2007 AAPM Summer School

Overview and Basis of Design for NCRP Report 147

Douglas J. Simpkin, Ph.D. Aurora St. Lukes Medical Ctr Milwaukee, WI dsimpkin@[Link] [Link]

Welcome To The Next Generation*

NCRP Report No. 147: Structural Shielding Design for X-ray Imaging AAPM Task Group 108: Shielding for PET/CT Facilities NCRP Report No. 151: Structural Shielding Design for Megavoltage Radiotherapy Facilities
*Of shielding design, that is!
2

Notes
NCRP Report No. 147 was a committee report
I take credit for the good stuff, blame the others for the bad

History of Diagnostic XX-ray Shielding Design

NBS Handbook 60 (1955) & Braestrup & Wykoff Health Physics Text (1958) NCRP Reports 34 (1972) & 49 (1976)
Standard for specifying shielding for past 30 years Limitations noted by mid 70s

NCRP Report No. 147 was our take on best practice at one moment in time
Itll need constant revision
But we hope that our methods will be rigorous enough to last a few years! Ill point out those areas that I recognize as requiring a fresh view
3

AAPM Task Group 9 formed 1989 NCRP/ AAPM Task Group 1992
4

History NCRP/ AAPM Task Group 1992-2004

Measured/confirmed fundamental shielding data
Workloads Transmission

NCRP-147 Cochairs
Joel Gray
clinical/ industry medical physicist

Refined shielding theory Published results along the way

16 refereed publications, including 5 in Medical Physics & 6 in Health Physics >31 invited lectures given by the members at AAPM, HPS, CRCPD, RSNA, AAPM & HPS Chapters, etc

Ben Archer
Ben Archer, Linc Hubbard, Bob Dixon & I meet at Bobs beach house (off season... Can you tell the Yankees from the Southerners?)
5

clinical medical physicist

6

NCRP-147 Membership
Robert Dixon - clinical medical physicist Robert Quillin - Colorado state regulator (ret.). William Eide - architect Ray Rossi - clinical medical physicist (deceased)

NCRP-147 Membership
Lincoln Hubbard - clinical medical physicist Douglas Shearer - clinical medical physicist Douglas Simpkin - clinical medical physicist Eric Kearsley 2nd NCRP staff scientist (1998-2001) , first outside reviewer

NCRP-147 Consultants
Marv Rosenstein, NCRP Andrew Poznanski, M.D..(who?) Ken Kase
Helped shepherd the report through its final reviews

History - NCRP Report #147

Draft completed ~2001; held up by internal NCRP arguments over P Finally published November 2004 Shielding information for diagnostic x-ray imaging devices only;
No dental units (cf. NCRP Report No. 145; x-ray shielding written by Marc Edwards) No therapy machines (cf. NCRP Report #151) No radionuclides (cf. AAPM Task Group #108 Rept for PET)
9 10

Wayne Thompson
Kept us honest in the past couple of years, independently redoing sample calculations, checking for self-consistency, & asking Why?

Jack Krohmer (deceased)

Who can do shielding calculations?

Per the Report, only Qualified Experts should perform these calculations and surveys A Qualified Expert (QE) is is a person who is certified by the American Board of Radiology, American Board of Medical Physics, American Board of Health Physics, or Canadian College of Physicists in Medicine. Regulators?... Theyre learning from us!
11

Exponential Attenuation of X rays

No barrier will completely eliminate the radiation dose outside a diagnostic x-ray room What is safe? Typical x-ray tech upon hearing
that hes still getting some dose in the control booth

12

Controlled & Uncontrolled Areas

Controlled areas are occupied by employees/ staff whose occupational radiation dose is monitored

Design Goal, P
P = permitted radiation level in the occupied area. P must be consistent with NRCP Report 116, which limits the effective dose equivalent
Which cant be measured Is highly photon energy-dependent

Uncontrolled areas occupied by individuals such as patients, visitors to the facility, and employees who do not work routinely with or around radiation sources. Areas adjacent to, but not part of, the x-ray facility are also uncontrolled areas.

P for NCRP-147 is a kerma value P for NCRP-151 (with neutrons) is a dose equivalent
13 14

Design Goal, P
Controlled Area NCRP-49
1976

Uncontrolled Area 5 mGy/y = 0.1 mGy/wk

NCRP 0.25 mSv/y General Public Limit?

NCRP-116 sayeth unto us: ...whenever the potential exists for exposure of an individual member of the public to exceed 25 percent of the annual effective dose limit as a result of irradiation attributable to a single site, the site operator should ensure that the annual exposure of the maximally exposed individual, from all manmade exposures (excepting that individual's medical exposure), does not exceed 1 mSv on a continuous basis. Alternatively, if such an assessment is not conducted, no single source or set of sources under one control should result in an individual being exposed to more than 0.25 mSv annually.
15 16

50 mGy/y = 1 mGy/wk

Fraction ( =) of 10 mGy/y limit for new NCRP-147 operations = 5 mGy/y (~matches 2004 fetal dose limit) = 0.1 mGy/wk

1 mGy/y = 0.02 mGy/wk

Effect

Factor of 10 decrease

Factor of 5 decrease

NCRP Statement 10 (2004)

In Statement No. 10 Recent Applications of of the NCRP Public Dose Limit Recommendation for Ionizing Radiation (December 04) the NCRP reinforced that An effective dose that does not exceed 1 mSv y-1 is justified for the conservatively safe assumptions used in the recommended shielding design methodology.
Statement No. 10 is available at [Link]
17

Uncontrolled P=0.1 mGy/y will satisfy 0.25 mSv/y

Ignoring patient attenuation Assuming perpendicular beam incidence Ignoring attenuating items in room (e.g. Pb aprons and fluoro drapes, etc.) Assuming worst-case leakage levels Assuming conservatively large beam areas for worst-case scatter calculations
18

Uncontrolled P=0.1 mGy/y will satisfy 0.25 mSv/y

Assuming conservatively high occupancy factors Pb sheets come in quantized thicknesses (e.g. 1/32 inch, 1/16 inch, etc). Using the next greater thickness will shield to much lower levels than P Assuming minimum distances from source to personnel in occupied areas
19

Uncontrolled P=0.1 mGy/y will satisfy 0.25 mSv/y

At <50 keV, the Effective Dose Equivalent is a small fraction of the kerma (due to shielding of deep organs by overlying tissues)

20

Occupancy Factor, T
Traditionally, shielding designers have allowed for partial occupancy in shielded areas, with T the occupancy factor T is the fraction of the beam-on time a shielded area is occupied by an individual Shielding task: a barrier is acceptable if it decreases the kerma behind the barrier to P/T If T<1, the full-time dose will be P/T
21

Recommended Occupancy Factors

Offices, labs, pharmacies, receptionist areas, attended waiting rooms, kids play areas, x-ray rooms, film reading areas, nursing stations, x-ray control rooms Patient exam & treatment rooms Corridors, patient rooms, employee lounges, staff rest rooms Corridor doors Public toilets, vending areas, storage rooms, outdoor areas w/ seating, unattended waiting rooms, patient holding Outdoors, unattended parking lots, attics, stairways, unattended elevators, janitors closets 1 1/5 1/8 1/20 1/40
22

Radiation Worker
P = 5 mGy y T =1
-1

X-Ray Clinic

X-Ray Clinic Waiting Area

Receptionist P = 1 mGy y -1 T =1 Visitor P = 1 mGy y -1 T = 1/20

X-ray Beam Transmission

Radiation For a given x-ray Source spectrum, the Transmission, B, through a barrier of thickness x is the ratio of kerma with & without the barrier
K(0)

Kerma detector
x K(x)

Lawyers Office (not associated with X-Ray Clinic)

Members of the Public P = 1 mGy y -1 T=1

B ( x) =
23 6

K ( x) K (0)
24

Transmission Data in NCRP-147

Measured or calculated B(x) data of modern three phase /constant potential Al-filtered beams:
Archer et al. (1994) for Pb, gypsum wallboard, steel, plate glass Lgar et al. (1977) / Rossi (1997) for concrete Simpkin (1987) for mammography

Archer Equation for Transmission Curves

Archer et al. presented a very useful equation for describing transmission data B fit to barrier thickness x in 3 parameters (, , )

log B

Transmission data for a wide variety of materials were interpolated to yield B(x) every 5 kVp (Simpkin 1995)
25

B = 1 + ex

26

Archer Equation for Transmission Curves

Note: is the slope of the transmission curve at large x. Therefore, = (ln 2) / Hard HVL

Archer Equation for Transmission Curves

This can be inverted to solve for x

log B

Find HVL of curve here (once beam hardening has straightened curve)

B + ln x= 1 + 1

log B

x
27

x
28

Workload, W
W is a measure of the x-ray tubes use W = the time integral of the tube current Units: mAmin per wk (= mAs/60) W # electrons hitting x-ray tube anode To be useful, must know or assume the operating potential (kVp) at which the workload occurs
29

Workload, W
At a given x-ray tube accelerating potential, the magnitude of W determines the kerma generated by the tube The kVp distribution of W determines both the kerma and the transmission of the beam through the barrier.
Primary beam kerma kVp2 kerma transmitted through typical shielding barriers increases by factors of hundreds going from 60 kVp to 120 kVp
30

Workload, W
To determine W used clinically, a survey of modern medical facilities was undertaken by AAPM TG 9 in the early 1990s and published in Health Phys 1996 (Simpkin). Objectives of survey:
W per patient in various types of diagnostic settings (general radiography, cath lab, etc.) the weekly average number of patients, N the kVp distribution of W use factors in radiographic rooms
31

Workload Survey
Found total workload W:
Radiographic Rooms: 277 mAmin/wk Chest Rooms: 45 mAmin/wk Cardiac Angio Rooms: 3050 mAmin/wk

Found kVp distribution of workloads to be at potentials significantly below the single kVp operating value usually assumed

32

Workload Distribution, W(kVp)

e.g. Cardiac Angio Lab
Wtot = 3047 mAmin /wk for N = 20 patients/wk

Workload Distribution, W(kVp)

General Radiographic Room; all barriers in room
Wtot = 277 mAmin /patient for N = 112 patients/wk

33

34

General Radiographic Room Workload Distribution, W(kVp)

But this is composed of radiographic views taken against the wall-mounted Chest Bucky
Wtot = 67.9 mAmin/patient for N = 112 patients/wk
Note: high kVp content of workload against chest bucky

General Radiographic Room Workload Distribution, W(kVp)

And radiographic views taken against all other barriers (floor, other walls, etc)
Wtot = 209 mAmin/patient for N = 112 patients/wk
Note: very little high kVp content of workload against anything but chest bucky

and...
35 36

Update on Workload Data

Since the workload survey was published over a decade ago, the digital revolution has occurred in radiographic imaging
See higher radiographic exposure per image =
Greater workload per patient (maybe by 50 to 100%) Expect kVp distribution of workloads to remain ~unchanged from film/screen (since that effects contrast)

Update on Workload Data

Interventional systems (and some general fluoro systems) now use Cu-filtered x-ray beams
Workload (mAmin) appears much higher since Cufiltered tubes operate at a much higher mA But radiation output (kerma/mAmin) is much lower Moral:
The two probably cancel. Assume Al filtered workloads, outputs, and transmissions, and we should be OK. Requires a more complete evaluation
37 38

Greater through-put in number of patients in each room =

More patients per week in each room Fewer radiographic rooms (!)

Where in the occupied area do you calculate the kerma?

0.5 m = 1.6 ft
To the closest sensitive organ!

Models for Diagnostic X-Ray Shielding Calculations

0.3 m = 1 ft

1.7 m = 5.6 ft Yes

39

No
40

The Three Models for Diagnostic X-ray Shielding In NCRP 147

1. First-principle extensions to NCRP 49 2. Given calculated kerma per patient, scale by # patients and inverse squared distance, and then use transmission curves designed for particular room types 3. NT/(Pd2)
41

The Three Models In NCRP 147

cf Table 5.1 for a road map on how to use the data in NCRP 147 to solve shielding problems of the various room types

42

1st principle extensions to NCRP 49

(Underlies the other two methods) The kerma in the occupied area may have contributions from
primary radiation scatter radiation leakage radiation

Primary, Scatter, and Leakage

Must protect from primary radiation

primary

l ea

Secondary radiation

s ca t ter

ka ge

Must protect from scatter & leakage radiation

43 44

1st principle extensions to NCRP 49

The models for primary, scatter, and leakage in NCRP-147 are extensions to whats in NCRP49
x-ray tubes operating over ranges of potentials (workload distribution) new model for image receptor attenuation new model for leakage

1st principle extensions to NCRP 49

These primary, scatter, and leakage radiations may be from multiple x-ray sources (or tube positions) So, simply add up all these contributions to the kerma from all these sources in the occupied area behind a barrier of thickness x, K ( x) = ( K P ( x) + K S ( x) + K L ( x) )
tubes kVp

45

46

USS SHIELDING

NCRP-147

1st principle extensions to NCRP 49

Then iteratively find a barrier thickness x that decreases that kerma to P/T, the design goal modified by the occupancy factor P K ( x) = ( K P ( x) + K S ( x) + K L ( x) ) = T tubes kVp cf. [Link] for shareware XRAYBARR to do this
Dose in XRAYBARR = Kerma in NCRP-147
47

Shielding > Rocket Science?

48

Primary Radiation Model

In primary beam, know kerma per workload at 1 m, KW(kVp) , for 3 phase units (W/Al beam data of Archer et al. 1994, Mo/Mo data of Simpkin)
Primary Kerma at 1 m per workload

Unshielded Primary Beam Kerma

At a given kVp, K P (0) =

KW (kVp ) W (kVp ) 2 dP

If only a fraction U of the tubes workload is directed at this barrier, then

K P (0) =

KW (kVp) U W (kVp) 2 dP

U is the use factor for this barrier

49 50

Kerma Behind a Primary Barrier

The kerma behind a primary barrier of transmission B(x, kVp) is

Primary Radiation: The NCRP49 Model

K P ( x, kVp) =

KW ( kVp) U W (kVp) B ( x, kVp) 2 dP

x
Barrier of thickness x decreases raw primary radiation kerma to P/T
52

For the whole distribution of workloads, total kerma is

K (kVp) U W (kVp ) K P ( x) = W B ( x, kVp) 2 dP kVp

51

Primary Radiation: A Realistic Model

Grid, cassette, supporting structures patient

Primary Radiation: A Conservative, Realistic Model

Grid, cassette, maybe supporting structures

Primary radiation is significantly attenuated before reaching barrier

53

Even without the patient, primary radiation is still significantly attenuated before reaching barrier
54

1E+0

1E-1

Transmission

Grid, cassette, maybe supporting structures No patient!

8 6 4 2

B = 4.7E-6 kVp

2.181

1E-2

8 6 4 2

xpre x

}x

No patient & grid & cassette & cassette support structures & radiographic table: 4.917 Type of Radiographic Table B = 9.36E-13 kVp
(data of Dixon 1994)
GE RTE Table GE Advantx Table Siemens Multix-T Table Picker Clinix-T Table
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 125 150

tot

= x + xpre

1E-3

8 6 4 2

Assume primary beam attenuation in image receptor is due to a pseudo-barrier whose equivalent thickness xpre gives same transmission as that seen for actual image receptors.
55

1E-4

kVp

Wall-Mounted Grid + Cassette + Cassette Holders

Primary Radiation: NCRP-147 Model

8 6 4 2

Primary Transmission Through Patient, Image Receptor, and Supports Needs validating
Data of Dixon (1994)

for CR/DR image receptors

No patient & grid & cassette:

56

1E+3

Values of x

pre

(Grid+cassette+support)

Gypsum
1E+2

Plate Glass

xpre for Radiographic Room Workload Distributions

From Table 4.6:
Grid + cassette:
0.3 mm Pb 30 mm concrete

Concrete
xpre (mm)

1E+1

Steel
1E+0

Grid + cassette + table/chest bucky supports:

Lead

0.85 mm Pb 72 mm concrete

1E-1
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
57 58

kVp

Calculation of Primary Kerma

Same as model in NCRP49 except
account for workload distribution in kVp QE may account for image receptor shielding xpre

Scatter Radiation

Primary kerma in occupied area is then

patient

K P ( x + x pre ) = 1 K ( kVp) U W ( kVp) B ( x + x pre , kVp) 2 W dP kVp

59 60

10

Scaled Normalized Scatter Fraction

cf. Simpkin & Dixon, HP 1998, based on data of Kelly & Trout, 1972.

Scaled Normalized Scatter Fraction

'

KS
1m 1m 1m

= a1

KS KP
61 62

KP

1 cm2 area primary beam at 1 m

Scatter Radiation
Same theory as NCRP-49
scatter fraction data of Kelley & Trout reevaluated by Simpkin & Dixon (1998) pri beam area F (cm2) measured at pri distance dF conveniently taken as image receptor area @ SID explicitly show kVp dependence and sum over workload distribution to yield shielded scatter kerma

Leakage Radiation
Radiation originating from xray tube focal spot but not emanating from the tube port

patient

K S ( x, ) =

KW ( kVp) W (kVp) F a1 B( x, kVp) 2 2 dS dF kVp

63 64

Leakage radiation
Intensity cant exceed L = 100 mR/hr at 1 m when tube is operated at its leakage technique factors
maximum potential for continuous operation kVpmax (typically 135-150 kVp, or 50 kVp for mammography) Imax is the maximum continuous tube current possible at kVpmax

Leakage radiation
These leakage technique factors specify how thick the shielding in the tube housing should be NCRP49 suggested leakage technique factors of 3.3 mA at 150 kVp, 4 mA at 125 kVp, 5 mA at 100 kVp; remain fairly typical today

65

66

11

Leakage radiation
NCRP-147 calculations (and shielding methods 2 and 3) use
3.3 mA at 150 kVp worst case leakage rates (Subsequently, weve found that assuming 4 mA at 125 kVp leakage technique factors specifies barriers that are 10-20% thicker than in the report) However, typical leakage rates are 0-30% of the maximum leakage so we dont see a problem
67

New Leakage Model

For tube operating at techniques (kVp, I) with transmission through the tube housing Bhousing, assume leakage kerma rate at 1 m through tube housing is

& L (kVp) kVp 2 I Bhousing (kVp) K

Assume worst case scenario: leakage kerma rate = limit L for tube operation at leakage technique factors (conservative by factors of 3 to ~infinity)
68

New Leakage Model

Estimate thickness of tube housing by using primary beam output at leakage technique factors as model for unhoused leakage radiation.
1931 mGy/hr 100 mR/hr = 0.873 mGy/hr
Tube operated at 150 kVp, 3.3 mA unhoused tube 1m 1m 1m Tube housing = 2.32 mm Pb thick

New Leakage Model

Write ratio of leakage kerma rates at any kVp to L at kVpmax . Integrating over time, and knowing that at a given kVp, workload W(kVp) is the time integral of the tube current: W (kVp) = I dt then unshielded leakage kerma KL (at 1 m) at that kVp is
K L ( kVp) =
69

1m

L kVp 2 (1 U ) W (kVp) Bhousing (kVp) kVpmax 2 I max Bhousing ( kVpmax )

70

1931 mGy/hr

1931 mGy/hr

New Leakage Model

Applying inverse square to distance dL from tube to shielded area, and putting a barrier with transmission exp(ln(2)x/HVL) between tube & area yields
K L (kVp) = L kVp (1 U ) W (kVp) Bhousing (kVp)
2

How far off is NCRPNCRP-49 49s leakage model?

1E+0 1E-1

1E-2

1E-3

1E-4

1E-5

kVpmax I max Bhousing (kVpmax ) ln(2) x 1 exp 2 HVL(kVp) dL

Leakage dose as function of kVp transmitted through x-ray tube housing of 2.32 mm Pb compared to that at 150 kVp
Leakage technique factors: 150 kVp, 3.3 mA for 100 mR/hr

1E-6

1E-7

1E-8

1E-9 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150

71

kVp

72

12

1E+000

Note:

Secondary Transmission Curves

NCRP-147 App. C gives transmission of secondary radiation Transmission of secondary radiation includes transmitted:
Scatter Leakage
Transmisssion

100 kVp x rays in Concrete

1E-001

1E-002

1E-003

Primary

Secondary

Secondary transmission will always exceed the primary transmission at the same kVp because since it includes the more penetrating leakage radiation
73

1E-004

1E-005 0 40 80 120 Concrete Thickness 160 200

74

For single kVp operation

Must go to Simpkin and Dixon Health Phys. 74(3), 350365, 1998, for secondary kerma per workload at 1 m at single kVp operation Go to Simpkin Health Phys. 68(5), 704-709, 1995, for primary beam transmission data ~All other data is available in NCRP 147
But be careful reading the tables in the report: 1.234 x 101 = 12.34
75

Single kVp Example

Put a C-arm in pain clinic. Do we need shielding? Assume
15 patients/wk, 2 minutes of fluoro per patient at 100 kVp, 2 mA operation W = 15 pat 2 mA 2 min/pat = 60 mAmin/wk P/T = 0.02 mGy/wk, d = 4 m, 12 II = 730 cm2 II at 36 = 0.91 m SID
76

Single kVp Example

From Simpkin & Dixon Health Phys 1998, unshielded secondary kerma per mAmin at 1 m from a beam of 1000 cm2 size, 100 kVp, is
Forward/back scatter = 3.1710-2 mGy/mAmin Leakage = 9.910-4 mGy/mAmin

Single kVp Example

Total unshielded sec kerma in occupied area is
K ( 0) = 2.87 10 2 mGy mA min 60 mA min wk = 0.107 mGy 2 wk (4m )

Required transmission is
B( x) = 0.02 mGy / wk = 0.186 0.107 mGy / wk

For our SID and field size, the scatter kerma is

730 cm 2 1 m 2 mGy K 1scatt = 3.17 10 2 mGy = 2.77 10 mA min 1000 cm 2 0.914 m
2

Which (from fits in NCRP-147 App. C tables) reqs

0.18 mm = 1/141 Pb 18 mm = 0.7 standard density concrete 53 mm = 2.1 gypsum wallboard
(for secondary transmission)

So total secondary kerma at 1 m is =

K1

sec

2.7710-2 +

9.910-4 =

2.8710-2 mGy/mAmin
77

78

13

Shielding Model No. 2

For each clinical workload distribution, of total workload Wnorm per patient, for both primary and secondary barriers, NCRP 147 provides:
K1 , the kerma per patient at 1 m distance
Primary kerma per patient KP1 is in Table 4.5 Secondary kerma per patient Ksec1 is in Table 4.7

Shielding Model No. 2

The unshielded kerma, K(0), for
N patient procedures (suggested values of N are in Table 4.3) or, equivalently total workload Wtot (where workload/pat = Wnorm) can tweak Wtot by a QE-specified different workload per patient, Wsite

B, the transmission of the radiation generated by this workload distribution for primary or secondary barriers (cf App B & C)
79

Kerma is then

K (0) =

K 1 U N K 1 U Wtot = 2 d2 d Wnorm
80

(where U is replaced by 1 for secondary barriers)

Shielding Model No. 2

Ratio of P/T to K(0) is the required transmission
B ( x) = P d 2 Wnorm P /T Pd2 = = 1 K (0) N T UD Wtot T UD1

Cath Lab Example: Wall

Assume d=4 m, uncontrolled area P = 0.02 mGy wk-1, T=1, 12 =30.5 cm diameter image receptor, 90 scatter, N=25 patients wk-1 From Table 4.7, look up secondary kerma at 1 m per patient for Cath Lab distribution: Ksec1 = 2.7 mGy patient-1 Total unshielded weekly kerma is then
K ( 0) =
81

(again, U is replaced by 1 for secondary barriers)

Transmission B is now a function of

barrier material and thickness workload distribution primary or secondary

2.7 mGy pat 1 25 pat wk 1 = 4.22 mGy wk 1 ( 4m ) 2

82

Cath Lab Example: Wall

Required transmission is
B= P / T 0.02 mGy wk 1 = = 0.0047 K (0) 4.22 mGy wk 1
B=0.0047

Look on graph for transmission curve for secondary radiation from Cardiac Angiography Lab (Fig. C.2) Requires 1.2 mm Pb.

83

x=1.2 mm Pb

84

14

Example: Mammography Wall

From 5.5, K sec1 = 0.036 mGy patient-1 in any direction (for typical 4 view mammograms) Example: N=150 patients wk-1 Shield adjacent office: d = 7 = 2.1 m, P = 0.02 mGy wk-1, T=1 1 pat wk 1 Then K (0) = 0.036 mGy pat 150 = 1.2 mGy wk 1 2
(2.1m)
B=0.017

Requires: Look up barrier requirement on graph

10 mm gypsum drywall

P / T 0.02 mGy wk 1 B= = = 0.017 K (0) 1.2 mGy wk 1

Requires 10 mm wallboard

85

86

Example: Mammography Door

N=150 patients wk-1 Shield doorway: d = 7 = 2.1 m, P = 0.02 mGy wk-1, T=1/8 1 1 Then K (0) = 0.036 mGy pat 150 pat wk = 1.2 mGy wk 1
(2.1m) 2
0.13

Requires:

B=

P / T 0.02 mGy wk 1 /(1 / 8) = = 0.13 1.2 mGy wk 1 K (0)

Look up barrier requirement on graph

42 mm wood door
87 88

Shielding Model No. 3 for Representative Rooms

Scheme No. 2 cant handle complicated assemblages of x-ray tubes/ positions/ workload distributions, such as in a radiographic or radiographic/ fluoroscopic room
89

Shielding Model No. 3 for Representative Rooms

NCRP-147 calculates barrier thickness requirements for representative rooms:
Assume conservatively small room layout
assures maximum contribution from all sources

Presumes that the kinds of exposures made amongst the various x-ray tubes/positions follow those observed by the AAPM TG-9 survey
But user can tweak the workload by adjusting the number of patients/week
90

15

Consider All X-ray Sources in Room

Secondary Barrier Cross-table Lateral Wall primary

Assume workload kVp distributions and use factors seen from 1996 Survey
Rad Room: Chest Bucky Cross-table Lateral Position U=9% Over-table Position U=89% shooting down at floor (Another primary wall gets U=2% of the floor/ other barrier distribution; assume tube is centered over-table)
91

Chest Bucky wall primary Chest Bucky wall secondary

U=2% primary wall

Rad Room: floor/ other barriers applies to Over-table and Cross-table positions
92

Secondary Barrier

Cram it into the world worlds

smallest

possible xx-ray room!*

Include all sources in the calculation

e.g. For this Control Booth calculation as a 2% primary barrier, include: 1. Primary radiation with 2% of the workload 2. Secondary radiation from overtable and cross-table lateral work 3. Secondary radiation from wall bucky work (Assume workload distributions and use factors from TG9 survey.)

*to conservatively maximize the contributions of the various x-ray beams

Vary N, and find required control booth barriers as function of NT/(Pd2). Graph results.
93 94

Representative R&F Room

Also consider a Representative R&F room
Has same layout as Standard Radiographic Room except an under-table fluoro x-ray tube and image intensifier are added, centered over table Does fluoro as well as standard radiographic work, with table and chest bucky and cross-table work

Representative R&F Room Room

Over-table Rad tube Chest Rad tube
Image Intensifier

Assume
75% of patients imaged as if in radiographic room 25% of patients imaged by fluoroscopy tube
Cross-table Lateral Rad Tube Under-table Fluoro Tube
96

95

16

Representative Room Barrier Requirements

From Model 2, transmission requirement is

B( x) =

Pd2 N T UK 1

so the barrier thickness requirement must scale as: NT

Pd2
97 98

There are 12 NT/Pd2 graphs

For Representative Radiographic and R&F Rooms:
For Lead and Concrete:
Primary barriers with preshielding Primary barriers without preshielding Secondary barriers

99

100

101

102

17

2.2

Lead Barrier Thickness Requirement (mm)

2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0
0.1

Cardiac Angiography Shielding Barrier Requirements Lead

From where is d measured?*

Primary Barriers
Floor Chest Bucky wall Crosstable Lateral Wall 2% U wall overhead radiographic tube chest tube (72" SID) cross-table tube (40" SID) center of table

TO BE READ BY PHYSICISTS ONLY

Image Intensifier Diameter: 35.6 cm 30.5 cm 22.9 cm

Secondary Barriers
Floor Chest Bucky secondary wall Secondary Wall Ceiling patient on table chest tube (72" SID) patient on table patient on table

1.0

10.0

100.0
-1 -2

1000.0
103

NT/Pd (mSv m )

* Not in NCRP-147
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Equivalency of Shielding Materials

For representative room calculations, conservatively conclude
Steel thickness requirement = 8 Pb thickness requirement Gypsum wallboard thickness requirement = 3.2 concrete thickness requirement Glass thickness requirement = 1.2 concrete thickness requirement

Example: Radiographic Room

N = 113 pat/wk Slab on-grade Single story

T=1, uncontrolled

But ONLY for these representative room calculations!

105 106

Sample Rad Room

Control Booth
Assume Control Booth = U =2% wall Assume d =8 ft = 2.44 m, P = 0.02 mGy wk-1 (to be conservative), T=1, with N = 113 patients/wk Then
NT 113 pat wk 1 1 = = 950 mGy 1 m 2 2 Pd 0.02 mGy wk 1 (2.44 m) 2
Requires 0.67 mm = 1/38 Pb in wall/window

Look up Pb barrier requirement on graph

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Example: Radiographic Room

Tube directed at chest bucky

Sample Rad Room

Room Door; Protect Corridor

Assume door = U =2% wall Assume d =7 ft = 2.13 m (conservatively measure from chest bucky tube), P = 0.02 mGy wk-1, T=1/8, with N = 113 patients wk-1 Then
NT 113 pat wk 1 1 / 8 = = 155 mGy 1 m 2 Pd 2 0.02 mGy wk 1 (2.13m) 2

Chest bucky

Doorway, T=1/8, uncontrolled

Look up Pb barrier requirement on graph

109 110

Example: Radiographic Room

Tube directed at chest bucky

Chest bucky

Requires 0.28 mm Pb in door

155
111

Office, T=1, uncontrolled

112

Sample Rad Room

Room Door; Protect Distant Office

Assume Door = U =2% wall Assume d =16 ft = 4.88 m (conservatively measure from chest bucky tube), P = 0.02 mGy wk-1, T=1, with N = 113 patients wk-1 Then
NT 113 pat wk 1 1 = = 237 mGy 1 m 2 2 Pd 0.02 mGy wk 1 (4.88m) 2
Need 0.36 mm Pb in door, so the more-distant T=1 office sets the requirement
237
113 114

Look up Pb barrier requirement on graph

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Lead Barrier Thickness Requirement (mm)

0.6 0.2 0.4 1.0 2.0 0.8 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Fits of the NT/(Pd2) Graphs

Equation 4.6 in NCRP Rept No 147 gives the required barrier thickness as a function of NT/(Pd2) for a given type of imaging room. Here K1 is the kerma per patient at 1 m for this application, and , , and are fitting parameters of the transmission curve to the Archer equation:

0.0
0.1 1.0
2 -1 -2 NT/Pd (mSv m)

2.2

Cardiac Angiography Shielding Barrier Requirements Lead

Hate reading graphs? Like spreadsheets? The NT/Pd2 curves should fit the Archer model.
115

Similarly, it may be acceptable to NT fit the joint pri/sec barrier Pd 2 requirements for the Representative 0 + Radiographic and R&F rooms in 1 Fig. 4.5-4.8 of the report (as well as x = ln requirements for Cardiac 1+ Angiography units with various sized image receptors) to the Archer equation, yielding a new set of , , and fitting parameters. Here 0 = max value of NT/(Pd2) 1 requiring no shielding NT = 0 1 + ex 2 This equation can be inverted, ie. Pd NT/(Pd2) written as a function of x (but note + 1/ exponent).
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Lead Barrier Thickness (mm)

10.0

Image Intensifier Diameter: 35.6 cm 30.5 cm

100.0 1000.0

(So if you like this NT/(Pd2) methodology, you can put utilize it for a number of common secondary shielding problems, including mammography and cath lab barriers, using the fitting parameters in App. C.)
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Fits of the NT/(Pd2) Graphs

Fits of the NT/(Pd2) Graphs

Memorize this for the quiz on Sunday

22.9 cm

Fits of the NT/(Pd2) Graphs

Required Pb thickness as a function of NT/(Pd2) for barriers around the representative R&F Room from NCRP-147 is shown. The curves are the fits to the Archer equation. The data points are the values used for the fits. (Note that the solid curves in Figs. 4.5 to 4.8 of NCRP-147 show cubic-spline interpolations to these same data.)
The maximum deviation between the fitted value and the required thickness x is 0.026 mm Pb (for the chest bucky secondary wall in the representative R&F Room) and 1.7 mm concrete (for the cross-table lateral wall in the representative Radiographic Room).
2.5

R&F Room
Primary Floor, no xpre

Primary Floor, with xpre

Off-table secondary wall

1.5

Chest Bucky Secondary Wall

1

Secondary Wall

Maximum error
0.5

0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

NT / (Pd 2) (mGy-1 m-2)

118

CT Scanner Shielding: A Teaser

Estimate unshielded weekly kerma in occupied area near scanner, Kun
I urge you to use the DLP method, since its trivial!

Presume P/T P /T Barrier requires transmission B = K un Get barrier thickness

Data in NCRP Rept 147 from Simpkin Health Phys 58, 363-7: 1990 (refit)

More from Donna Stevens & Doug Shearer in a moment

119 120

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CT Scanner Floors and Ceilings are often too thin!

CT Scanner in a Shielding Cave

ADD Pb to wall above 7 ft (~1/32 (~1/32)
Normal wall shielding to 7 ft

ADD Pb to ceiling (~1/32 (~1/32)

Normal wall shielding to 7 ft

ADD Pb to ceiling (~1/32 (~1/32)

CT Scanner

CT Scanner

typ 10 ft
ADD Pb to floor (~1/32 (~1/32)

typ 10 ft
ADD Pb to floor (~1/32 (~1/32)

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Surveys
After installation of the shielding barriers, NCRP-147 states that a qualified expert should assure that the barriers are
Free of voids Of adequate attenuation

Conclusions I
Design goals, P:
Controlled areas = 0.1 mGy/wk Uncontrolled areas = 0.02 mGy/wk

Reasonable occupancy factors, T:

for individuals in uncontrolled areas effect is to increase kerma to P/T

More later from Mark Towsley

Transmission, B, is ratio of kerma with and without shielding

fit to Archer equation hard HVL results from beam hardening
123 124

Conclusions II
Workload, W
measures tube usage at a given kVp, kerma W W distributed over range of kVp; determines
unshielded kerma transmission

Conclusions III
Primary radiation
Can account for shielding due to image receptor

Secondary radiation
Scatter Leakage (greatly improved model)

Workload survey of early 1990s is in Report

Total workload 1000 mAmin/wk May need adjusting with technology changes

Shielding models in NCRP-147

NCRP-49 extensions Unshielded kerma per patient NT/Pd2 for representative rad & R&F rooms
125 126

in radiographic room, chest bucky gets ~all the high kVp exposures

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Conclusions IV
1/16 inch Pb remains as standard wall barrier for radiographic, fluoro, and interventional suites If cassette/grid/table attenuation is assumed, typical standard density concrete floors suffice Mammography
standard construction gypsum wallboard walls suffice solid core wood doors suffice
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Conclusions V
CT
estimates of unshielded kerma made from
manufacturers isoexposure curves Shearers scatter fraction applied to CTDI/ DLP

workload is high (100-200 patients/wk) transmission data available in report results

1/16 inch Pb remains as standard wall barrier Floors & ceilings may need attention May need to run Pb up walls to ceiling
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Conclusions VI
Consult your regulatory agency!
Most state codes require prior blessing of shielding designs To the best of my understanding, theres only 1 shielding QE (per the NCRP Rep. No. 147 definition) in any of the state radiation protection departments

Regardless, we need to partner with the regulators to assure the safety of our installations
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