Rural civil society scan

Report on the research process and findings

Rick de Satg 13th March 2012

The research questions

Who is out there? How are rural people currently organizing themselves; in what organizational forms? How do they engage with the organs that govern them?

This aspect of the analysis should provide in broad terms a typology of the different strategic approaches at the disposal of poor rural people and their organizations.

What is the role (or the potential role) of information, knowledge and research in strengthening the position of the rural poor in their interactions with the State and other developmental actors? Where does absence of knowledge, or a lack of ability to make use of available information and knowledge, hamper or disempower poor rural people? How do rural organisations and people currently use information in the pursuit of their goals? What forms of media or information are most appropriate to reach organisations operating in different rural settings? What is the impact (if any) of organizations that produce policy-relevant knowledge in this sector?

Examining rural civil society

Survey Six case studies Literature review

Methodology
Analysing trends Scanning the literature

Undertaking a survey

Obtaining data

Researching case studies

Developing a CSO typology

Issues from the literature

How do we see civil society?

Much of the literature tends to foreground what are perceived to be its democratic and heroic qualities. Civil society is frequently cast in a leading social role which restrains the arbitrary exercise of state power

Questioning assumptions about civil society

These narratives tend to overlook that civil society is also the domain of other social formations,
both formal and informal which can be reactionary and repressive.

This requires that we question generalisations and assumptions that civil society is automatically progressive and a force for change in the interests of the poor and the marginalised.

Beyond stereotypes

Actual civil societies are complex associational universes involving a vast array of specific organisational forms and a wide diversity of institutional motivations. They contain repression as well as democracy, conflict as well as cooperation, vice as well as virtue; they can be motivated by sectional greed as much as social [Link] any attempt to compress civil society into a homogenous and virtuous stereotype is doomed to fail. (Robinson and White, 1997: 3)

Influences shaping civil society

Robinson and White (1997) observe that the growth of civil society globally has been in response to three sets of pressures.

The need to create social and organisational spaces outside the State to counter oppression or improve lives A response to the push of development agendas promoted by aid organisations and donors which directs resources to local non-profit organisations The involvement of civil, society organisations as partners of the State in the delivery of public services linked to the above.

There is a significant tension between the defensive and developmental pressures shaping civil society.

Mapping relationships

Understandings of civil society and the framing of the relationships between NGOs, CBOs and social movements and the State vary widely. Esteves et al (2009) argue that:
The terms civil society, social movements, non-governmental organisations and so on do not have any single, simple meaning They are massively inflected by their national and regional context, as well as by the academic discipline or theoretical perspective they are spoken within.

UNDP (1994): Governance for sustainable human development

Private enterprises and the informal sector in the marketplace. Political and public sector institutions

State Civil society

Political parties straddle civil society and the state if they are represented in parliament. Traditional authorities and ward structures are also located here

Some argue that the private sector is part of civil society. But according to UNDP the private sector is separate to the extent that private sector players influence social, economic and political policies in ways that create a more conducive environment for the marketplace Business and and enterprises. professional associations

Private sector

Formal and informal organisations

UNDP includes trade unions; NGOs; gender, language, cultural and religious groups; charities; social and sports clubs; cooperatives and community development organisations; environmental groups; academic and policy institutions and media outlets in the civil society domain.

The individual

Critique of mainstream frameworks

Mainstream perspectives reflect the rationalities of the new economic order

The private sector is often cast as an integral part of civil society in which the markets and civil society organisations combine to roll back the State.

Clearly social actors which contest the neo-liberal world view are deeply suspicious of the role of the private sector and the extent to which organisations that represent commercial interests should be recognised as part of the civil society sphere. Likewise the place of the informal in this framework remains problematic and questions remain where the millions of small producers and people making a living in the margins are best located.

State civil society engagement

Planning/engagement paradigm Rational expert led Community consultation and participation in invited spaces Actor collaboration Agonistic based on recognition of conflict and difference Insurgent action from below Characteristics Technocratic Simplified and romanticised notions of community Locality focused partnerships Explicit recognition of power, conflicting rationalities and deep difference Independent self generated actions

Multiple definitions of civil society

Some definitions focus on institutional characteristics of civil society organisations while others emphasise the broad roles and functions of civil society vis a vis the State and the market.
The space of uncoerced human association and relational networks formed for the sake of family, faith, interests and ideology (Walzer, 1991) Modern institutions of associational life which are based on notions of equality, autonomy, freedom of entry and exit, contract, deliberative procedures of decision-making, and recognised rights and duties of members (Chatterjee, 2001) The connective tissue of a democratic political culture (Andersson) An ensemble of associations that interact with the state and which can significantly determine or inflect the course of policy (Taylor: 1995) An associational realm operating between the state and the family. Its organisations are self-ruling, able to both engage with, and challenge the state. Members of society join civil society organisations voluntarily to protect or extend their interests. (White (2004), in Reitzes and White, 2010)

Spaces of power: An alternative view

Greenstein (2003: 1) usefully characterises the state and civil society as spaces of power rather than as mutually exclusive and internally consolidated sectors. He distinguishes three key dimensions of this power:
Social power which relates to resource allocation; Institutional power which determines administrative and legal authority; Discursive power which sets agendas, tells stories and shapes meanings

It is within the space of discursive power that key differences emerge within civil society. Civil society actors tell very different stories about the relationships between knowledge, power and policy change.

Changing state and civil society relationships in South Africa

Reitzes and White (2010) provide a detailed analysis of changing relations

Era of resistance (1980s and early 90s) Era of transition which secures ANC hegemony Era of early democracy reinvention of CSOs and social engagement in new policy making Shifting GEAR(s) in the Mbeki era
TAC and LPM

Mobilisation of conservative social formations

Creation of invited spaces for dialogue Civil society as an emerging centre of criticism and resistance Emergence of social movements linked to NGOs

The Zuma era

Collapse of invited space? New mobilisations

Civil society social movement relations

NGOs and research institutes largely operate within the established discourses and practices of policy change, and frequently subscribe to the will to improve (Murray Li, 2007) that drives the State Social movements operate outside these conventions and set out to create forms of countervailing power to challenge local and global elites (Bendana, 2006: 7) driven by the will to survive and thrive (Murray Li, 2007).

Social movements
Esteves et al. (2009) have characterized social movements and NGOs as different modes of popular organization, the latter typically with input from states and donors or run by the local middle classes, the former typically with only selfgenerated resources. The rise and fall of the Landless Peoples Movement (LPM) illustrates the tensions implicit in the relationship between NGOs and social movements and the clash between their respective interests, rationalities and discourses.

Perspectives on the place of the rural and urban poor in civil society

Pieterse (2003: 103) highlights how development theorists expect that South Africas rural and urban poor will recognise their collective interests and associate in various forms of voluntary group, and exercise social citizenship to advance their social and economic position. He contrasts this with perspectives from the Left where the expectation is that poor people will become conscious of the causal factors of their exploitation...and that associational formations of the poor must become the bedrock of militant social movements that will challenge the hegemonies and technologies of the government agenda. (Ibid) Pieterse critiques both these framings of the place of the poor in civil society. He argues that the contextually mediated life worlds of the poor give rise to situated affiliations and diverse strategies of engagement with the State.

Locally situated strategies of accommodation, engagement/ disengagement

Situated affiliations shaped by identities and localities and which may simultaneously combine associations with modern and traditional cosmologies, and engagement strategies which may draw on networks of patronage and alternatively combine militancy, dialogue, strategic disengagement and tacit sabotage employing the weapons of the weak.

Perspectives on civil society state engagement

Militant challenge from below

Adapted from Pieterse (2003)

Mediated participation in development planning

Framing urban rural linkages

Alexander highlights arguments by Hart and Sitas that: Most researchers have pursued the land question, the labour question, and the question of livelihoods (or non-formal employment) in isolation. Post-1994 labour studies became heavily focused on metropolitan areas, ignoring the persistence of migrancy and instead focusing on black workers as a class of brand new wage-earners and stake-holders. In other words, as a collective tabula rasa without a history rooted in prior struggles and negotiations across different socio-spatial arenas of practice. As a consequent of such representations, this research lost track of enduring and changing urban-rural interconnections.26 This argument is well made and could suggest a reappraisal of how future research is framed.

Contesting perspectives on policy making

The mainstream paradigm of rational actor model of policy making proposes that the findings of evidence based research will somehow influence the rationality of the policy process, (Cook, 2001) and that there is a mutually intelligible language between academic researchers, technical experts and policy makers
This is premised on planned, managed and modernised approaches to policy development where policy can be defined as a purposive course of action followed by an actor or set of actors (Anderson, 1975: 3).

This rationalist model of a linear policy development sequence has been described as simplistic and reductionist. (Dhunpath and Paterson, 2004: 126) and criticised for its tendency to depoliticise the issues which are the focus of policy through the use of neutral scientific language. This masking of the political under the cloak of neutrality is a key feature of modern power(Shore, 2011: 171).

Contesting perspectives on policy making

The alternative view is sceptical of the value of policy models per se and holds that real life policy processes are rarely, if ever linear and rational but are complex and contested. The whole life of policy has been memorably described as a a chaos of purposes and accidents.(Clay and Shaffer, 1984: 192). Policy making from below
Does mass action shape policy from below or contribute to a new contingent politics characterised by short termism? Distinguishing between Large P and small p policy intervention

The context in which rural CSOs operate

The inhospitable nature of the rural setting is captured in a variety of reports official and unofficial The local govt turn around strategy The NPCs diagnostic report Impacts of patronage, corruptions and the politics of short-termism impact heavily on the rural poor

Mapping civil society

In the typology below the different social formations which make up rural civil society have been located along two axes: A relative informality formality axis which enables comparison of different organisational forms; A primary purpose and outlook axis which distinguishes between those formations which are locally focused and inward looking and formations whose primary focus is on effecting change at broader scale. A four quadrant conceptual framework

OUTWARD LOOKING
influencing national, provincial and local policy processes
Political parties and formations Worker Unions Large National NPOs Socio-economic rights and land sector NGOs Tertiary Research Institutes

Popular organisations, networks and coalitions

INFORMAL
Communities in comanagement agreements Vigilance associations Farm and garden groups Savings groups Commonage users Burial societies Umanyamo Groups

Civics/ Residents Associations Local development forums Farm worker forums Local farmers associations

Apex Associations of farmers and fishers

FORMAL
Small Local NPOs

SACOLs Land holding entities CPAs & Trusts

Co-ops

Cultural groups

Care groups

Stokvels, Umgalelo

INWARD LOOKING
Enhancing livelihoods and social fabric

Traditional authorities

Ward committees

State led CSO formation?

According to DRDLR by 2010 more than 2000 Communal Property Associations and Trusts had been registered. According to the CIPRO register, 19 550 new cooperatives were registered from 2005 to 2009 in various sectors, representing a growth rate of 86%. (DTI, 2010: 27) However the vast majority (of co-ops) have a paper membership and are dysfunctional. (Satgar, 2007: 10). The same may be said for landholding entities

Six case studies

Cluster 1 Relationships between formally constituted NGOs of different types and nascent social movements with different objectives SPP and the Food Sovereignty Campaign Church Land Programme and the Rural Network Cluster 2 Institutions growing out of State led invited spaces for local problem analysis and development planning. CRDP Council of Stakeholders in Muyexe village pilot site Simondium Rural Development Forum a by product of a rural primary health programme on farms supported by the CWDM Cluster 3 Self organisation amongst small farmers which seek state and private sector sponsorship USAAA in Western and Northern Cape

SaveAct and member controlled savings and credit groups

Food Sovereignty Programme

Land sector NGO SPP has a relationship with a range of social groupings in urban and rural areas which constitute the FSC. FSC advocates for a new social order based on an end to neoliberal policies, the accelerated redistribution of land to smallholder producers and new agro-ecological models of agricultural production which overturn the dependence on agribusiness dominated production with its reliance on petro chemical fertilisers and pesticides and the increasing penetration of genetically modified biological resources. This involves international dimensions and linkages. FSC espouses a radical politics borne out of conscientisation developed through a process of popular political education.

Food Sovereignty Campaign

FSC adopts a mix of strategies to advance their positions which combine memoranda, marches and demonstrations as well as land occupations. Part of their challenge is directed at exposing the neoliberal capitalist constitutional framework which they regard as seriously flawed.

This neo-liberal, capitalist [C]onstitution claims to give equal protection to the rich and the poor, but all it does is to consolidate wealth for the few and poverty for the [Link] land occupations the poor can take steps to agrarian reform and food sovereignty without waiting on the capitalist state.

While SPP seeks a non prescriptive and supportive role it is an important source of funding and other organisational support to the FSC which raises questions about the real relationships of power between the NGO and FSC member groupings.

Rural Network
Rural Network in KwaZulu-Natal which is supported by the Church Land Project (CLP). The Rural Network operates within a rights based approach which seeks to ensure that the poor and the marginal can realise the rights to which they are constitutionally entitled. The Rural Network links people in different rural localities in a mutually supportive alliance:

premised on the notion that the struggle of one is the struggle of all communities which participate in the Network are expected and required to support one another in campaigns and solidarity actions.

Rural Network
The joint approach draws on a rights based paradigm and revolves around a mix of analysis, practical action and reflection. The CLP provides support within a carefully elaborated ethical and theological framework which involves walking with communities towards the realisation of the choices that they make. As with Case 1 there are questions about the relationships of power between informally organised rural social formations and the formally constituted NGO with access to resources which supports them. However CLP demonstrates high degree of reflexivity

CLP's partnership with the RN and the local communities in general is based on solidarity and fight for an egalitarian society. CLP's solidarity support is guided by its 'good principles'. The principles include among others guiding questions such as 'Are decisions made collectively and democratically?', 'Are people speaking for themselves?

SaveAct

SaveAct supports informal but tightly managed member controlled Savings and Credit Groups. This involves:
Forming and mentoring of savings and credit groups (SCGs) to provide financial services spanning savings, credit and emergency funds that are controlled and managed by the poor themselves; Offering a life skills training through financial education to these groups, which provides poor people and vulnerable households with the knowledge and skills to adopt good money management practices for earning, spending, saving, borrowing and investing. Providing a 3-day micro enterprise or Isiqalo (step up) training on the principles of developing and running a small business to members of mature SCGs. This develops the skills of poor people to engage in local enterprise activity, particularly within the agricultural and agro-processing sectors.

SaveAct
The relationship between SaveAct and the SCGs is very different to that described in the previous two cases. Unlike Cases 1 and 2 SaveAct is not setting out to stimulate and support the growth of a rural social movement which campaigns and tries to bring about a new social order. The work of SaveAct and the SCGs focuses on the day to day livelihoods and vulnerabilities of the rural poor and its outward focus links it with regional and international communities of practice focused on community led savings and credit.

Muyexe Council of Stakeholders

This case critiques the CoS approach adopted by the CRDP The CoS is the sole invited space created by DRDLR for public participation in the implementation of CRDP.
This approach does not have the potential to transform power relations if participation is seen as only being legitimate when it is confined to parameters defined by the state (Ramjee and van Donk, 2011:16) Distinguishing between Invited spaces legitimized by donors and government interventions. and Invented spaces occupied by the grassroots and claimed by their collective action, but directly confronting the authorities and the status quo. (Miraftab,2004: 1)

Muyexe Council of Stakeholders

Local stakeholders in the CoS report the absence of meaningful spaces for participation, resulting in their marginalisation, disregard and total exclusion in some cases. High profile state led interventions frequently result in contestation/confusion over where power and responsibility lie between:
three spheres of government and contracted programme managers

Simondium Rural Development Forum

The Simondium Rural Development Forum (SRDF) is a registered NPO in the Cape Winelands District which has a history of close relations with the District Municipality with a history of contested party politics This small NPO has emerged out of an extended community based health programme on farms which were funded and resourced by the District Municipality. It is an example of a Quadrant 2 NGO which is formally constituted and has a tight local focus. It has some similarities with other State led initiatives like co-ops and communal property institutions (CPIs) in that it has grown out a state sponsored programme.

Simondium Rural Development Forum

Individuals who have seized opportunity Why did you give us all the skills? For what? Just to sit here and do what? We want to be like other organisations and be an NGO. The CWDM said there was a lot of red tape and we can't give you more money like [Link] must be a registered NGO. So we tell them take us there. Establishment of an NPO to facilitate and advocate for the development of the elderly, disabled, youth, young children, women to grow to their full potential The SRDF navigates political uncertainty by projecting political neutrality and designing programmes for local social development which are generic and relatively future proof. It can be argued that these are the characteristics of many organisations which operate in the second quadrant of rural civil society.

USAAA

One of the striking features of South Africas land reform programme is the weakness of organisation amongst those people who have acquired land through the programme.
In general organisations of the landed have been surprisingly voiceless, particularly given the widespread problems which have impacted on the land reform programme.

Small scale agricultural producers in South Africa are represented by competing bodies claiming to represent the interests of black farmers:
NAFU (National Agricultural Farmers Union) was launched in 2003 as a section 21 company USAAA ( United South African Agricultural Association) split off from NAFU in the Western Cape around 2005 to represent small scale and emerging farmers in the Western and Northern Cape. In 2011 USAAA stated that it had 3800 members. AFASA (African Farmers Association of South Africa) was launched in nationally in 2011 after a dispute with NAFU

USAAA

USAAAs goal is to promote and grow emerging farmers to enable them to claim their space in the commercial agricultural sector
So we have this clear goal, it's a long-term goal that we don't want to see a farmer every day, every year, every five years stay a small farmer. He must grow into something bigger. (Executive Chair: Cobus Dowry)

Small farmer organisations compete for state resources and have vested interests in claiming that they should be regarded as the representative voice of emerging farmers. These organisations are prone to clientilist relations with the State and provincial governments however there are signs that USAAA is beginning to develop a voice for its constituency

Attempting to survey rural civil society

The process of data collection highlighted enormous problems in the available data sets relating to:
the quality of data capture, the inability to update data sets and keep data reasonably current the difficulty in gaining access to existing information.

Key data gaps

According to DRDLR as at the 31st March 2011

198,901 people had benefitted from the land redistribution programme 1 645 898 people are beneficiaries of the Restitution programme of whom 1 121 831 were rural claimants. (Redistribution: Cumulative Statistics, 1994 to 31 March 2011)

However despite repeated requests we were unable to obtain contact information for land reform projects

Narrowing the focus

100 completed questionnaires

Phone calls were made to 354 organisations of which approximately 25% were interviewed and completed the questionnaire. Remaining questionnaires were returned by email

Respondent sample
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Series1

Interface with the State

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Series1

Nature of CSO state engagement

60 50

40

30 Series1

20

10

0 a. To get information b. To apply for funds c. To obtain services d. To tender for work e. To protest or make demands

Stated CSO information needs

70 60

50

40

30

Series1

20

10

0 a. Information b. Information c. Information d. Practical e. Information f. Information g. Information h. Social and economic on government on government on the law and technical and on finance and for campaigns, on local and global trends policies services and regulation production marketing lobbying and development grants information advocacy

CSO sources of information

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Series1

Computer access
70 60

50

40 Series1 30

20

10

0 a. Yes b. No

Internet access
60 50

40

30

Series1

20

10

0 a. Yes b. No c. Don't know

Some social media use

Less than10% of the organisations responding made use social media such as Facebook and Twitter for work purposes SMS and mobile phone remain significant form of communication

Key findings: Who is out there?

The literature and the survey highlight a diverse array of organisations, some formal, visible and influential knowledge producers (Quadrant 1) which actively engage with the State and each other.
These include NGOs, worker organisations and others operating in the rural sector.

There is also a whole array of organisations with a legal identity but little social impact or presence (Quadrant 2).
A large number of these organisations could be said to be notional registered co-ops and land holding Others like traditional authorities may exercise significant authority over rural peoples lives as they seek to arrest change. There are still other NPOs which keep a low profile and remaining locally focused and immersed in practice, but which have little engagement in knowledge production or the policy process.

Who is out there?

The bulk of rural civil society remains contained in local informal social formations faith-based groups, burial societies, stokvels, cultural and sports associations and the like in Quadrant 3 The diversity and strength of these organisations seems to vary considerably from place to place. However the case studies highlight how organisations in quadrants 1 and 2 may link with and support local informal organisations establishing webs of mutual support and reciprocity which have the potential to feed into social movements which emerge in Quadrant 4
However the relationships of power and relative dependency between formal and informal organisations remain precarious.

How do CSOs engage with organs that govern them?

Two types of relationship contest:

One is a dependence on organs of the State for information and access to government resources and grants The other involves mobilisation to contest spaces of power and challenge dominant policy and development discourse.
This may involve a dependence on Quadrant 1 NGOs and external funders

How can information, knowledge and research strengthen the position of the rural poor?
Outputs of research institutes are primarily made use of by the Quadrant 1 NGOs and in the networks which link these organisations with rural social formations in different settings. If research is to have more relevance for rural constituencies then a different research paradigm might be required which draws on a participatory action research approach and which engages more strategically with the situated, messy and contingent politics of actual policy processes.

Where does absence of knowledge, or a lack of ability to make use of available information and knowledge, hamper or disempower poor rural people?

The survey highlights a hunger for knowledge and information, but highlights that by itself access to information does not necessarily result in an increase of power. Knowledge and information have to be animated by strategy and underpinned by organisation if they are to contribute to change.

How do rural organisations and people currently use information in the pursuit of their goals? The digital divide remains real but there are some signs that it is being eroded. The rapid penetration of cell phone technologies and increasing capabilities of even the most basic cell phones has implications both for information sharing and for organisation.

However exorbitant cell phone and data costs significantly limit this potential in South Africa at present.

SMS and social media have enormous potential to communicate information, stimulate conversation and help build organisation at relatively low cost

Conclusions

The research highlights the diverse nature of rural civil society Many forms of informal organisation remain illegible to the State and beyond the reach of many formal NGOs. The state has provided the impetus for a wide variety of new formal organisational forms, but these remain something of an imaginary with a registration number but little social traction or relevance. Despite government espousal of the evidence based policy making paradigm there appears to be limited intersection between research and the real world nature of policy making. This is particularly true with regard to policies in the land and rural development sector which consistently and determinedly ignore the findings of research and the lessons from experience to date.