Solar cell

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A solar cell is a device that converts the energy of sunlight directly into electricity by the
photovoltaic effect. Sometimes the term solar cell is reserved for devices intended specifically
to capture energy from sunlight, while the term photovoltaic cell is used when the light source is
unspecified. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar panels, solar modules, or photovoltaic
arrays. Photovoltaics is the field of technology and research related to the application of solar
cells in producing electricity for practical use. he energy generated this way is an e!ample of
solar energy "also called solar power#.
A solar cell made from a monocrystalline silicon wafer
Contents
$hide%
& 'istory of solar cells
( hree generations of solar cells
(.& First generation
(.( Second generation
(.) hird generation
) 'igh*efficiency cells
).& +ecord efficiencies
).&.& ,ultiple*-unction solar cells
).&.( hin*film solar cells
. Applications and implementations
/ heory
/.& Simple e!planation
/.( 0hotogeneration of charge carriers
/.) 1harge carrier separation
/.. he p*n -unction
/./ 1onnection to an e!ternal load
/.2 34uivalent circuit of a solar cell
/.2.& 1haracteristic e4uation
/.2.&.& 5pen*circuit voltage and short*circuit current
/.2.&.( 3ffect of physical si6e
/.2.&.) 1ell temperature
/.2.&.. Series resistance
/.2.&./ Shunt resistance
/.2.&.2 +everse saturation current
/.2.&.7 8deality factor
2 Solar cell efficiency factors
2.& 3nergy conversion efficiency
2.( hermodynamic efficiency limit
2.) 9uantum efficiency
2.. ,a!imum*power point
2./ Fill factor
2.2 1omparison of energy conversion efficiencies
2.2.& Watts peak
2.2.( Solar cells and energy payback
7 :ight*absorbing materials
7.& ;ulk
7.&.& 1rystalline silicon
7.( hin films
7.(.& 1admium telluride solar cell
7.(.( 1opper*8ndium Selenide
7.(.) <allium arsenide multi-unction
7.(.. :ight*absorbing dyes "=SS1#
7.(./ 5rganic>polymer solar cells
7.(.2 Silicon thin films
7.(.2.& ?anocrystalline solar cells
@ 1oncentrating photovoltaics "10A#
B Silicon solar cell device manufacture
&C :ifespan
&& 1osts
&&.& Slicing costs
&&.( :ow*cost solar cell
&( 1urrent research on materials and devices
&(.& Silicon processing
&(.( hin*film processing
&(.) ,etamorphic multi-unction solar cell
&(.. 0olymer processing
&(./ ?anoparticle processing
&(.2 ransparent conductors
&(.7 Silicon wafer*based solar cells
&(.@ 8nfrared solar cells
&(.B DA solar cells
&(.&C )= solar cells
&(.&& ,etamaterials
&(.&( 0hotovoltaic thermal hybrid
&) Aalidation, certification and manufacturers
&).& 1hina
&).( Dnited States
&. See also
&/ +eferences
&2 3!ternal links
[edit] History of solar cells
Main article: Timeline of solar cells
he term EphotovoltaicE comes from the <reek FG "phs# meaning ElightE, and EvoltaicE,
meaning electric, from the name of the 8talian physicist Aolta, after whom a unit of electrical
potential, the volt, is named. he term Ephoto*voltaicE has been in use in 3nglish since &@.B.
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he photovoltaic effect was first recogni6ed in &@)B by French physicist A. 3. ;ec4uerel.
'owever, it was not until &@@) that the first solar cell was built, by 1harles Fritts , who coated the
semiconductor selenium with an e!tremely thin layer of gold to form the -unctions. he device
was only around &H efficient. Sven Ason ;erglund had a number of patents concerning methods
of increasing the capacity of these cells. +ussell 5hl patented the modern -unction semiconductor
solar cell in &B.2
$(%
, which was discovered while working on the series of advances that would
lead to the transistor.
he modern age of solar power technology arrived in &B/. when ;ell :aboratories,
e!perimenting with semiconductors, accidentally found that silicon doped with certain impurities
was very sensitive to light. =aryl 1hapin, with ;ell :abs colleagues 1alvin Fuller and <erald
0earson, invented the first practical device for converting sunlight into useful electrical power.
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his resulted in the production of the first practical solar cells with a sunlight energy conversion
efficiency of around 2H.he solar battery was first demonstrated on April (/, &B/.. he first
spacecraft to use solar panels was the DS satellite Aanguard &, launched in ,arch &B/@ with
solar cells made by 'offman 3lectronics. his milestone created interest in producing and
launching a geostationary communications satellite, in which solar energy would provide a
viable power supply. his was a crucial development which stimulated funding from several
governments into research for improved solar cells.
8n &B7C the first highly effective <aAs heterostructure solar cells were created by Ihores Alferov
and his team in the DSS+.
$.%$/%
,etal 5rganic 1hemical Aapor =eposition ",51A=, or
5,1A=# production e4uipment was not developed until the early &B@Cs, limiting the ability of
companies to manufacture the <aAs solar cell. 8n the Dnited States, the first &7H efficient air
mass 6ero "A,C# single*-unction <aAs solar cells were manufactured in production 4uantities in
&B@@ by Applied Solar 3nergy 1orporation "AS31#. he Edual -unctionE cell was accidentally
produced in 4uantity by AS31 in &B@B as a result of the change from <aAs on <aAs substrates
to <aAs on <ermanium "<e# substrates. he accidental doping of <e with the <aAs buffer layer
created higher open circuit voltages, demonstrating the potential of using the <e substrate as
another cell. As <aAs single*-unction cells topped &BH A,C production efficiency in &BB),
AS31 developed the first dual -unction cells for spacecraft use in the Dnited States, with a
starting efficiency of appro!imately (CH. hese cells did not utili6e the <e as a second cell, but
used another <aAs*based cell with different doping. 3ventually <aAs dual -unction cells reached
production efficiencies of about ((H. riple Junction solar cells began with A,C efficiencies of
appro!imately (.H in (CCC, (2H in (CC(, (@H in (CC/, and in (CC7 have evolved to a )CH
A,C production efficiency, currently in 4ualification.
+ecent world record claims of efficiency for multiple -unction solar cells are discussed in the
+ecords section.
[edit] Three generations of solar cells
Solar 1ells are classified into three generations which indicates the order of which each became
important. At present there is concurrent research into all three generations while the first
generation technologies are most highly represented in commercial production, accounting for
@B.2H of (CC7 production.
$2%
[edit] First generation
Main articles: Crystalline silicon and Vacuum deposition
First generation cells consist of large*area, high 4uality and single -unction devices. First
generation technologies involve high energy and labor inputs which prevent any significant
progress in reducing production costs. Single -unction silicon devices are approaching the
theoretical limiting efficiency of )&H
$7%
and achieve an energy payback period of /J7 years.
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[edit] Second generation
Main article: Thin-film cell
Second generation materials have been developed to address energy re4uirements and production
costs of solar cells. Alternative manufacturing techni4ues such as solution deposition
$B%
, vapour
deposition, electroplating, and use of Dltrasonic ?o66les are advantageous as they reduce high
temperature processing significantly. 8t is commonly accepted that as manufacturing techni4ues
evolve production costs will be dominated by constituent material re4uirements,
$7%
whether this
be a silicon substrate, or glass cover.
he most successful second generation materials have been cadmium telluride "1de#, copper
indium gallium selenide , amorphous silicon and micromorphous silicon .
$2%
hese materials are
applied in a thin film to a supporting substrate such as glass or ceramics, reducing material mass
and therefore costs. hese technologies do hold promise of higher conversion efficiencies,
particularly 18<S*18S, =S1 and 1de offers significantly cheaper production costs.
Among ma-or manufacturers there is certainly a trend toward second generation technologies,
however commercialisation of these technologies has proven difficult.
$&C%
8n (CC7 First Solar
produced (CC ,W of 1de solar cells making it the fifth largest producer of solar cells in (CC7
and the first ever to reach the top &C from production of second generation technologies alone.
$&C%
Wurth Solar commercialised its 18<S technology in (CC7 producing &/ ,W. ?anosolar
commercialised its 18<S technology in (CC7 with a production capacity of .)C ,W for (CC@ in
the DSA and <ermany.
$&&%
'onda, also began to commerciali6e their 18<S base solar panel in
(CC@.
8n (CC7, 1de production represented @.BH of total market share, thin*film silicon /.(H and
18<S C./H.
$&C%
[edit] Third generation
Main article: Third generation solar cell
hird generation technologies aim to enhance poor electrical performance of second generation
"thin*film technologies# while maintaining very low production costs.
1urrent research is targeting conversion efficiencies of )C*2CH while retaining low cost
materials and manufacturing techni4ues.
$7%
hey can e!ceed the theoretical solar conversion
efficiency limit for a single energy threshold material, that was calculated in &B2& by Shockley
and 9ueisser as )&H under & sun illumination and .C.@H under the ma!imal artificial
concentration of sunlight ".2,(CC suns, which makes the latter limit more difficult to approach
than the former#.
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here are a few approaches to achieving these high efficiencies including the use of
multi-unction photovoltaic cells , concentration of the incident spectrum, the use of thermal
generation by DA light to enhance voltage or carrier collection, or the use of the infrared
spectrum for night*time operation.
[edit] High-efficiency cells
High-efficiency solar cells are a class of solar cell that can generate more electricity per incident
solar power unit "watt>watt#. ,uch of the industry is focused on the most cost efficient
technologies in terms of cost per generated power. he two main strategies to bring down the
cost of photovoltaic electricity are increasing the efficiency "as many of the costs scale with the
area occupied per unit of generated power#, and decreasing the cost of the solar cells per
generated unit of power. he latter approach might come at the e!pense of reduced efficiency, so
the overall cost of the photovoltaic electricity does not necessarily decrease by decreasing the
cost of the solar cells. he challenge of increasing the photovoltaic efficiency is thus of great
interest, both from the academic and economic points of view.
[edit] Record efficiencies
[edit] Multiple-junction solar cells
he record for multiple -unction solar cells is disputed. eams led by the Dniversity of =elaware,
the Fraunhofer 8nstitute for Solar 3nergy Systems, and ?+3: all claim the world record title at
.(.@, .&.&, and .C.@H, respectively.
$&)%$&.%$&/%
?+3: claims that the other implementations have
not been put under standardi6ed tests and, in the case of the Dniversity of =elaware pro-ect,
represents only hypothetical efficiencies of a panel that has not been fully assembled.
$&2%
?+3:
claims it is one of only three laboratories in the world capable of conducting valid tests, although
the Fraunhofer 8nstitute is among those three facilities.
[edit] Thin-film solar cells
8n (CC(, the highest reported efficiency for solar cells based on thin films of 1de is &@H, which
was achieved by research at Sheffield 'allam Dniversity , although this has not been confirmed
by an e!ternal test laboratory
$citation needed%
.
he DS national renewable energy research facility ?+3: achieved an efficiency of &B.BH for
the solar cells based on copper indium gallium selenide thin films, also known as 18<S. hese
18<S films have been grown by physical vapour deposition in a three*stage co*evaporation
process. 8n this process 8n, <a and Se are evaporated in the first stepK in the second step it is
followed by 1u and Se co*evaporation and in the last step terminated by 8n, <a and Se
evaporation again.
8n (CC@, in an article from Scientific American chemist 0aul Alivisatos states that, E?ewer
materials use smaller, cheaper crystals, such as copper*indium*gallium*selenide, that can be
shaped into fle!ible films called thin films. hin film solar technology, is not as good as silicon
in turning light into electricity.E
$&7%
[edit] pplications and implementations
0olycrystaline photovoltaic cells laminated to backing material in a module
0olycrystalline photovoltaic cells
Main article: photovoltaic array
Solar cells are often electrically connected and encapsulated as a module. 0hotovoltaic modules
often have a sheet of glass on the front "sun up# side, allowing light to pass while protecting the
semiconductor wafers from the elements "rain, hail, etc.#. Solar cells are also usually connected
in series in modules, creating an additive voltage. 1onnecting cells in parallel will yield a higher
current. ,odules are then interconnected, in series or parallel, or both, to create an array with
the desired peak =1 voltage and current.
he power output of a solar array is measured in watts or kilowatts. 8n order to calculate the
typical energy needs of the application, a measurement in watt*hours, kilowatt*hours or kilowatt*
hours per day is often used. A common rule of thumb is that average power is e4ual to (CH of
peak power, so that each peak kilowatt of solar array output power corresponds to energy
production of ..@ kWh per day "(. hours ! & kW ! (CH L ..@ kWh#
o make practical use of the solar*generated energy, the electricity is most often fed into the
electricity grid using inverters "grid*connected photovoltaic systems#K in stand*alone systems,
batteries are used to store the energy that is not needed immediately.
Solar cells can also be applied to other electronics devices to make it self*power sustainable in
the sun. here are solar cell phone chargers, solar bike light and solar camping lanterns that
people can adopt for daily use.
[edit] Theory
See also: Electromotive forceSolar cell
[edit] Simple e!planation
1. 0hotons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials,
such as silicon.
2. 3lectrons "negatively charged# are knocked loose from their atoms, allowing them to
flow through the material to produce electricity. =ue to the special composition of solar
cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single direction. he complementary
positive charges that are also created "like bubbles# are called holes and flow in the
direction opposite of the electrons in a silicon solar panel.
3. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current "=1#
electricity.
[edit] "hotogeneration of charge carriers
When a photon hits a piece of silicon, one of three things can happen:
&. the photon can pass straight through the silicon M this "generally# happens for lower
energy photons,
(. the photon can reflect off the surface,
3. the photon can be absorbed by the silicon, if the photon energy is higher than the silicon
band gap value. his generates an electron*hole pair and sometimes heat, depending on
the band structure.
When a photon is absorbed, its energy is given to an electron in the crystal lattice. Dsually this
electron is in the valence band, and is tightly bound in covalent bonds between neighboring
atoms, and hence unable to move far. he energy given to it by the photon Ee!citesE it into the
conduction band, where it is free to move around within the semiconductor. he covalent bond
that the electron was previously a part of now has one fewer electron M this is known as a hole.
he presence of a missing covalent bond allows the bonded electrons of neighboring atoms to
move into the Ehole,E leaving another hole behind, and in this way a hole can move through the
lattice. hus, it can be said that photons absorbed in the semiconductor create mobile electron*
hole pairs.
A photon need only have greater energy than that of the band gap in order to e!cite an electron
from the valence band into the conduction band. 'owever, the solar fre4uency spectrum
appro!imates a black body spectrum at N2CCC O, and as such, much of the solar radiation
reaching the 3arth is composed of photons with energies greater than the band gap of silicon.
hese higher energy photons will be absorbed by the solar cell, but the difference in energy
between these photons and the silicon band gap is converted into heat "via lattice vibrations M
called phonons# rather than into usable electrical energy.
[edit] Charge carrier separation
here are two main modes for charge carrier separation in a solar cell:
1. drift of carriers, driven by an electrostatic field established across the device
2. diffusion of carriers from 6ones of high carrier concentration to 6ones of low carrier
concentration "following a gradient of electrochemical potential#.
8n the widely used p*n -unction solar cells, the dominant mode of charge carrier separation is by
drift. 'owever, in non*p*n*-unction solar cells "typical of the third generation solar cell research
such as dye and polymer solar cells#, a general electrostatic field has been confirmed to be
absent, and the dominant mode of separation is via charge carrier diffusion.
$&@%
[edit] The p-n junction
Main articles: semiconductor and p-n !unction
he most commonly known solar cell is configured as a large*area p*n -unction made from
silicon. As a simplification, one can imagine bringing a layer of n*type silicon into direct contact
with a layer of p*type silicon. 8n practice, p*n -unctions of silicon solar cells are not made in this
way, but rather, by diffusing an n*type dopant into one side of a p*type wafer "or vice versa#.
8f a piece of p*type silicon is placed in intimate contact with a piece of n*type silicon, then a
diffusion of electrons occurs from the region of high electron concentration "the n*type side of
the -unction# into the region of low electron concentration "p*type side of the -unction#. When the
electrons diffuse across the p*n -unction, they recombine with holes on the p*type side. he
diffusion of carriers does not happen indefinitely however, because of an electric field which is
created by the imbalance of charge immediately on either side of the -unction which this
diffusion creates. he electric field established across the p*n -unction creates a diode that
promotes charge flow, known as drift current, that opposes and eventually balances out the
diffusion of electron and holes. his region where electrons and holes have diffused across the
-unction is called the depletion region because it no longer contains any mobile charge carriers. 8t
is also known as the space charge region.
[edit] Connection to an e!ternal load
5hmic metal*semiconductor contacts are made to both the n*type and p*type sides of the solar
cell, and the electrodes connected to an e!ternal load. 3lectrons that are created on the n*type
side, or have been EcollectedE by the -unction and swept onto the n*type side, may travel through
the wire, power the load, and continue through the wire until they reach the p*type
semiconductor*metal contact. 'ere, they recombine with a hole that was either created as an
electron*hole pair on the p*type side of the solar cell, or a hole that was swept across the -unction
from the n*type side after being created there.
he voltage measured is e4ual to the difference in the 4uasi Fermi levels of the minority carriers,
i.e. electrons in the p*type portion and holes in the n*type portion.
[edit] #$uivalent circuit of a solar cell
he e4uivalent circuit of a solar cell
he schematic symbol of a solar cell
o understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell, it is useful to create a model which is
electrically e4uivalent, and is based on discrete electrical components whose behavior is well
known. An ideal solar cell may be modelled by a current source in parallel with a diodeK in
practice no solar cell is ideal, so a shunt resistance and a series resistance component are added
to the model.
$&B%
he resulting e4uivalent circuit of a solar cell is shown on the left. Also shown,
on the right, is the schematic representation of a solar cell for use in circuit diagrams.
[edit] Characteristic e$uation
From the e4uivalent circuit it is evident that the current produced by the solar cell is e4ual to that
produced by the current source, minus that which flows through the diode, minus that which
flows through the shunt resistor:
$(C%$(&%
" L "
#
P "
$
P "
S%

where
" L output current "amperes#
"
#
L photogenerated current "amperes#
"
$
L diode current "amperes#
"
S%
L shunt current "amperes#
he current through these elements is governed by the voltage across them:
V
!
L V Q "&
S

where
V
!
L voltage across both diode and resistor &
S%
"volts#
V L voltage across the output terminals "volts#
" L output current "amperes#
&
S
L series resistance "R#
;y the Shockley diode e4uation, the current diverted through the diode is:
$((%

where
"
'
L reverse saturation current "amperes#
n L diode ideality factor "& for an ideal diode#
( L elementary charge
) L ;olt6mannSs constant
T L absolute temperature
At (/T1, volts.
;y 5hmSs law, the current diverted through the shunt resistor is:
where
&
S%
L shunt resistance "R#
Substituting these into the first e4uation produces the characteristic e4uation of a solar cell,
which relates solar cell parameters to the output current and voltage:
An alternative derivation produces an e4uation similar in appearance, but with V on the left*hand
side. he two alternatives are identitiesK that is, they yield precisely the same results.
8n principle, given a particular operating voltage V the e4uation may be solved to determine the
operating current " at that voltage. 'owever, because the e4uation involves " on both sides in a
transcendental function the e4uation has no general analytical solution. 'owever, even without a
solution it is physically instructive. Furthermore, it is easily solved using numerical methods. "A
general analytical solution to the e4uation is possible using :ambertSs W function, but since
:ambertSs W generally itself must be solved numerically this is a technicality.#
Since the parameters "
'
* n* &
S
, and &
S%
cannot be measured directly, the most common application
of the characteristic e4uation is nonlinear regression to e!tract the values of these parameters on
the basis of their combined effect on solar cell behavior.
[edit] %pen-circuit voltage and short-circuit current
When the cell is operated at open circuit, " + ' and the voltage across the output terminals is
defined as the open-circuit voltage. Assuming the shunt resistance is high enough to neglect the
final term of the characteristic e4uation, the open*circuit voltage V
,C
is:
Similarly, when the cell is operated at short circuit, V + ' and the current " through the terminals
is defined as the short-circuit current. 8t can be shown that for a high*4uality solar cell "low &
S
and "
'
, and high &
S%
# the short*circuit current "
SC
is:
[edit] #ffect of physical si&e
he values of "
'
, &
S
, and &
S%
are dependent upon the physical si6e of the solar cell. 8n comparing
otherwise identical cells, a cell with twice the surface area of another will, in principle, have
double the "
'
because it has twice the -unction area across which current can leak. 8t will also
have half the &
S
and &
S%
because it has twice the cross*sectional area through which current can
flow. For this reason, the characteristic e4uation is fre4uently written in terms of current density,
or current produced per unit cell area:
where
- L current density "amperes>cm
(
#
-
#
L photogenerated current density "amperes>cm
(
#
-
'
L reverse saturation current density "amperes>cm
(
#
&
S
L specific series resistance "R*cm
(
#
&
S%
L specific shunt resistance "R*cm
(
#
his formulation has several advantages. 5ne is that since cell characteristics are referenced to a
common cross*sectional area they may be compared for cells of different physical dimensions.
While this is of limited benefit in a manufacturing setting, where all cells tend to be the same
si6e, it is useful in research and in comparing cells between manufacturers. Another advantage is
that the density e4uation naturally scales the parameter values to similar orders of magnitude,
which can make numerical e!traction of them simpler and more accurate even with naive
solution methods.
A practical limitation of this formulation is that as cell si6es shrink, certain parasitic effects grow
in importance and can affect the e!tracted parameter values. For e!ample, recombination and
contamination of the -unction tend to be greatest at the perimeter of the cell, so very small cells
may e!hibit higher values of -
'
or lower values of &
S%
than larger cells that are otherwise
identical. 8n such cases, comparisons between cells must be made cautiously and with these
effects in mind.
[edit] Cell temperature
3ffect of temperature on the current*voltage characteristics of a solar cell
emperature affects the characteristic e4uation in two ways: directly, via T in the e!ponential
term, and indirectly via its effect on "
'
"strictly speaking, temperature affects all of the terms, but
these two far more significantly than the others#. While increasing T reduces the magnitude of
the e!ponent in the characteristic e4uation, the value of "
'
increases e!ponentially with T. he net
effect is to reduce V
,C
"the open*circuit voltage# linearly with increasing temperature. he
magnitude of this reduction is inversely proportional to V
,C
K that is, cells with higher values of
V
,C
suffer smaller reductions in voltage with increasing temperature. For most crystalline silicon
solar cells the reduction is about C./CH>T1, though the rate for the highest*efficiency crystalline
silicon cells is around C.)/H>T1. ;y way of comparison, the rate for amorphous silicon solar
cells is C.(C*C.)CH>T1, depending on how the cell is made.
he amount of photogenerated current "
#
increases slightly with increasing temperature because
of an increase in the number of thermally generated carriers in the cell. his effect is slight,
however: about C.C2/H>T1 for crystalline silicon cells and C.CBH for amorphous silicon cells.
he overall effect of temperature on cell efficiency can be computed using these factors in
combination with the characteristic e4uation. 'owever, since the change in voltage is much
stronger than the change in current, the overall effect on efficiency tends to be similar to that on
voltage. ,ost crystalline silicon solar cells decline in efficiency by C./CH>T1 and most
amorphous cells decline by C.&/*C.(/H>T1. he figure above shows 8*A curves that might
typically be seen for a crystalline silicon solar cell at various temperatures.
[edit] Series resistance
3ffect of series resistance on the current*voltage characteristics of a solar cell
As series resistance increases, the voltage drop between the -unction voltage and the terminal
voltage becomes greater for the same flow of current. he result is that the current*controlled
portion of the 8*A curve begins to sag toward the origin, producing a significant decrease in the
terminal voltage V and a slight reduction in "
SC
, the short*circuit current. Aery high values of &
S
will also produce a significant reduction in "
SC
K in these regimes, series resistance dominates and
the behavior of the solar cell resembles that of a resistor. hese effects are shown for crystalline
silicon solar cells in the 8*A curves displayed in the figure to the right.
[edit] Shunt resistance
3ffect of shunt resistance on the currentJvoltage characteristics of a solar cell
As shunt resistance decreases, the current diverted through the shunt resistor increases for a
given level of -unction voltage. he result is that the voltage*controlled portion of the 8*A curve
begins to sag toward the origin, producing a significant decrease in the terminal current " and a
slight reduction in V
,C
. Aery low values of &
S%
will produce a significant reduction in V
,C
. ,uch
as in the case of a high series resistance, a badly shunted solar cell will take on operating
characteristics similar to those of a resistor. hese effects are shown for crystalline silicon solar
cells in the 8*A curves displayed in the figure to the right.
[edit] Reverse saturation current
3ffect of reverse saturation current on the current*voltage characteristics of a solar cell
8f one assumes infinite shunt resistance, the characteristic e4uation can be solved for V
,C
:
hus, an increase in "
'
produces a reduction in V
,C
proportional to the inverse of the logarithm of
the increase. his e!plains mathematically the reason for the reduction in V
,C
that accompanies
increases in temperature described above. he effect of reverse saturation current on the 8*A
curve of a crystalline silicon solar cell are shown in the figure to the right. 0hysically, reverse
saturation current is a measure of the EleakageE of carriers across the p*n -unction in reverse bias.
his leakage is a result of carrier recombination in the neutral regions on either side of the
-unction.
[edit] 'deality factor
3ffect of ideality factor on the current*voltage characteristics of a solar cell
he ideality factor "also called the emissivity factor# is a fitting parameter that describes how
closely the diodeSs behavior matches that predicted by theory, which assumes the p*n -unction of
the diode is an infinite plane and no recombination occurs within the space*charge region. A
perfect match to theory is indicated when n + .. When recombination in the space*charge region
dominate other recombination, however, n + /. he effect of changing ideality factor
independently of all other parameters is shown for a crystalline silicon solar cell in the 8*A
curves displayed in the figure to the right.
,ost solar cells, which are 4uite large compared to conventional diodes, well appro!imate an
infinite plane and will usually e!hibit near*ideal behavior under Standard est 1ondition "n 0 .#.
Dnder certain operating conditions, however, device operation may be dominated by
recombination in the space*charge region. his is characteri6ed by a significant increase in "
'
as
well as an increase in ideality factor to n 0 /. he latter tends to increase solar cell output voltage
while the former acts to erode it. he net effect, therefore, is a combination of the increase in
voltage shown for increasing n in the figure to the right and the decrease in voltage shown for
increasing "
'
in the figure above. ypically, "
'
is the more significant factor and the result is a
reduction in voltage.
[edit] Solar cell efficiency factors
[edit] #nergy conversion efficiency
Main article: Energy conversion efficiency
=ust often accumulates on the glass of solar panels seen here as black dots.
A solar cellSs energy conversion efficiency "U, EetaE#, is the percentage of power converted "from
absorbed light to electrical energy# and collected, when a solar cell is connected to an electrical
circuit. his term is calculated using the ratio of the ma!imum power point, P
m
, divided by the
input light irradiance "E, in W>m
(
# under standard test conditions "S1# and the surface area of
the solar cell "1
c
in m
(
#.
S1 specifies a temperature of (/ T1 and an irradiance of &CCC W>m
(
with an air mass &./
"A,&./# spectrum. hese correspond to the irradiance and spectrum of sunlight incident on a
clear day upon a sun*facing )7T*tilted surface with the sun at an angle of .&.@&T above the
hori6on.
$()%$(.%
his condition appro!imately represents solar noon near the spring and autumn
e4uino!es in the continental Dnited States with surface of the cell aimed directly at the sun.
hus, under these conditions a solar cell of &(H efficiency with a &CC cm
(
"C.C& m
(
# surface area
can be e!pected to produce appro!imately &.( watts of power.
he losses of a solar cell may be broken down into reflectance losses, thermodynamic efficiency,
recombination losses and resistive electrical loss. he overall efficiency is the product of each of
these individual losses.
=ue to the difficulty in measuring these parameters directly, other parameters are measured
instead: thermodynamic efficiency, 4uantum efficiency, A
51
ratio, and fill factor. +eflectance
losses are a portion of the 4uantum efficiency under Ee!ternal 4uantum efficiencyE.
+ecombination losses make up a portion of the 4uantum efficiency, A
51
ratio, and fill factor.
+esistive losses are predominantly categori6ed under fill factor, but also make up minor portions
of the 4uantum efficiency, A
51
ratio.
$(/%
[edit] Thermodynamic efficiency limit
Solar cells operate as 4uantum energy conversion devices, and are therefore sub-ect to the
Ethermodynamic efficiency limitE. 0hotons with an energy below the band gap of the absorber
material cannot generate a hole*electron pair, and so their energy is not converted to useful
output and only generates heat if absorbed. For photons with an energy above the band gap
energy, only a fraction of the energy above the band gap can be converted to useful output.
When a photon of greater energy is absorbed, the e!cess energy above the band gap is converted
to kinetic energy of the carrier combination. he e!cess kinetic energy is converted to heat
through phonon interactions as the kinetic energy of the carriers slows to e4uilibrium velocity.
Solar cells with multiple band gap absorber materials are able to more efficiently convert the
solar spectrum. ;y using multiple band gaps, the solar spectrum may be broken down into
smaller bins where the thermodynamic efficiency limit is higher for each bin.
$(2%
[edit] (uantum efficiency
Main article: 2uantum efficiency of a solar cell
As described above, when a photon is absorbed by a solar cell it can produce a pair of free
charge carriers, i.e. an electron*hole pair. 5ne of the carriers "the minority carrier# may then be
able to reach the p*n -unction and contribute to the current produced by the solar cellK such a
carrier is said to be collected. Alternatively, the carrier may give up its energy and once again
become bound to an atom within the solar cell without 3eing collectedK this process is then called
recom3ination since one electron and one hole recombine and thereby annihilate the associated
free charge. he carriers that recombine do not contri3ute to the generation of electrical current.
2uantum efficiency refers to the percentage of photons that are converted to electric current "i.e.,
collected carriers# when the cell is operated under short circuit conditions. E4ternal 4uantum
efficiency "393# is the fraction of incident photons that are converted to electrical current, while
internal 4uantum efficiency "893# is the fraction of a3sor3ed photons that are converted to
electrical current. ,athematically, internal 4uantum efficiency is related to e!ternal 4uantum
efficiency by the reflectance "+# and the transmittance "# of the solar cell by "2E L E2E >
"& P & P T#. 0lease note that for a thick bulk Si solar cell is appro!imately 6ero and is
therefore in practical cases often neglected.
9uantum efficiency should not be confused with energy conversion efficiency, as it does not
convey information about the fraction of power that is converted by the solar cell. Furthermore,
4uantum efficiency is most usefully e!pressed as a spectral measurement "that is, as a function
of photon wavelength or energy#. Since some wavelengths are absorbed more effectively than
others in most semiconductors, spectral measurements of 4uantum efficiency can yield valuable
information about the 4uality of the semiconductor bulk and surfaces.
[edit] Ma!imum-po)er point
A solar cell may operate over a wide range of voltages "A# and currents "8#. ;y increasing the
resistive load on an irradiated cell continuously from 6ero "a short circuit# to a very high value
"an open circuit# one can determine the ma!imum*power point, the point that ma!imi6es AV8K
that is, the load for which the cell can deliver ma!imum electrical power at that level of
irradiation. "he output power is 6ero in both the short circuit and open circuit e!tremes#.
A high 4uality, monocrystalline silicon solar cell, at (/ T1 cell temperature, may produce C.2C
volts open*circuit "V
,C
#. he cell temperature in full sunlight, even with (/ T1 air temperature,
will probably be close to ./ T1, reducing the open*circuit voltage to C.// volts per cell. he
voltage drops modestly, with this type of cell, until the short*circuit current is approached "8sc#.
,a!imum power "with ./ T1 cell temperature# is typically produced with 7/H to @CH of the
open*circuit voltage "C..) volts in this case# and BCH of the short*circuit current. his output can
be up to 7CH of the V
,C
4 "
SC
product. he short*circuit current "8sc# from a cell is nearly
proportional to the illumination, while the open*circuit voltage "V
,C
# may drop only &CH with a
@CH drop in illumination. :ower*4uality cells have a more rapid drop in voltage with increasing
current and could produce only &>( V
,C
at &>( "
SC
. he usable power output could thus drop from
7CH of the V
,C
4 "
SC
product to /CH or even as little as (/H. Aendors who rate their solar cell
EpowerE only as V
,C
4 "
SC
, without giving load curves, can be seriously distorting their actual
performance.
he ma!imum power point of a photovoltaic varies with incident illumination. For systems large
enough to -ustify the e!tra e!pense, a ma!imum power point tracker tracks the instantaneous
power by continually measuring the voltage and current "and hence, power transfer#, and uses
this information to dynamically ad-ust the load so the ma!imum power is always transferred,
regardless of the variation in lighting.
[edit] Fill factor
Another defining term in the overall behavior of a solar cell is the fill factor "55#. his is the
ratio of the ma4imum power point divided by the open circuit voltage "V
oc
# and the short circuit
current ""
sc
#:
he fill factor is directly affected by the values of the cells series and shunt resistance. 8ncreasing
the shunt resistance "+sh# and decreasing the series resistance "+s# will lead to higher fill factor,
thus resulting in greater efficiency, and pushing the cells output power closer towards its
theoretical ma!imum
$(&%
[edit] Comparison of energy conversion efficiencies
Main article: Photovoltaics
At this point, discussion of the different ways to calculate efficiency for space cells and
terrestrial cells is necessary to alleviate confusion. 8n space, where there is no atmosphere, the
spectrum of the sun is relatively unfiltered. 'owever, on earth, with air filtering the incoming
light, the solar spectrum changes. o account for the spectral differences, a system was devised
to calculate this filtering effect. Simply, the filtering effect ranges from Air ,ass C "A,C# in
space, to appro!imately Air ,ass &./ on 3arth. ,ultiplying the spectral differences by the
4uantum efficiency of the solar cell in 4uestion will yield the efficiency of the device. For
e!ample, a silicon solar cell in space might have an efficiency of &.H at A,C, but have an
efficiency of &2H on earth at A, &./. errestrial efficiencies typically are greater than space
efficiencies.
Solar cell efficiencies vary from 2H for amorphous silicon*based solar cells to .C.7H with
multiple*-unction research lab cells and .(.@H with multiple dies assembled into a hybrid
package.
$(7%
Solar cell energy conversion efficiencies for commercially available multicrystalline
Si solar cells are around &.*&BH.
$(@%
he highest efficiency cells have not always been the most
economical M for e!ample a )CH efficient multi-unction cell based on e!otic materials such as
gallium arsenide or indium selenide and produced in low volume might well cost one hundred
times as much as an @H efficient amorphous silicon cell in mass production, while only
delivering about four times the electrical power.
'owever, there is a way to EboostE solar power. ;y increasing the light intensity, typically
photogenerated carriers are increased, resulting in increased efficiency by up to &/H. hese so*
called Econcentrator systemsE have only begun to become cost*competitive as a result of the
development of high efficiency <aAs cells. he increase in intensity is typically accomplished
by using concentrating optics. A typical concentrator system may use a light intensity 2*.CC
times the sun, and increase the efficiency of a one sun <aAs cell from )&H at A, &./ to )/H.
See SolarWcellX 1oncentrating photovoltaics "10A# below and 1oncentrating solar power "1S0#.
A common method used to e!press economic costs of electricity*generating systems is to
calculate a price per delivered kilowatt*hour "kWh#. he solar cell efficiency in combination
with the available irradiation has a ma-or influence on the costs, but generally speaking the
overall system efficiency is important. Dsing the commercially available solar cells "as of (CC2#
and system technology leads to system efficiencies between / and &BH. As of (CC/, photovoltaic
electricity generation costs ranged from NC.2C DSY>kWh "C./C Z>kWh# "central 3urope# down to
NC.)C DSY>kWh "C.(/ Z>kWh# in regions of high solar irradiation. his electricity is generally
fed into the electrical grid on the customerSs side of the meter. he cost can be compared to
prevailing retail electric pricing "as of (CC/#, which varied from between C.C. and C./C
DSY>kWh worldwide. "?ote: in addition to solar irradiance profiles, these costs>kWh calculations
will vary depending on assumptions for years of useful life of a system. ,ost c*Si panels are
warranted for (/ years and should see )/Q years of useful life.#
he chart at the right illustrates the various commercial large*area module energy conversion
efficiencies and the best laboratory efficiencies obtained for various materials and technologies.
+eported timeline of solar cell energy conversion efficiencies "from ?ational +enewable 3nergy
:aboratory "DSA#
[edit] *atts pea+
Main article: 6att-pea)
Since solar cell output power depends on multiple factors, such as the sunSs incidence angle, for
comparison purposes between different cells and panels, the measure of watts peak "Wp# is used.
8t is the output power under these conditions known as S1. he standard test conditions imply
an insolation "solar irradiance# of & kW>m
(
, a solar reference spectrum A, "airmass# of &./ and a
cell temperature (/ T1.
[edit] Solar cells and energy pay,ac+
5urther information: #ow-cost photovoltaic cell
8n the &BBCs, when silicon cells were twice as thick, efficiencies were much lower than today and
lifetimes were shorter, it may well have cost more energy to make a cell than it could generate in
a lifetime. 8n the meantime, the technology has progressed significantly, and the energy payback
time, defined as the recovery time re4uired for generating the energy spent for manufacturing of
the respective technical energy systems, of a modern photovoltaic module is typically from & to .
years
$@%$(B%
depending on the module type and location. <enerally, thin*film technologies * despite
having comparatively low conversion efficiencies * achieve significantly shorter energy payback
times than conventional systems "often [ & year#.
$)C%
With a typical lifetime of (C to )C years, this
means that modern solar cells are net energy producers, i.e. they generate significantly more
energy over their lifetime than the energy e!pended in producing them.
$@%$)&%$)(%
[edit] -ight-a,sor,ing materials
Main article: 13sorption 7electromagnetic radiation8
All solar cells re4uire a light a3sor3ing material contained within the cell structure to absorb
photons and generate electrons via the photovoltaic effect. he materials used in solar cells tend
to have the property of preferentially absorbing the wavelengths of solar light that reach the
3arth surface. 'owever, some solar cells are optimi6ed for light absorption beyond 3arthSs
atmosphere as well. :ight absorbing materials can often be used in multiple physical
configurations to take advantage of different light absorption and charge separation mechanisms.
0hotovoltaic panels are normally made of either silicon or thin*film cells:
,any currently available solar cells are configured as ,ul+ materials that are subse4uently cut
into wafers and treated in a Etop*downE method of synthesis "silicon being the most prevalent
bulk material#.
5ther materials are configured as thin-films "inorganic layers, organic dyes, and organic
polymers# that are deposited on supporting su,strates, while a third group are configured as
nanocrystals and used as $uantum dots "electron*confined nanoparticles# embedded in a
supporting matri! in a Ebottom*upE approach. Silicon remains the only material that is well*
researched in both 3ul) "also called wafer*based# and thin-film configurations.
[edit] .ul+
hese 3ul) technologies are often referred to as wafer*based manufacturing. 8n other words, in
each of these approaches, self*supporting wafers between &@C to (.C micrometers thick are
processed and then soldered together to form a solar cell module.
[edit] Crystalline silicon
Main articles: Crystalline silicon* Silicon* and list of silicon producers
;asic structure of a silicon based solar cell and its working mechanism.
;y far, the most prevalent 3ul) material for solar cells is crystalline silicon "abbreviated as a
group as c-Si#, also known as Esolar grade siliconE. ;ulk silicon is separated into multiple
categories according to crystallinity and crystal si6e in the resulting ingot, ribbon, or wafer.
1. monocrystalline silicon "c*Si#: often made using the 16ochralski process . Single*crystal
wafer cells tend to be e!pensive, and because they are cut from cylindrical ingots, do not
completely cover a s4uare solar cell module without a substantial waste of refined silicon.
'ence most c-Si panels have uncovered gaps at the four corners of the cells.
2. Poly- or multicrystalline silicon "poly*Si or mc*Si#: made from cast s4uare ingots M
large blocks of molten silicon carefully cooled and solidified. 0oly*Si cells are less
e!pensive to produce than single crystal silicon cells, but are less efficient. DS =53 data
shows that there were a higher number of multicrystalline sales than monocrystalline
silicon sales.
&i33on silicon
$))%
is a type of multicrystalline silicon: it is formed by drawing flat thin
films from molten silicon and results in a multicrystalline structure. hese cells have
lower efficiencies than poly*Si, but save on production costs due to a great reduction in
silicon waste, as this approach does not re4uire sawing from ingots.
[edit] Thin films
Main article: Thin film
he various thin-film technologies currently being developed reduce the amount "or mass# of
light a,sor,ing material re4uired in creating a solar cell. his can lead to reduced processing
costs from that of bulk materials "in the case of silicon thin films# but also tends to reduce energy
conversion efficiency "an average 7 to &CH efficiency#, although many multi*layer thin films
have efficiencies above those of bulk silicon wafers.
hey have become popular compared to wafer silicon due to lower costs and advantages
including fle!ibility, lighter weights, and ease of integration.
[edit] Cadmium telluride solar cell
Main article: Cadmium telluride photovoltaics
A cadmium telluride solar cell is a solar cell based on cadmium telluride, an efficient light*
absorbing material for thin*film cells. 1ompared to other thin*film materials, 1de is easier to
deposit and more suitable for large*scale production.
here has been much discussion of the to!icity of 1de*based solar cells. he perception of the
to!icity of 1de is based on the to!icity of elemental cadmium, a heavy metal that is a
cumulative poison. While the to!icity of 1de is presently under debate, it has been shown that
the release of cadmium to the atmosphere is impossible during normal operation of the cells and
is unlikely during \res in residential roofs.
$).%
Furthermore, a s4uare meter of 1de contains
appro!imately the same amount of 1d as a single 1 cell ?ickel*cadmium battery, in a more
stable and less soluble form.
$).%
[edit] Copper-'ndium Selenide
Main article: Copper indium gallium selenide solar cell
0ossible combinations of "8, 888, A8# elements in the periodic table that have photovoltaic effect
he materials based on 1u8nSe
(
that are of interest for photovoltaic applications include several
elements from groups 8, 888 and A8 in the periodic table. hese semiconductors are especially
attractive for thin film solar cell application because of their high optical absorption coefficients
and versatile optical and electrical characteristics which can in principle be manipulated and
tuned for a specific need in a given device.
18S is an abbreviation for general chalcopyrite films of copper indium selenide "Cu'nSe
(
#, 18<S
mentioned below is a variation of 18S. 18S films "no <a# achieved greater than &.H efficiency.
'owever, manufacturing costs of 18S solar cells at present are high when compared with
amorphous silicon solar cells but continuing work is leading to more cost*effective production
processes. he first large*scale production of 18S modules was started in (CC2 in <ermany by
W]rth Solar . ,anufacturing techni4ues vary and include the use of Dltrasonic ?o66les for
material deposition. 3lectro*0lating in other efficient technology to apply the 18"<#S layer.
When gallium is substituted for some of the indium in 18S, the material is referred to as 18<S, or
copper indium>gallium diselenide , a solid mi!ture of the semiconductors 1u8nSe
(
and 1u<aSe
(
,
often abbreviated by the chemical formula 1u8n
!
<a
"&*!#
Se
(
. Dnlike the conventional silicon based
solar cell, which can be modelled as a simple p*n -unction "see under semiconductor#, these cells
are best described by a more comple! hetero-unction model. he best efficiency of a thin*film
solar cell as of ,arch (CC@ was &B.BH with 18<S absorber layer.
$)/%
'igher efficiencies "around
)CH# can be obtained by using optics to concentrate the incident light or by using multi*-unction
tandem solar cells. he use of gallium increases the optical bandgap of the 18<S layer as
compared to pure 18S, thus increasing the open*circuit voltage, but decreasing the short circuit
current. 8n another point of view, gallium is added to replace indium due to galliumSs relative
availability to indium. Appro!imately 7CH
$)2%
of indium currently produced is used by the flat*
screen monitor industry. 'owever, the atomic ratio for <a in the ^&BH efficient 18<S solar cells
is N7H, which corresponds to a bandgap of N&.&/ eA. 18<S solar cells with higher <a amounts
have lower efficiency. For e!ample, 1<S solar cells "which have a bandgap of N&.7 eA have a
record efficiency of B./H for pure 1<S and &C.(H for surface*modified 1<S. Some investors in
solar technology worry that production of 18<S cells will be limited by the availability of
indium. 0roducing ( <W of 18<S cells "roughly the amount of silicon cells produced in (CC2#
would use about &CH of the indium produced in (CC..
$)7%
For comparison, silicon solar cells used
up ))H of the worldSs electronic grade silicon production in (CC2.
Se allows for better uniformity across the layer and so the number of recombination sites in the
film are reduced which benefits the 4uantum efficiency and thus the conversion efficiency.
$citation
needed%
[edit] /allium arsenide multijunction
Main article: Multi!unction photovoltaic cell
'igh*efficiency multi-unction cells were originally developed for special applications such as
satellites and space e!ploration, but at present, their use in terrestrial concentrators might be the
lowest cost alternative in terms of Y>kWh and Y>W.
$)@%
hese multi-unction cells consist of
multiple thin films produced using metalorganic vapour phase epita!y . A triple*-unction cell, for
e!ample, may consist of the semiconductors: <aAs, <e, and <a8n0
(
.
$)B%
3ach type of
semiconductor will have a characteristic band gap energy which, loosely speaking, causes it to
absorb light most efficiently at a certain color, or more precisely, to absorb electromagnetic
radiation over a portion of the spectrum. he semiconductors are carefully chosen to absorb
nearly all of the solar spectrum, thus generating electricity from as much of the solar energy as
possible.
<aAs based multi-unction devices are the most efficient solar cells to date, reaching a record
high of .C.7H efficiency under solar concentration and laboratory conditions.
$.C%
his technology is currently being utili6ed in the ,ars rover missions.
andem solar cells based on monolithic, series connected, gallium indium phosphide "<a8n0#,
gallium arsenide <aAs, and germanium <e pn -unctions, are seeing demand rapidly rise. 8n -ust
the past &( months "&(>(CC2 * &(>(CC7#, the cost of .? gallium metal has risen from about Y)/C
per kg to Y2@C per kg. Additionally, germanium metal prices have risen substantially to Y&CCCJ
Y&(CC per kg this year. hose materials include gallium ".?, 2? and 7? <a#, arsenic ".?, 2?
and 7?# and germanium, pyrolitic boron nitride "p;?# crucibles for growing crystals, and boron
o!ide, these products are critical to the entire substrate manufacturing industry.
riple*-unction <aAs solar cells were also being used as the power source of the =utch four*time
World Solar 1hallenge winners ?una in (CC/ and (CC7, and also by the =utch solar cars Solutra
"(CC/# and wente 5ne "(CC7#.
he =utch +adboud Dniversity ?i-megen set the record for thin film solar cell effiency using a
single -unction <aAs to (/.@H in August (CC@ using only . _m thick <aAs layer which can be
transferred from a wafer base to glass or plastic film.
$.&%
[edit] -ight-a,sor,ing dyes 01SSC2
Main article: $ye-sensiti9ed solar cells
ypically a ruthenium metalorganic dye "+u*centered# is used as a monolayer of light*absorbing
material. he dye*sensiti6ed solar cell depends on a mesoporous layer of nanoparticulate
titanium dio!ide to greatly amplify the surface area "(CC*)CC m
(
>g i5
(
, as compared to
appro!imately &C m
(
>g of flat single crystal#. he photogenerated electrons from the light
a3sor3ing dye are passed on to the n-type i5
(
, and the holes are passed to an electrolyte on the
other side of the dye. he circuit is completed by a redo! couple in the electrolyte, which can be
li4uid or solid. his type of cell allows a more fle!ible use of materials, and is typically
manufactured by screen printing and>or use of Dltrasonic ?o66les, with the potential for lower
processing costs than those used for 3ul) solar cells. 'owever, the dyes in these cells also suffer
from degradation under heat and DA light, and the cell casing is difficult to seal due to the
solvents used in assembly. 8n spite of the above, this is a popular emerging technology with some
commercial impact forecast within this decade. he first commercial shipment of =SS1 solar
modules occurred in July (CCB from <(.i 8nnovations "www.g(.i.com#.
[edit] %rganic3polymer solar cells
5rganic solar cells and polymer solar cells are built from thin films "typically &CC nm# of organic
semiconductors such as polymers and small*molecule compounds like polyphenylene vinylene ,
copper phthalocyanine "a blue or green organic pigment# and carbon fullerenes and fullerene
derivatives such as 01;,. 3nergy conversion efficiencies achieved to date using conductive
polymers are low compared to inorganic materials. 'owever, it improved 4uickly in the last few
years and the highest ?+3: "?ational +enewable 3nergy :aboratory# certified efficiency has
reached 2.77H
$.(%
. 8n addition, these cells could be beneficial for some applications where
mechanical fle!ibility and disposability are important.
hese devices differ from inorganic semiconductor solar cells in that they do not rely on the
large built*in electric field of a 0? -unction to separate the electrons and holes created when
photons are absorbed. he active region of an organic device consists of two materials, one
which acts as an electron donor and the other as an acceptor. When a photon is converted into an
electron hole pair, typically in the donor material, the charges tend to remain bound in the form
of an e!citon, and are separated when the e!citon diffuses to the donor*acceptor interface. he
short e!citon diffusion lengths of most polymer systems tend to limit the efficiency of such
devices. ?anostructured interfaces, sometimes in the form of bulk hetero-unctions, can improve
performance.
$.)%
[edit] Silicon thin films
Silicon thin*film cells are mainly deposited by chemical vapor deposition "typically plasma*
enhanced "03*1A=## from silane gas and hydrogen gas. =epending on the deposition
parameters, this can yield:
$..%
1. Amorphous silicon "a*Si or a*Si:'#
2. 0rotocrystalline silicon or
3. ?anocrystalline silicon "nc*Si or nc*Si:'#, also called microcrystalline silicon.
8t has been found that protocrystalline silicon with a low volume fraction of nanocrystalline
silicon is optimal for high open circuit voltage.
$./%
hese types of silicon present dangling and
twisted bonds, which results in deep defects "energy levels in the bandgap# as well as
deformation of the valence and conduction bands "band tails#. he solar cells made from these
materials tend to have lower energy conversion efficiency than 3ul) silicon, but are also less
e!pensive to produce. he 4uantum efficiency of thin film solar cells is also lower due to
reduced number of collected charge carriers per incident photon.
Amorphous silicon has a higher bandgap "&.7 eA# than crystalline silicon "c*Si# "&.& eA#, which
means it absorbs the visible part of the solar spectrum more strongly than the infrared portion of
the spectrum. As nc-Si has about the same bandgap as c*Si, the nc*Si and a*Si can
advantageously be combined in thin layers, creating a layered cell called a tandem cell. he top
cell in a*Si absorbs the visible light and leaves the infrared part of the spectrum for the bottom
cell in nc*Si.
+ecently, solutions to overcome the limitations of thin*film crystalline silicon have been
developed. :ight trapping schemes where the weakly absorbed long wavelength light is
obli4uely coupled into the silicon and traverses the film several times can significantly enhance
the absorption of sunlight in the thin silicon films.
$.2%
hermal processing techni4ues can
significantly enhance the crystal 4uality of the silicon and thereby lead to higher efficiencies of
the final solar cells.
$.7%
A silicon thin film technology is being developed for building integrated photovoltaics ";80A# in
the form of semi*transparent solar cells which can be applied as window gla6ing. hese cells
function as window tinting while generating electricity.
[edit] 4anocrystalline solar cells
Main article: :anocrystal solar cell
hese structures make use of some of the same thin*film light absorbing materials but are
overlain as an e!tremely thin absorber on a supporting matri! of conductive polymer or
mesoporous metal o!ide having a very high surface area to increase internal reflections "and
hence increase the probability of light absorption#. Dsing nanocrystals allows one to design
architectures on the length scale of nanometers, the typical e!citon diffusion length. 8n particular,
single*nanocrystal "SchannelS# devices, an array of single p*n -unctions between the electrodes and
separated by a period of about a diffusion length, represent a new architecture for solar cells and
potentially high efficiency.
[edit] Concentrating photovoltaics 0C"52
1oncentrating photovoltaic systems use a large area of lenses or mirrors to focus sunlight on a
small area of photovoltaic cells.
$.@%
'igh concentration means a hundred or more direct sunlight is
focused. ,ost commercial producers are developing systems that concentrate between .CC and
&CCC suns. ?early all concentration systems need a one a!is or more often two a!is tracking
system for high precision, since most systems only use direct sunlight and need to aim at the sun
with errors of less than ) degrees. he primary attraction of 10A systems is their reduced usage
of semiconducting material which is e!pensive and currently in short supply. Additionally,
increasing the concentration ratio improves the performance of general photovoltaic materials.
$.B%
=espite the advantages of 10A technologies their application has been limited by the costs of
focusing, sun tracking and cooling e4uipment. 5n 5ctober (/, (CC2, the Australian federal
government and the Aictorian state government together with photovoltaic technology company
Solar Systems announced a pro-ect using this technology, Solar power station in Aictoria,
planned to come online in (CC@ and be completed by (C&). his plant, at &/. ,W, would be ten
times larger than the largest current photovoltaic plant in the world.
$/C%
[edit] Silicon solar cell device manufacture
Solar*powered scientific calculator
;ecause solar cells are semiconductor devices, they share many of the same processing and
manufacturing techni4ues as other semiconductor devices such as computer and memory chips.
'owever, the stringent re4uirements for cleanliness and 4uality control of semiconductor
fabrication are a little more rela!ed for solar cells. ,ost large*scale commercial solar cell
factories today make screen printed poly*crystalline silicon solar cells. Single crystalline wafers
which are used in the semiconductor industry can be made into e!cellent high efficiency solar
cells, but they are generally considered to be too e!pensive for large*scale mass production.
0oly*crystalline silicon wafers are made by wire*sawing block*cast silicon ingots into very thin
"&@C to )/C micrometer# slices or wafers. he wafers are usually lightly p*type doped. o make a
solar cell from the wafer, a surface diffusion of n*type dopants is performed on the front side of
the wafer. his forms a p*n -unction a few hundred nanometers below the surface.
Antireflection coatings, which increase the amount of light coupled into the solar cell, are
typically ne!t applied. 5ver the past decade, silicon nitride has gradually replaced titanium
dio!ide as the antireflection coating of choice because of its e!cellent surface passivation
4ualities "i.e., it prevents carrier recombination at the surface of the solar cell#. 8t is typically
applied in a layer several hundred nanometers thick using plasma*enhanced chemical vapor
deposition "031A=#. Some solar cells have te!tured front surfaces that, like antireflection
coatings, serve to increase the amount of light coupled into the cell. Such surfaces can usually
only be formed on single*crystal silicon, though in recent years methods of forming them on
multicrystalline silicon have been developed.
he wafer then has a full area metal contact made on the back surface, and a grid*like metal
contact made up of fine EfingersE and larger EbusbarsE are screen*printed onto the front surface
using a silver paste. he rear contact is also formed by screen*printing a metal paste, typically
aluminium. Dsually this contact covers the entire rear side of the cell, though in some cell
designs it is printed in a grid pattern. he paste is then fired at several hundred degrees 1elsius to
form metal electrodes in ohmic contact with the silicon. Some companies use an additional
electro*plating step to increase the cell efficiency. After the metal contacts are made, the solar
cells are interconnected in series "and>or parallel# by flat wires or metal ribbons, and assembled
into modules or Esolar panelsE. Solar panels have a sheet of tempered glass on the front, and a
polymer encapsulation on the back. empered glass cannot be used with amorphous silicon cells
because of the high temperatures during the deposition process.
[edit] -ifespan
,ost commercially available solar cells are capable of producing electricity for at least twenty
years without a significant decrease in efficiency.
$citation needed%
[edit] Costs
1ost is established in cost*per*watt and in cost*per*watt in (. hours for infrared capable
photovoltaic cells.
[edit] Slicing costs
Dniversity of Dtah engineers devised a new way to slice thin wafers of the chemical element
germanium for use in the most efficient type of solar power cells. he new method should lower
the cost of such cells by reducing the waste and breakage of the brittle semiconductor.
$/&%
[edit] -o)-cost solar cell
Main articles: $ye-sensiti9ed solar cell and low-cost photovoltaic cell
=ye*sensiti6ed solar cell , and luminescent solar concentrators are considered low*cost solar cells.
his cell is e!tremely promising because it is made of low*cost materials and does not need
elaborate apparatus to manufacture, so it can be made in a =8` way allowing more players to
produce it than any other type of solar cell. 8n bulk it should be significantly less e!pensive than
older solid*state cell designs. 8t can be engineered into fle!ible sheets. Although its conversion
efficiency is less than the best thin film cells, its price>performance ratio should be high enough
to allow it to compete with fossil fuel electrical generation.
[edit] Current research on materials and devices
See also: Timeline of solar cells
here are currently many research groups active in the field of photovoltaics in universities and
research institutions around the world. his research can be divided into three areas: making
current technology solar cells cheaper and>or more efficient to effectively compete with other
energy sourcesK developing new technologies based on new solar cell architectural designsK and
developing new materials to serve as light absorbers and charge carriers.
[edit] Silicon processing
5ne way of reducing the cost is to develop cheaper methods of obtaining silicon that is
sufficiently pure. Silicon is a very common element, but is normally bound in silica, or silica
sand. 0rocessing silica "Si5
(
# to produce silicon is a very high energy process * at current
efficiencies, it takes one to two years for a conventional solar cell to generate as much energy as
was used to make the silicon it contains. ,ore energy efficient methods of synthesis are not only
beneficial to the solar industry, but also to industries surrounding silicon technology as a whole.
he current industrial production of silicon is via the reaction between carbon "charcoal# and
silica at a temperature around &7CC T1. 8n this process, known as carbothermic reduction, each
tonne of silicon "metallurgical grade, about B@H pure# is produced with the emission of about &./
tonnes of carbon dio!ide.
Solid silica can be directly converted "reduced# to pure silicon by electrolysis in a molten salt
bath at a fairly mild temperature "@CC to BCC T1#.
$/(%$/)%
While this new process is in principle the
same as the FF1 1ambridge 0rocess which was first discovered in late &BB2, the interesting
laboratory finding is that such electrolytic silicon is in the form of porous silicon which turns
readily into a fine powder, with a particle si6e of a few micrometres, and may therefore offer
new opportunities for development of solar cell technologies.
Another approach is also to reduce the amount of silicon used and thus cost, is by
micromachining wafers into very thin, virtually transparent layers that could be used as
transparent architectural coverings.
$/.%
he techni4ue involves taking a silicon wafer, typically &
to ( mm thick, and making a multitude of parallel, transverse slices across the wafer, creating a
large number of slivers that have a thickness of /C micrometres and a width e4ual to the
thickness of the original wafer. hese slices are rotated BC degrees, so that the surfaces
corresponding to the faces of the original wafer become the edges of the slivers. he result is to
convert, for e!ample, a &/C mm diameter, ( mm*thick wafer having an e!posed silicon surface
area of about &7/ cm
(
per side into about &CCC slivers having dimensions of &CC mm V ( mm V
C.& mm, yielding a total e!posed silicon surface area of about (CCC cm
(
per side. As a result of
this rotation, the electrical doping and contacts that were on the face of the wafer are located at
the edges of the sliver, rather than at the front and rear as in the case of conventional wafer cells.
his has the interesting effect of making the cell sensitive from both the front and rear of the cell
"a property known as bifaciality#.
$/.%
Dsing this techni4ue, one silicon wafer is enough to build a
&.C watt panel, compared to about 2C wafers needed for conventional modules of same power
output.
[edit] Thin-film processing
Main article: Thin-film
hin*film photovoltaic cells can use less than &H of the e!pensive raw material "silicon or other
light absorbers# compared to wafer*based solar cells, leading to a significant price drop per Watt
peak capacity. here are many research groups around the world actively researching different
thin*film approaches and>or materials. 'owever, it remains to be seen if these solutions can
achieve a similar market penetration as traditional bulk silicon solar modules.
$//%
5ne particularly promising technology is crystalline silicon thin films on glass substrates. his
technology combines the advantages of crystalline silicon as a solar cell material "abundance,
non*to!icity, high efficiency, long*term stability# with the cost savings of using a thin*film
approach.
$/2%$/7%
Another interesting aspect of thin*film solar cells is the possibility to deposit the cells on all kind
of materials, including fle!ible substrates "03 for e!ample#, which opens a new dimension for
new applications.
$/@%
[edit] Metamorphic multijunction solar cell
he ?ational +enewable 3nergy :aboratory won a +a= ,aga6ineSs +a= &CC Awards for its
,etamorphic ,ulti-unction Solar 1ell, an ultra*light and fle!ible cell that converts solar energy
with record efficiency.
$/B%
he ultra*light, highly efficient solar cell was developed at ?+3: and is being commerciali6ed
by 3mcore 1orp.
$2C%
of Albu4uer4ue, ?.,., in partnership with the Air Force +esearch
:aboratories Space Aehicles =irectorate at Oirtland Air Force ;ase in Albu4uer4ue.
8t represents a new class of solar cells with clear advantages in performance, engineering design,
operation and cost. For decades, conventional cells have featured wafers of semiconducting
materials with similar crystalline structure. heir performance and cost effectiveness is
constrained by growing the cells in an upright configuration. ,eanwhile, the cells are rigid,
heavy and thick with a bottom layer made of germanium.
8n the new method, the cell is grown upside down. hese layers use high*energy materials with
e!tremely high 4uality crystals, especially in the upper layers of the cell where most of the power
is produced. ?ot all of the layers follow the lattice pattern of even atomic spacing. 8nstead, the
cell includes a full range of atomic spacing, which allows for greater absorption and use of
sunlight. he thick, rigid germanium layer is removed, reducing the cellSs cost and B.H of its
weight. ;y turning the conventional approach to cells on its head, the result is an ultra*light and
fle!ible cell that also converts solar energy with record efficiency ".C.@H under )(2 suns
concentration#.
[edit] "olymer processing
he invention of conductive polymers "for which Alan 'eeger , Alan <. ,ac=iarmid and 'ideki
Shirakawa were awarded a ?obel pri6e# may lead to the development of much cheaper cells that
are based on ine!pensive plastics. 'owever, organic solar cells generally suffer from degradation
upon e!posure to DA light, and hence have lifetimes which are far too short to be viable. he
bonds in the polymers, are always susceptible to breaking up when radiated with shorter
wavelengths. Additionally, the con-ugated double bond systems in the polymers which carry the
charge, react more readily with light and o!ygen. So most conductive polymers, being highly
unsaturated and reactive, are highly sensitive to atmospheric moisture and o!idation, making
commercial applications difficult.
[edit] 4anoparticle processing
3!perimental non*silicon solar panels can be made of 4uantum heterostructures , e.g. carbon
nanotubes or 4uantum dots, embedded in conductive polymers or mesoporous metal o!ides. 8n
addition, thin films of many of these materials on conventional silicon solar cells can increase the
optical coupling efficiency into the silicon cell, thus boosting the overall efficiency. ;y varying
the si6e of the 4uantum dots, the cells can be tuned to absorb different wavelengths. Although the
research is still in its infancy, 4uantum dot modified photovoltaics may be able to achieve up to
.(H energy conversion efficiency due to multiple e!citon generation ",3<#.
$2&%
[edit] Transparent conductors
,any new solar cells use transparent thin films that are also conductors of electrical charge. he
dominant conductive thin films used in research now are transparent conductive o!ides
"abbreviated E15E#, and include fluorine*doped tin o!ide "Sn5
(
:F, or EF5E#, doped 6inc o!ide
"e.g.: In5:Al#, and indium tin o!ide "abbreviated E85E#. hese conductive films are also used
in the :1= industry for flat panel displays. he dual function of a 15 allows light to pass
through a substrate window to the active light*absorbing material beneath, and also serves as an
ohmic contact to transport photogenerated charge carriers away from that light*absorbing
material. he present 15 materials are effective for research, but perhaps are not yet optimi6ed
for large*scale photovoltaic production. hey re4uire very special deposition conditions at high
vacuum, they can sometimes suffer from poor mechanical strength, and most have poor
transmittance in the infrared portion of the spectrum "e.g.: 85 thin films can also be used as
infrared filters in airplane windows#. hese factors make large*scale manufacturing more costly.
A relatively new area has emerged using carbon nanotube networks as a transparent conductor
for organic solar cells. ?anotube networks are fle!ible and can be deposited on surfaces a variety
of ways. With some treatment, nanotube films can be highly transparent in the infrared, possibly
enabling efficient low*bandgap solar cells. ?anotube networks are p*type conductors, whereas
traditional transparent conductors are e!clusively n*type. he availability of a p*type transparent
conductor could lead to new cell designs that simplify manufacturing and improve efficiency.
[edit] Silicon )afer-,ased solar cells
=espite the numerous attempts at making better solar cells by using new and e!otic materials, the
reality is that the photovoltaics market is still dominated by silicon wafer*based solar cells "first*
generation solar cells#. his means that most solar cell manufacturers are currently e4uipped to
produce this type of solar cells. 1onse4uently, a large body of research is being done all over the
world to manufacture silicon wafer*based solar cells at lower cost and to increase the conversion
efficiencies without an e!orbitant increase in production cost. he ultimate goal for both wafer*
based and alternative photovoltaic concepts is to produce solar electricity at a cost comparable to
currently market*dominant coal, natural gas, and nuclear power in order to make it the leading
primary energy source. o achieve this it may be necessary to reduce the cost of installed solar
systems from currently about DSY &.@C "for bulk Si technologies# to about DSY C./C per Watt
peak power.
$2(%
Since a ma-or part of the final cost of a traditional bulk silicon module is related
to the high cost of solar grade polysilicon feedstock "about DSY C..>Watt peak# there e!ists
substantial drive to make Si solar cells thinner "material savings# or to make solar cells from
cheaper upgraded metallurgical silicon "so called Edirty SiE#.
8;, has a semiconductor wafer reclamation process that uses a speciali6ed pattern removal
techni4ue to repurpose scrap semiconductor wafers to a form used to manufacture silicon*based
solar panels. he new process was recently awarded the b(CC7 ,ost Aaluable 0ollution
0revention Awardc from he ?ational 0ollution 0revention +oundtable "?00+#.
$2)%
[edit] 'nfrared solar cells
+esearchers at 8daho ?ational :aboratory, along with partners at ,icrocontinuum 8nc.
$2.%
in
1ambridge, ,A and 0atrick 0inhero of the Dniversity of ,issouri, have devised an ine!pensive
way to produce plastic sheets containing billions of nanoantennas that collect heat energy
generated by the sun and other sources, which garnered two (CC7 ?ano/C awards. he
technology is the first step toward a solar energy collector that could be mass*produced on
fle!ible materials. While methods to convert the energy into usable electricity still need to be
developed, the sheets could one day be manufactured as lightweight EskinsE that power
everything from hybrid cars to computers and i0ods with higher efficiency than traditional solar
cells. he nanoantennas also have the potential to act as cooling devices that draw waste heat
from buildings or electronics without using electricity. he nanoantennas target mid*infrared
rays, which the 3arth continuously radiates as heat after absorbing energy from the sun during
the dayK also double*sided nanoantenna sheets can harvest energy from different parts of the
SunSs spectrum. 8n contrast, traditional solar cells can only use visible light, rendering them idle
after dark.
[edit] 65 solar cells
JapanSs ?ational 8nstitute of Advanced 8ndustrial Science and echnology "A8S# has succeeded
in developing a transparent solar cell that uses ultraviolet "DA# light to generate electricity but
allows visible light to pass through it. ,ost conventional solar cells use visible and infrared light
to generate electricity. 8n contrast, the innovative new solar cell uses ultraviolet radiation. Dsed
to replace conventional window glass, the installation surface area could be large, leading to
potential uses that take advantage of the combined functions of power generation, lighting and
temperature control.
Also, easily fabricated 03=5 :0SS photovoltaic cells are ultraviolet light selective and
sensitive.
$2/%
[edit] 71 solar cells
hree*dimensional solar cells that capture nearly all of the light that strikes them and could boost
the efficiency of photovoltaic systems while reducing their si6e, weight and mechanical
comple!ity. he new )= solar cells capture photons from sunlight using an array of miniature
btowerc structures that resemble high*rise buildings in a city street grid.
$22%
[edit] Metamaterials
Main article: Metamaterial
+esearchers at =uke Dniversity and ;oston 1ollege have engineered a metamaterial that utili6es
tiny geometric shapes to absorb both the electrical and magnetic properties of electromagnetic
waves over a certain fre4uency range at a level that meets standards of scientific perfection. his
results in the total absorption of light, turning it into heat, which can then create energy.
$27%
[edit] "hotovoltaic thermal hy,rid
Main article: Photovoltaic thermal hy3rid solar collector
Systems which combine photovoltaic with thermal solar, the advantage of such a system is that
the thermal solar part carries heat away and cools the photovoltaic cells, keeping temperature
down lowers the resistance and improves the cell efficiency.
$2@%
[edit] 5alidation8 certification and manufacturers
?ational +enewable 3nergy :aboratory tests and validates solar technologies. here are three
reliable certifications of solar e4uipment: D: and 8333 "both D.S. standards# and 831.
Solar cells are manufactured primarily in Japan, <ermany, ,ainland 1hina, aiwan and Dnited
States,
$2B%
though numerous other nations have or are ac4uiring significant solar cell production
capacity. While technologies are constantly evolving toward higher efficiencies, the most
effective cells for low cost electrical production are not necessarily those with the highest
efficiency, but those with a balance between low*cost production and efficiency high enough to
minimi6e area*related balance of systems cost. hose companies with large scale manufacturing
technology for coating ine!pensive substrates may, in fact, ultimately be the lowest cost net
electricity producers, even with cell efficiencies that are lower than those of single*crystal
technologies.
[edit] China
;acked by 1hinese governmentSs unprecedented plan to offer subsidies for utility*scale solar
power pro-ects that is likely to spark a new round of investment from 1hinese solar panel
makers. 1hinese companies have already played a more important role in solar panels
manufacturing in recent years. 1hina produced solar cells>modules with an output of &,&@C ,W
in (CC7 making it the largest producer in the world, according to statistics from 1hina
0hotovoltaic Association.
$7C%
Some 1hinese companies such as Suntech 0ower , `ingli, :=O
Solar 1o, JA Solar and +eneSola have already announced pro-ects in cooperation with regional
governments with hundreds of megawatts each after the d<olden Sune incentive program was
announced by the government.
$7&%
he new development of solar module manufacturers with
thin*film technology such as Aeeco and Anwell echnologies :imited will further help to boost
the domestic solar industry.
$7(%$7)%
[edit] 6nited States
Main article: Photovoltaics in the ;nited States
?ew manufacturing facilities for solar cells and modules in ,assachusetts, ,ichigan, 5hio,
5regon, and e!as promise to add enough capacity to produce thousands of megawatts of solar
devices per year within the ne!t few years from (CC@:
$7.%
8n late September (CC@, Sanyo 3lectric 1ompany, :td. announced its decision to build a
manufacturing plant for solar ingots and wafers in Salem, 5regon. he plant will begin operating
in 5ctober (CCB and will reach its full production capacity of 7C megawatts ",W# of solar
wafers per year by April (C&C.
8n early 5ctober (CC@, First Solar, 8nc. broke ground on an e!pansion of its 0errysburg, 5hio,
facility that will add enough capacity to produce another /7 ,W per year of solar modules at the
facility, bringing its total capacity to roughly &B( ,W per year. he company e!pects to
complete construction early ne!t year and reach full production by mid*(C&C.
8n mid*5ctober (CC@, SolarWorld A< opened a manufacturing plant in 'illsboro, 5regon, that is
e!pected to produce /CC ,W of solar cells per year when it reaches full production in (C&&.
[edit] See also
Energy portal
Sustainable development portal
Amorphous silicon
Anomalous photovoltaic effect
Autonomous building
;lack silicon
3nergy development
Fab
<reen technology
'elianthos
Oelvin probe force microscope
Junction
:ist of solar cell manufacturers
,etallurgical grade silicon
,icrogeneration
,a!imum 0ower 0oint racking
?anotechnology
1arbon nanotubes in photovoltaics
?anoantenna
?anowire
0hotodiode
0hotovore * 7a light-powered ro3ot8
0rinted electronics
+enewable energy
+oll*to*roll processing
Semiconductor
Shockley* 9ueisser limit
Solar 3ngine
Solar panel
Solar roof
Solar shingles
Solar tracker
Spectrophotometry
imeline of solar energy
DA degradation
[edit] References
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40.9 Spectrolab * Fre4uently Asked 9uestions
41.9 ?ew world record for ?i-megen solar cell " dutch #
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ESliver echnology +esearch at the Australian ?ational DniversityE.
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74.9 33+3 ?ews: 33+3 ?etwork ?ews
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