GEOMETRY
Geometry is the branch of mathematics concerned with the properties of and relationships between points, lines, planes, angles, and solids and with generalizations of these concepts. If geometry has always been your nemesis, here we will explain simply and easily how to do every kind of geometrical problem you are likely to face in the performance of your professional job or study of mathematics in a high school or college, from angles to solid bodies. This section contains the most frequently used formulas, rules, and definitions regarding to the following: 1. Angles 2. Areas 3. Solid Bodies
GEOMETRY
Angles
75
1. Definition of an Angle
Two rays that share the same endpoint form an angle. The point where the rays intersect is called the vertex of the angle. The two rays are called the sides of the angle.
L
C
2. Unit Measurement of Angles The radian measure of the angle p is the ratio of the arc
length to the radius.
1radian = 57.2957'
3. Acute Angles An acute angle is an angle measuring between 0 and 90 degrees.
76
GEOMETRY
Angles
4. Obtuse Angles An obtuse angle is an angle measuring between 90 and 180 degrees.
A\
9O"<a< 180"
5. Right Angles A right angle is an angle measuring exactly 90 degrees.
*K
B
C
6. Complementary Angles Two angles are called complementary angles if the sum of their degree measurements equals 90 degrees.
7. Supplementary Angles Two angles are called supplementary angles if the sum of their degree measurements equals 180 degrees.
GEOMETRY
Angles
77
8. Vertical Angles For any two lines that meet, such as in the diagram below, angle a and angle p are called vertical angles. Vertical angles have the same degree measurement. Angle y and angle S are also vertical angles.
9. Alternate Interior Angles
For any pair of parallel lines 1 and 2 that are both intersected by a third line, such as line 3 in the diagram below, angle a and angle p are called alternate interior angles. Alternate interior angles have the same degree measurement. Angle y and angle S are also alternate interior angles.
78
GEOMETRY
Angles
10. Alternate Exterior Angles
For any pair of parallel lines 1 and 2 that are both intersected by a third line, such as line 3 in the diagram below, angle a and angle p are called alternate exterior angles. Angle y and angle 6 are also alternate exterior angles.
1 1. Corresponding Angles For any pair of parallel lines 1 and 2 that are both intersected by a third line, such as line 3 in the diagram
below, angle a and angle p are called corresponding angles. Angle y and angle 6 are also corresponding angles.
12. Angle Bisector An angle bisector is a ray that divides an angle into two
equal angles.
GEOMETRY
Areas
79
Bisector
13. Perpendicular Angles Two angles whose rays meet at a right angle are perpendicular.
14. Thales Theorem A triangle inscribed in a semicircle with a radius R , and diameter dis a right triangle, as is shown below:
15. Oblique Triangle
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GEOMETRY
Areas
An oblique triangle is any triangle that is not a right triangle. It could be an acute triangle (all three angles of the triangle are smaller than right angles) or it could be an obtuse triangle (one of the three angles is greater than a right angle). a) Circumscribed circle The point where perpendicular bisectors to each side of a triangle meet is the center of a circle that circumscribes a triangle. The radius R of a circumscribed circle around a triangle is
R=-abc 4A
where
a, b, c, = sides of a triangle
A = surface of a triangle
b) Inscribed circle The point where bisectors of 3 angles of a triangle meet is the center of an inscribed circle in the triangle. A radius r of a inscribed circle in a triangle is
where
S=
a+ b+ c
2
GEOMETRY Areas
81
c) Sum of the angles in a triangle
a + p +S = 180'
16. Geocenter of a Triangle The medians of a triangle are lines from each vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side. The medians always intersect in a single point called the centroid, or geocenter.
17. Orthocenter The three altitudes intersect in a single point called the orthocenter of the triangle.
A
C
18. Similarity of Triangles Two triangles are said to be similar: 1. If and only if the angles of one are equal to the corresponding angles of the other. In this case, the lengths of their corresponding sides are proportional.
82
GEOMETRY
Areas
2. When two triangles share an angle and the sides opposite to that angle are parallel.
3. If two angles in two different triangles are the same: in that case then the triangles are similar, too.
19. The Law of Cosines
The law of cosines is valid for all triangles, even if any angle of the triangle is not a right angle. The law of cosines can be used to compute the side lengths and angles of a triangle if all three sides or two sides and an enclosed angle are known.
a'
b '
b" + c" -2bccosa
c' - 2 a c c o s p
= a'+
c' = a2+62 -2abcosy
GEOMETRY Areas
83
20. The Law of Sines The law of sines can be used to compute the side lengths for a triangle as two angles and one side are known. If two sides and an unenclosed angle are known, the law of sines may also be used.
s i na
a
where
s i n p -siny b c
--
1 d
a, 6, c= sides of the triangle
d = the diameter of the circumcircle.
21. Right Triangle
84
GEOMETRY
Areas
A triangle which contains a right angle (90") is a right triangle. In the conventional a, b, c labeling of the three sides, the side of length c will represent the hypotenuse.
a) Area:
where
1
a=Jpc=pc2
1
b=Jqc=qC2
hc
b) Perimeter:
= P4
P=a+b+c
where
a, b, c =the sides of the triangle.
c) Radius of inscribed circle:
r=
ab =s-c a+ b+ c
d) Radius of circumscribed circle:
GEOMETRY
Areas
85
22. Ratio of the Sides of a Right Triangle
A ratio is a comparison by division. Each ratio is assigned a name, and these names are called functions.
C
a b s i na = -, sinp = C C
b b cosa = -, cosp = C C
a b tana = -, tanp = b a
23. Pythagorean Theorem
The Pythagorean theorem states that in any right triangle, the area of the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares of the other two sides. It can be used to find an unknown side of a rightangled triangle, or to prove that a given triangle is right angled.
86
GEOMETRY
Areas
If vertex C is the right angle, we can write this as
c2 = a2 + b2
24. Equilateral Triangles
A triangle with all three sides of equal length and three 60' angles is an equilateral triangle.
r
GEOMETRY
Areas
87
b) Perimeter:
P= 3a
c) Altitude:
h=a& 2
d) Area:
a2 A=-&
4
e) Radius of inscribed circle:
r=-&=a R
6
2
f ) Radius of circumscribed circle:
R=?&
3
25. Isosceles Triangle
A triangle with two sides of equal length is an isosceles triangle.
r
88
GEOMETRY
Areas
a) Area:
b) Perimeter:
P= 2 a + c
c) Altitude:
2 d) Radius of inscribed circle:
hc =
J i z F = acos-Y
2
2A r=P
e) Radius of circumscribed circle:
R=-a' c
4A
f ) Angles:
2 a + y =180
where
a = base angles (congruent)
y = vertex angle
26. Square A square is a closed planar quadrilateral with all sides of equal length a, and with four right angles.
GEOMETRY
Areas
89
a) Perimeter:
P= 4a
b) Area:
c) Radius of inscribed circle:
d) Radius of circumscribed circle:
L
e) Diagonals:
dl = d2 = d = a&
27. Rectangle A rectangle is a closed planar quadrilateral with opposite sides of equal lengths a and 6, and with four right angles.
90
GEOMETRY
Areas
a) Perimeter:
P= 2(a+ b)
b) Area:
A = ab
c) Diagonals:
dl
= d2 = d =
d) Radius of circumscribed circle:
28. Parallelogram A parallelogram is a closed planar quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel.
GEOMETRY Areas
a) Perimeter: P=2(a+b) b) Area:
91
A = ah,
c) Diagonals:
= absina
d, = d ( a + h, cota) d2 =J(a-h,cota)Z
+ h, = Ja + b2 - 2 a b c o s p
+h: = J a +6 - 2 a b c o s a
d;
+ d i = 2(a2 + b 2 )
29. Rhombus A rhombus is a closed planar parallelogram with all sides equal.
a) Area:
A = a 2 s i n a = a 2 s i n p = a h ,=-dl d 2
2
92
GEOMETRY
Areas
b) Diagonals:
a a dl = 2acos-; d2 = 2asin2 2 d: + d; = 4a2
c) Radius of inscribed circle:
d) Altitude:
ha = a sin a
30. Trapezoid (American definition) A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with one and only one pair of parallel sides.
a) Perimeter:
P= a+b+c+ d
b) Area:
a+ c A=-ha 2
=mha
GEOMETRY
Areas
93
c) Altitude:
ha =
where
k-1
4(a - c)
k =(a+d-c+b) - ( d+ c+ b- a) 1 = (a - d - c+ b).(a + d - c- b)
31. Kite A kite is a closed planar quadrilateral whose two pairs of distinct adjacent sides are equal in length. One diagonal bisects the other. Diagonals intersect at right angles
a) Perimeter:
P= a+b+c+ d
where
a, b, c, d= sides of kite, ( a = b, c = d )
94
GEOMETRY
Areas
b) Area:
A = -dl d 2
2
where
dl,d2= diagonals kite, ( dl Id2)
32. Regular Polygons
A regular polygon is a closed plane figure with n sides. If all sides and angles are equivalent, the polygon is called regular
I'
c'
a) Perimeter:
P=n-a
b) Area:
n A = - R2s ina
2
c) Radius of circumscribed circle:
R=- a a 2 sin 2
GEOMETRY
Areas
95
d) Radius of inscribed circle:
2 tan-3
e ) Central angles:
360' a=n
f ) Internal angles:
g) External angles:
P=a
h) Number of diagonals: 1
~=-4n-3) 2
33. Circle All points on the circumference of a circle are equidistant from its center.
96
GEOMETRY
Areas
@a) Perimeter:
P= 2x1= nd
b) Area:
34. Sector of a Circle A sector of a circle of radius r is the interior portion of the circle determined by a central angle a
a) Angle:
h
-=-a0 n a 180'
[rad], a =-r2
[O]
GEOMETRY
Areas
97
b) Length of arc:
I=c) Area:
n ra' 180'
A = - n r2
360'
35. Segment of a Circle
A segment is a portion of a circle whose upper boundary is a circular arc I and lower boundary is a secant s.
a) Angle:
n a = -ao
b) Radius:
180'
[rad], a'
ar2 ['I 2
, .
h s r=-+2
c) Secant:
8h
98
GEOMETRY
Areas
d) Area:
r2 h A=-(&-sina0)--(3h2 6s 2
e) Height:
+4s2)
36. Annulus (Circular Ring) The annulus is the plane area between two concentric circles, making a flat ring.
Area:
A = T ( D 2- d 2 ) = n ( d + w)w
4
37. Ellipse An ellipse is the locus of a point that moves in such a way that the sum of its distance from two fixed points (the foci) is constant.
GEOMETRY
Areas
99
a) Radii:
I;2
b) Area:
2 +r, =2a
A = nab
c ) Perimeter:
P = 2 n -(a
a) Radii:
b) Area:
J +T
I;2
b 2 )= n ( a + b)k
2 +r, =2a
A = nab
c ) Perimeter:
P = 2 n J i ( a 2 + b 2 )= n(a+ b)k
1 k = l + -1 m 2 +-In4+4 64
1256
m +..., m=-
a-b a+ b
100
GEOMETRY
Solid Bodies
38. Cube
The cube is a regular hexahedron. It is composed of six square planes that meet each other at right angles; it has 12 edges. a) Area:
A = 6a2
b) Volume:
V=a3
c) Diagonal of cube:
D = a&
d) Diagonal of square:
d=a&
39. Cuboid The cuboid is a solid body composed of three pairs of rectangular planes placed opposite each other and joined at right angles to each other.
GEOMETRY Solid Bodies
101
a) Area: b) Volume:
A = 2(ab+ ac + bc) V = abc
c) Diagonal:
D=l/az+b"+c"
40. Right Prism
A right prism is a solid body in which the bases (top and bottom) are right polygons so that the vertical polygons connecting their sides are not only parallelograms, but also right figures.
102
GEOMETRY
Solid Bodies
a) Volume:
I/= Abh
b) Area: where
A = 2Ab + A,
Ab= area of base Al = lateral area
41. Pyramid
A pyramid is a solid body whose base is a polygon and whose other planes are all triangles meeting at the apex. A right pyramid has for the base a right polygon.
a) Volume: where
A = Ab + Al
Ab= area of base Al = the lateral area
GEOMETRY
Solid Bodies
103
42. Frustum of Pyramid Slicing the top off a pyramid creates a frustum of a pyramid. It is determined by the plane of the base and a plane parallel to the base.
a) Area: where
A = Abl + Ab2+ A1
Abl,Ab2 = area of bases A1= the lateral area
h = height of pyramid
43. Cone A cone is a solid of the form described by the revolution of a right-angled triangle about one of the sides adjacent to the right angle; also called a right cone.
104
GEOMETRY
Solid Bodies
a) Volume:
n v = Abh= -r2h 3
b) Area:
A = A ~ + A= , n.r2+n.r.s=n.r(r+s)
where:
Ab= area of base A, = the lateral area.
s = slant height
c) Lateral area:
A1 = 2 n . r . h
d) Area of base:
d2n 2 Ab == nr
2
e) Slant height:
S = @ T F
GEOMETRY
Solid Bodies
f) Vertex angle:
105
g) Height:
h = Js2
r2
44. Frustum of Cone Slicing the top off a cone creates a fi-ustum of a cone. The plane of the base and a plane parallel to the base determine it.
.
d
a) Area:
A = Abl + Ab2+ AI A = n[R2+ r2+ (R+r)s]
106
GEOMETRY
Solid Bodies
c) Lateral area:
Al = n . s ( R + r )
d) Slant height:
s=JFqFTy
e) Volume:
V=-7r.h-(R2 1 + r 2+ R . r )
3
45. Cylinder A cylinder is a solid body with a circular base and straight sides.
-@
a) Area:
A = 2%
+ A1
A=27rirr2 +2n.r.h A = 27r r(r+h).
b) Area of base:
GEOMETRY
Solid Bodies
107
c) Lateral area:
A] = 2 n - r . h
d) Volume:
I/ = - d 2 h= m2h 4
46. Hollow Cylinder A hollow cylinder is a solid with circular ring bases and straight sides.
?r
a) Volume:
V = Ab.h=-h.(D2 n -dZ)
4
where
Ab=annulus area
h = height of cylinder
w = thickness of wall
0,d = outside and inside diameters of the hollow cylinder
108
GEOMETRY
Solid Bodies
47. Sliced Cylinder
A sliced cylinder is a portion of a circular cylinder cut off by a sloped plane.
I
a) Area:
A = Abl + Ab2+ AI
b) Lateral area:
AI = x * d . h
c) Volume:
V=-d2h
4
48. Sphere A sphere is defined as a three-dimensional figure with all of its points equidistant at distance r from its center.
GEOMETRY
Solid Bodies
109
a) Area:
A=4x-rz
b) Volume:
v=- 4x - r3
3
49. Spherical Cap A spherical cap is the portion of a sphere cut off by a plane.
a) Area:
A = 2nrh = n(q2 +hz)
b) Volume:
I/ = -nh2(3r- h)
1 3
110
GEOMETRY
Solid Bodies
50. Sector of a Sphere
A sector of a sphere is the part of a sphere generated by a right circular cone that has its vertex at the center of the sphere.
a) Area: b) Volume:
A = 7~ - r(ah + I ; )
V =2 - x . r 2 .h
3
where
r = radius of the sphere 4 = radius of the base
51. Zone of a Sphere
The zone of a sphere is a portion cut off by two parallel planes.
GEOMETRY
Solid Bodies
111
a) Area:
A = Abl + Ab2 + A1 A = q 2 +mi+ 2 n - r - h A = 7 ~ ( 2 r h + 4+.22) ~
where
Abl,Ab2= area of bases AI= the lateral area zone of a sphere
I ; ,5 = radii of bases
b) Volume:
V = " 4 3 1 ; ~+ 3~~+ h 2 )
6
52. Torus A torus is the surface of a three-dimensional figure obtained by rotating a circle about an axis coplanar with the circle and a fixed distance from the origin.
112
GEOMETRY
Solid Bodies
a) Area:
A=n2Dd
b) Volume:
nL V=-Dd2
4
53. Ellipsoid
An ellipsoid is a three-dimensional figure, all planar cross-sections of which are ellipses. Semi-axes: a, b, c (a # b # c). If two of those are equal, the ellipsoid is a spheroid; if all three are equal, it is a sphere.
a) Volume:
4 V = -n - abc
3
GEOMETRY Solid Bodies
where
a, 6, c = half axes of ellipsoid
113
54. Barrel A barrel is a solid that bulges out in the middle and has circular ends.
a) Volume:
