may now hope that he has turned to corner and is on the road to a real recovery& His temperature has ceased to be irregular and he has gained nearly a stone in weight& &&& ;here has never been any sign of any diminution in his extraordinary mathematical talents& He has produced less naturally during his illness but the quality has been the same& &&&& He will return to *ndia with a scientific standing and reputation such as no *ndian has enjoyed before and * am confident that *ndia will regard him as the treasure he is& His natural simplicity and modesty has never been affected in the least by success indeed all that is wanted is to get him to realise that he really is a success& 2amanujan sailed to India on 27 .e$ruary : : arrivin( on ; 3arch. 4owever his health was very poor and, despite medical treatment, he died there the %ollowin( year. The letters 2amanujan wrote to 4ardy in : ; had contained many %ascinatin( results. 2amanujan wor,ed out the 2iemann series, the elliptic inte(rals, hyper(eometric series and %unctional e'uations o% the &eta %unction. Ln the other hand he had only a va(ue idea o% what constitutes a mathematical proo%. #espite many $rilliant results, some o% his theorems on prime num$ers were completely wron(. 2amanujan independently discovered results o% 1auss, Dummer and others on hyper(eometric series. 2amanujan6s own wor, on partial sums and products o% hyper(eometric series have led to major development in the topic. )erhaps his most %amous wor, was on the num$er p-n/ o% partitions o% an inte(er n into summands. 3ac3ahon had produced ta$les o% the value o% p-n/ %or small num$ers n, and 2amanujan used this numerical data to conjecture some remar,a$le properties some o% which he proved usin( elliptic %unctions. Lther were only proved a%ter 2amanujan6s death. In a joint paper with 4ardy, 2amanujan (ave an asymptotic %ormula %or p-n/. It had the remar,a$le property that it appeared to (ive the correct value o% p-n/, and this was later proved $y 2ademacher. 2amanujan le%t a num$er o% unpu$lished note$oo,s %illed with theorems that mathematicians have continued to study. 1 > ?atson, 3ason )ro%essor o% )ure 3athematics at Birmin(ham %rom : = to :0 pu$lished 4 papers under the (eneral title ;heorems stated by 3amanujan and in all he pu$lished nearly ;0 papers which were inspired $y 2amanujan6s wor,. 4ardy passed on to ?atson the lar(e num$er o% manuscripts o% 2amanujan that he had, $oth written $e%ore : 4 and some written in 2amanujan6s last year in India $e%ore his death. The picture a$ove is ta,en %rom a stamp issued $y the Indian )ost L%%ice to cele$rate the 70th anniversary o% his $irth. +rinivasa 2amanujan was elected to the 2oyal +ociety o% Aondon in : =. eferences "edic #athematics, Ja(ad(uru +an,aracarya +ri Bharati Drsna Turthaji 3aharaja, +hri Jainendra )ress, >ew #elhi, ::0

;he #an who ?new *nfinity, 2o$ert Dani(el, +cri$ners, Dent, ::

;he #easure of 3eality9 @uantification and <estern Society (,AB-(CBB , !am$rid(e Gniversity )ress, ::7, >ew Sor,.

7rom Here to *nfinity, Ian +tewart, ::8, L5%ord G), L5%ord ;he !oo' of 4umbers, John 4. !onway and 2ichard D. 1uy, +prin(er*Verla(, ::8, >ew Sor, A History of #athematics, !arl B. Boyer, >ew Sor,, ?iley, :: G2As httpCBBwww*[Link]*[Link].u,[Link] -"lso used %or Bhas,ara, alJDhwari&mi and 2amanujan [Link]$oo,[Link](BsudheerZ$irod,arBindiaZcontri$[Link] [Link]([Link]