APPLIED LINGUISTICS

1.1 DEFINITIONS:
Applied linguistics is using wht we !n"w #"ut $% lnguge $#% h"w it is le&nt
nd $c% h"w it is used in "&de& t" chie'e s"(e p&"p"se "& s"l'e s"(e p&"#le(
in the &el w"&ld.
Applied linguistics is c"nce&ned with inc&esing unde&stnding ") the &"le ")
lnguge in hu(n ))i&s nd the&e#* p&"'iding the !n"wledge necess&* )"&
th"se wh" &e &esp"nsi#le )"& t!ing lnguge &elted decisi"ns whethe& the need
)"& these &ises in clss&""(+ the w"&!plce+ the lw c"u&t+ "& the l#"&t"&*.
1., -ISTO./. E&l* hist"&*:
Inte&est in lnguge nd lnguge teching 0 l"ng hist"&*
English $11
th
centu&*%
2 1
st
g&((& $in ltin% nd '"c#ul&* lists
English $13
th
centu&*%
2 Inte&est in desc&i#ing the lnguge
2 Fi4ing stnd&d
2 C&eting n Acde(*
2 Fi&st p&esc&ipti'e g&((& $L"wth+ 115,%
2 Fi&st c"(p&ehensi'e dicti"n&* $6"hns"n+ 1177%
English $18
th
centu&*%
2 P&esc&ipti'is( c"ntinues
2 Lite&tu&e w&ite&s including '&iti"ns
The #eginning
1893 0 :"u&nl lnguge le&ning
187; 0 st&uctu&l nd )uncti"nl linguistics pplied t" L, &eding nd s"(eti(es t" L1
lite&&* nd "the& lnguge issues.
2 Audi"lingulis( $w"&d w& II% 0 in)luenced #* #eh'"u&is(.
185; 0 C"ntinuti"n nd inte&est in t"pics lnguge ssess(ent lnguge p"licies nd
)"cus "n le&ning+ n"t "nl* "n teching <Applied linguistics #egn t" e(e&ge s
genuine p&"#le( s"l'ing ente&p&ise= $>pln+ ,;;,%
Ch"(s!* $Uni'e&sl G&((&% ttc! "n #eh'i"u&is(. $1871 his )i&st ttc! t"
#eh'i"u&is(%
181;

Applied linguistics dd&esses ("&e nd ("&e p&"#le(s &elted t" &ed wll lnguge
inte&est in:
2 lnguge teching
2 lnguge ssess(ent
2 SLA
2 Lite&&* $the #ilit* t" &ed nd w&ite+ unde&stnd w&itten tests nd #e #le t"
inte&p&et the( c"&&ectl* independent ") thei& c"nte4t.%
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2 Bultilingulis(
2 Lnguge plnning nd p"lic*
2 Teching t&ining
2 Adpting nl*ses nd s"luti"ns t" the di))e&ent "&l c"nte4ts
Applied linguistics is d&i'en #* &el2w"&ld lnguge p&"#le(s &the& thn the"&eticl
e4pl"&ti"ns $>pln+ ,;;,% This hd the )"ll"wing c"nseCuences which we&e c"ntinued
in the 183;s
2 Lnguge seen s )uncti"nl nd disc"u&se #sed "n e(e&gence ") s*ste(ic nd
desc&ipti'e linguistics t" s"l'e lnguge p&"#le(s $-*nes Swin+ -llid*%
2 N" "ne discipline cn p&"'ide ll the t""ls nd &es"u&ces needed t" dd&ess &el2
w"&ld p&"#le( 0 c"(#inti"n ") se'e&l &elted disciplines.
2 It is essentil t" ppl* di))e&ent &ese&ch t""ls nd (eth"d"l"gies t" dd&ess
l"cll* situted lnguge p&"#le(s.
183;s
2 Add&essing lnguge issues nd p&"#le(s s the* "ccu& in the &el w"&ld.
2 >&shen $183,% <("nit"& h*p"thesis= 0 e(phsis "n c"(p&ehensi#le input.
2 -"we'e&+ pplied linguistics went #e*"nd lnguge teching nd le&ning.
T"pics:
2 Lnguge ssess(ent.
2 Lnguge p"lic* nd plnning
2 Lnguge use in p&")essi"nl settings
2 T&nslti"ns
2 Lnguge nd techn"l"g*
2 C"&pus linguistics $end ") 183;s. Thn!s t" techn"l"g*%
2 le4ic"g&ph*
End ") the centu&*
2 Inc"&p"&ted (* su#)ields
2 C"nt&i#uted t" "the& disciplines: ps*ch"l"g*+ educti"n+ nt&"p"l"g*+ p"liticl
sciences+ p"lic* studies+ d(inist&ti"n+ English studies.
-ISTO./. 188;s
E(phsis "n
2 Lnguge w&eness
2 Attenti"n nd le&ning
2 <F"cus nd )"&(s= )"& lnguge le&ning+ le&ning )&"( dil"gic inte&cti"ns
2 Ptte&ns ") teche& 0 student inte&cti"n
2 Ts! #sed le&ning
2 C"ntent2 #sed le&ning
B"&e &ecentl*+ )"cus "n
2 In)"&(ti"n p&"cessing+ the e(e&gence ") lnguge #ilit* )&"( e4tended
(enin)ul e4p"su&es nd &ele'nt p&ctice+ nd w&eness ") h"w lnguge is
used nd the )ucti"ns it se&'es.
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New di&ecti"ns in lnguge teche& de'el"p(ent:
2 Ntu&l lnguge input nd uthenticit*+ (!ing e))"&ts t" (!e less"ns ("&e
e))ecti'e.
E(phsis "n &el settings:
2 Lnguge uses in cde(ic nd p&")essi"nl settings.
2 The p"ssi#le pplicti"ns ") nl*ses in c"&pus linguistics+ &egiste& '&iti"n nd
gen&e '&iti"n.
Bultilingulis( nd #ilingulis(:
2 Dilingul educti"n+ (ig&ti"ns ") pe"ple t" new lnguge settings nd lnguge
p"licies &elted t" (ultiple lnguge use.
Lnguge teching E ssess(ent:
2 Techn"l"g* pplicti"ns+ ethic in ssess(ent+ stnd&ds ") p&")essi"nlis( E
c&iticl lnguge testing.
Applied linguistics s (editing discipline:
2 The pplied linguist is ("&e thn lnguge teche&+ l"t ") t&ining nd
e4pe&tise is &eCui&ed.
-ISTO./. In the ne& )utu&e
B"&e needs t" #e d"ne &elting:
2 C"&pus lingustics
2 C"(pute& pplicti"ns )"& &ese&ch pu&p"ses
2 New w*s t" e4(ine lnguge dt.
The&e will ls" #e ("&e discussi"n "n:
2 The ("st ppp&"p&ite &ese&ch (eth"ds in di))e&ent settings
2 Issues ") ("ti'ti"n nd ttitude 0 !e* )ct"&s in unde&stnding (n* lnguge
0 #sed p&"#le(s.
Applied linguistics will #e w"&!ing t"gethe& with "the& specilists "n "the& )ields s
s"l'ing lnguge 0 #sed p&"#le(s in the &el w"&ld is c"(ple4 nd di))icult issue.
BAIN POINTS OF [Link]
L1 nd L, cCuisiti"n
Lnguge teching. Including the )"u& s!ills: &eding+ w&iting+ listening nd
spe!ing
Lnguge ssess(ents $h"w t" e'lute pe"ple%
Lnguge in (ultilingul s"cieties
Techn"l"g* nd lnguge teching nd le&ning. C"(pute& ssisted lnguge
teching nd le&ning.
T&nslti"n E inte&p&etti"n
C"nt&sti'e nl*sis
Disc"u&se nl*sis
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The i(p"&tnce ") c"nte4t
Adpting (eth"d"l"g* t" the di))e&ent c"nte4ts
S"ci" ps*ch"l"gicl speccts in lnguge cCuisiti"n
C"gniti'e p&"cesses in lnguge cCuisiti"n
P&g(tics nd lnguge le&ning
Lnguge teching )"& speci)ic pu&p"ses
NEG [Link]
Techn"l"g* nd lnguge teching nd le&ning:
2 C"(pute& ssisted lnguge le&ning $CALL% nd teching.
2 C"&pus linguistics.
[Link] ASPECTS. L1 ACHUISITION
Int&"ducti"n:
Lnguge 0 hu(n #eh'i"u&
Pe"ple spe!+ w&ite+ &ed+ listen nd unde&stnd wht the* &ed nd listen t".
N" hu(n #"&n d"ing s"
S!ills t" #e cCui&ed
N"t e'e&* indi'idul cCui&es in the s(e w* "& de'el"ps s!ills eCull*.
P&"#le(s 0 ccidentes "& diseses cusing t&"u#le when pe&)"&(ing the lnguge.
Lnguge 0 p&t ") hu(n ps*ch"l"g*+ the #eh'i"u& wh"se p&incipl )uncti"n is
c"((unicti"n.
S"(e inte&nl (echnis( "pe&tes when spe!ing nd unde&stnding 0 stud*ing
lnguge i(plies the stud* ") wht we h'e t" !n"w t" pe&)"&( linguisticll*.
2 Ght hppens when sep!ing nd unde&stnding E h"w we cn d" this
Inc&edi#le: #ilit* ") child t" cCui&e c"(ple4 s!ill in sh"&t pe&i"d.
2 s"+ the disp"siti"n t" cCui&e the lnguge 0 innteI
The hu(n #eing is the "nl* "ne cp#le+ s" s"(ething speci)ic ") the hu(n
species tht p&edisp"ses thisI
1. The hu(n in)nt is #"&n with speci)ic geneticll* dete&(ined+ lnguge
cpcit*.
,. The #ilit* E p&edisp"siti"n t" cCui&e lnguge 0 )uncti"n ") the gene&l
c"gniti'e cpcities ") hu(n #eings.
Lnguges:
2 N"t ll the s(e
2 $Ch&cte&istics% cn in)luence the w* child&en le&n L1
2 Displ* c"nsistent g&((ticl nd le4icl ptte&ns
The child pic!s up ptte&ns 0 heJshe cn &el* "n ce&tin ssu(pti"ns
>n"wing the st&uctu&es+ child&en cn
2 C&ete thei& "wn ph&ses end c"n'e* (ening
2 Unde&stnd "the&s
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Ling?@stic plicd l lengu ingles
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G-AT DO [Link] [Link]
S"unds nd w"&ds
Bening nd c"nst&ucti"ns
Ghen nd whe&e t" use the( c"&&ectl*
-OG DOES T-IS [Link] TA>E PLACEI
Lnguge (in )uncti"n: c"((unicti"n
2 Child&en tl! t" dults
2 .ecei'e new input
2 Le&n h"w t" p&ticipte in c"n'e&sti"ns &ules ") tu&n t!ing.
2 Le&ning the &ules t!es ti(e
2 C"((unicti"n in'"l'es ("&e thn lnguge:
2 Gestu&es+ )cil e4p&essi"ns+ '"ice Culit*
2 Child&en h'e t" get used t"+ le&n t" use nd unde&stnd.
Age ") 1 child&en
2 Set up &ep&esentti"ns ") thei& cl"sest su&&"undings
2 P"ssi#l* use this pe&ceptul nd c"nceptul !n"wledge when cCui&ing lnguge
Le&ning little #* little 0 depending "n the )&eCuenc* the* he& K
Child&en ttitudes t" le&ning
2 Pssi'e 0 #s"&#ing n*thing nd e'e&*thing the* he&
2 Acti'e 0 (!ing gene&liLti"n $g" 0 g"ed% #"ut the in)"&(ti"n the* h'e.
[Link] 0 lnguge cCuisiti"n
AcCui&ing n L1 i(plies
2 n" s*ste(tic inst&ucti"ns
2 p&ents n"t teching &ules
2 Sp"ntne"us de'el"p(ent #* linguistic input
2 .&e c"&&ecti"n
T&diti"nl the"&ies
B"&e ("de&n pp&"ches
1. [Link] 0 Child&en i(itte dults. Thei& c"&&ect utte&nces &e
&ein)"&ced when the* get wht the* wnt "& &e p&ised. S>INNE.
,. INNATENESS 0 A childNs #&in c"ntins specil lnguge2le&ning
(echnis(s t #i&th. C-OBS>/
F. COGNITIMISB 0 lnguge is :ust "ne spect ") child "'e&ll intellectul
de'el"p(ent. PIAGET
9. [Link] 0 This the"&* e(phsises the inte&cti"n #etween child&en nd
thei& c&e2gi'e&s. [Link].
[Link] 0 IBITATION
Deh'i"u&ist ps*ch"l"gists de'el"ped thei& the"&ies )te& e4pe&i(ents "n ni(ls
2 .ts "& #i&ds c"uld #e tught t" pe&)"&( '&i"us ts!s #* enc"u&ging h#it 0
)"&(ing:
Desi&#le #eh'i"u& ws &ew&ded 0 p"siti'e &ein)"&ce(ent
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Ling?@stic plicd l lengu ingles
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Undesi&#le #eh'i"u& ws punished "& n"t &ew&ded 0 negti'e
&ein)"&ce(ent.
D.F. S!inne& used this the"&* t" e4plin lnguge cCuisiti"n.
In 'e&#l #eh'i"u& $1871%+ he stted:
<The #sic p&"cess nd &elti"ns which gi'e 'e&#l #eh'i"u& its specil
ch&cte&istics &e n"w )i&l* well unde&st""d. Buch ") the e4pe&i(entl w"&!
&esp"nsi#le )"& this d'nce hs #een c&&ied "ut "n thei& species+ #ut the &esults
h'e p&"'ed t" #e su&p&isingl* )&ee ") species &est&icti"ns. .ecent w"&! hs sh"wn
tht the (eth"ds cn #e e4tended t" hu(n #eh'i"u& with"ut se&i"us
("di)icti"ns.=
Child&en i(itte the lnguge ") thei& p&ents "& c&e&s.
Success)ul tte(pts &e &ew&ded #ecuse n dult wh" &ec"gnises w"&d sp"!en #*
child will p&ise the child ndJ"& gi'e it is s!ing )"& 0 p"siti'e &ein)"&ce(ent.
Unsuccess)ul tte(pts &e )"&g"tten 0 Negti'e &ein)"&ce(ent.
LIBITATIONS OF [Link]
S"(e t&uth+ #ut (n* "#:ecti"ns
Lnguge &ules nd st&uctu&es cnn"t #e w"&!ed "ut si(pl* #* i(itti"n 0
intelligent (ist!es "& 'i&tu"us e&&"&s &e'el pplicti"n ") &ules.
2 A child wh" s*s <g"ed= insted ") <went= is "'e&2ppl*ing &ule pst tense
'e&#s &e )"&(ed #* dding JdJ "& JtJ s"und+ #ut the&e &e i&&egul& 'e&#s which
d" n"t #eh'e in this w*.
B"st child&en g" th&"ugh the s(e stges. Ap&t )&"( e4t&e(e cses $Genie%
seCuence un))ected #* the t&et went the child &ecei'es "& the c"nte4t.
Child&en cnn"t ")ten &epet wht n dult s*s+ especill* new st&uctu&e
$ph"t"c"p* ") dil"gue%
Few child&en &ecei'e (uch e4plicit c"&&ecti"n 0 P&ents ("&e inte&ested in
p"liteness nd t&uth)ulness.
E'idence )"& c&iticl pe&i"d 0 i) lnguge n"t cCui&ed #* the ge ") 1
INNATENESS 0 [Link] BEC-ANISBS
N"( Ch"(s!* 0 c&iticis( ") #eh'i"u&is( $1871%
2 A&gu(ents listed #"'e
2 The i(p"'e&ished lnguge input child&en &ecei'e 0 dults d" n"t t*picll*
spe! in g&((ticll* c"(plete sentences
2 The child he&s "nl* s(ll s(ple ") lnguge
C"nclusi"n: child&en (ust h'e n in#"&n )cult* )"& lnguge cCuisiti"n.
The p&"cess is #i"l"gicll* dete&(ined 0 the #&in: linguistic in)"&(ti"n t #i&th.
Ntu&l p&edisp"siti"n t" le&n lnguge t&igge&ed #* he&ing speech.
The childNs #&in inte&p&ets cc"&ding t" the p&inciples "& st&uctu&es it c"ntins 0
Lnguge AcCuisiti"n De'ice $LAD%
All hu(n lnguge sh&e c"(("n p&inciples
2 e.g. ll h'e w"&ds )"& things nd cti"ns 0 n"uns nd 'e&#s.
The child $unc"nsci"us% ts!: est#lish h"w the speci)ic lnguge sJhe he&s
e4p&esses these p&inciples.
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Ling?@stic plicd l lengu ingles
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2 e.g. LAD c"ntins the c"ncept ") 'e&# tense. The child listens t" <w"&!ed=+
<pl*ed= nd )"&(s the h*p"thesis: pst tense dding the s"und JdJ+ JtJ+ "& JidJ
N" (tte& wht lnguge+ it will h'e the p&"pe&ties tht child&enNs genetic
eCuip(ent is p&ep&ed t" c"pe with.
Despite li(itti"n nd '&iti"ns in the le&ning c"nditi"ns+ the p&"cess still c&&ied
"ut.
Si(il& le&ning p&"cesses n" (tte& wht lnguge
Uni'e&sl G&((& $UG% 0 the set ") c"nst&ints with which ll hu(n #eings &e
end"wed t #i&th nd tht &e &esp"nsi#le )"& the p&"cess ") lnguge cCuisiti"n.
Lnguge is n"t le&nt 0 e(e&ge with ti(e+ gi'en the input.
Child&en le&n le4ic"n nd st&uctu&es ") thei& lnguge
C"nclusi"n: p"ssi#le t" le&n n* lnguge with "u& genetic )etu&es.
BODIFICATIONS
O&iginll*: LAD c"ntined speci)ic !n"wledge #"ut lnguge.
Dn Isc Sl"#in: LAD 0 (echnis( )"& w"&!ing "ut the &ules ") lnguge.
EMIDENCE TO SUPPO.T INNATENESS
Sl"#in: hu(n nt"(* dpted t" the p&"ducti"n ") speech. -u(ns e'"l'ed
'"cl t&ct ll"wing the p&ecise &ticulti"n ") s"unds.
Neu&"2science: identi)icti"n ") speci)ic &es ") the #&in with di))e&ent linguistic
)uncti"ns: D&"cNs &e nd Ge&nic!eNs &e
2 st&"!e 'icti(s 0 depending "n the site ") #&in d(ge 0 di))e&ent t*pes ")
lnguge d*s)uncti"n
C&e"le '&ieties ") English 0 the &esult ") the LAD t w"&! $Dutch 0 #sed c&e"led
in Su&in(%
Sign lnguges 0 c"(ple4 nd )ull* g&((ticl
2 Child&en le&ning t" sign s )i&st lnguge 0 si(il& stges.
LIBITATIONS OF INNATENESS
Ch"(s!*Ns w"&! "n lnguge 0 the"&eticl
2 -e did n"t stud* &el child&en
2 -e t!es n" cc"unt ") the inte&cti"n #etween child&en nd thei& c&es.
2 -e d"es n"t &ec"gnise the &es"ns wh* child (ight wnt t" spe!
An e4(ple: the cse ") 6i(
D&d nd Schs $1811% stud* ") 6i(
6i( 0 he&ing s"n ") de) p&ents
6i(Ns p&ents wnted thei& s"n t" le&n speech
2 wtching TM
2 listening the &di"
2 &ecei'ing )&eCuent lnguge input
-is p&"g&ess 0 li(ited+ he needed speech the &pist
inte&cti"n is i(p"&tnt
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Ling?@stic plicd l lengu ingles
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Si(pl* #eing e4p"sed t" lnguge ws n"t en"ugh
Su#seCuent the"&ies: e(phsis "n h"w &el child&en de'el"p lnguge t" )ul)il
thei& needs in inte&cti"n with thei& en'i&"n(ent nd "the& pe"ple.
COGNITIMISB 0 INTELLECTUAL DEMELOPBENT
6en Piget: lnguge cCuisiti"n 0 p&t ") childNs (entl "& c"gniti'e
de'el"p(ent
2 child unde&stnd c"ncept #e)"&e cCui&ing the lnguge )"&( t" e4p&ess it.
Se&iti"n
2 childNs intellectul de'el"p(ent 0 c"(p&is"n ") "#:ects with &espect t" siLe.
2 Piget: i) this stge n"t *et &eched+ child cnNt le&n nd use c"(p&ti'e
d:ecti'es li!e <#igge&= " <s(lle&=
O#:ect pe&(nence
2 )i&st *e&+ )"& child&en n "#:ect ("'ing "ut ") sight ceses t" e4ist.
2 13 ("nths+ )"& child&en "#:ects e4ist independentl* ") thei& pe&cepti"n.
C"nnected t" child&enNs '"c#ul&*+ suggesting lin! #etween "#:ect
pe&(nence nd the le&ning ") n(es ") "#:ects.
S"(e Studies:
2 child&en le&ning t" spe! )luentl* despite #n"&(l (entl de'el"p(ent. $E'en
th"ugh s"(e child&en h'e (entl p&"#le(s the* le&n t" spe!%
2 s*nt4 $p&ticul&l*% d"es n"t ppe& t" &el* "n gene&l intellectul g&"wth:
[Link] T-EO./ 0 INPUT
6e&"(e D&une&
2 The i(p"&tnce ") the lnguge input &ecei'ed )&"( thei& c&e&s. $input &ecei'ed
in the c"((unicti"n with "the&s% L&ng. Is (ens ") c"((unicti"n it is
le&ned in inte&cti"n with pe"ple wh" wnt t" c"((unicte with *"u. The (in
"#:ecti'e is c"((unicti"n+ we h'e t" c"((unicte.
Sc))"lding: lnguge #eh'i"u& ") dults when tl!ing t" child&en 0 specill* dpted
)"& cCuisiti"n. Lnguge AcCuisiti"n Supp"&t S*ste(ic $LASS% in &esp"nse t"
Ch"(s!*Ns LAD $in the #&in% LASS n"t in the #&in+ :ust #* inte&cti"n.
C"lw*( T&e'&then: studies ") inte&cti"n #etween p&ents nd ##ies. Child&en !n"w
when the* inte&&upt pe"ple+ #ut the* d" it #ecuse the* wnt ttenti"n.
LIBITATIONS OF [Link]
2 these pe"ple c"&&ected Ch"(s!*Ns e&l* ides nd t&uth 0 Inte&cti"n is i(plied
nd )&eCuent inte&cti"n c"nt&i#utes:
Child&en in ll cultu&es: s"(e stges in cCui&ing lnguge+ #ut n"t ll
cultu&es &e the s(e. In s"(e cultu&e+ dults d"nNt p* ttenti"n t"
child&en+ it depends "n pe"ple.
C"nclusi"n: this inte&cti"n is n"t essentil.
B"&e ("de&n The"&ies:
2 E(pi&icl studies ginst Uni'e&sl G&((&
3 P&")es"&: Nu&i Cl'"
Ling?@stic plicd l lengu ingles
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All child&enNs e&l* linguistic c"(petence is ite(2#sed: child&en e&l* uttences
"&gniLed &"und c"nc&ete nd p&ticul& w"&ds nd ph&ses+ n"t s*ste(ic wide
s*ntctic cteg"&ies "& sche(s.
2 Ntu&listic nd E4pe&i(entl studies suggest
/"ung child&en &e p&"ducti'e with thei& e&l* lnguge "nl* in li(ited
w*s.
-*p"thesis: child&enNs e&liest lnguge #sed "n the speci)ic linguistic
ite(s nd e4p&essi"ns the* c"(p&ehend nd p&"duced.
1
st
+ child&en t&* t" &ep&"duce dultNs lnguge )"& the s(e
c"((unicti'e )uncti"n.
,
nd
+ child&en )ind ptte&ns in the lnguge the* &e he&ing nd )"&(
#st&ct cteg"&ies nd sche(s $n"t Cuite cle& h"w%
F
&d
+ child&en c"(#ine linguistic $c"nc&ete nd #st&ct% c"nst&ucti"ns
c&eti'el*+ c&eting c"(ple4 st&uctu&es.
Ghen d" child&en (ste& the s!ills needed t" use lngugeI
Ght d"es it (en t" le&n lngugeI
Gh* stud*ing L, cCuisiti"nI
.ese&che&s &e inte&ested in
2 Unde&stnding h"w lnguge is &ep&esented in the (ind i) n* di))e&ence
#etween lnguge cCuisiti"n nd cCuisiti"n ") "the& in)"&(ti"n.
2 Unde&stnding h"w lnguge &e le&nt ("&e ))ecti'e teching
2 >n"wledge ") L, cCuisiti"n help educti"nl p"lic* (!e&s
2 .elistic p&"g&((es )"&:
F"&eign lnguge c"u&ses
Le&ning (:"&it* lnguge #* (in"&it* lnguge child&en nd dults.
Stud*ing le&ne&s i((e&sed in n L, )"& s"(e ti(e unde&stnding the ntu&e ") L,
cCuisiti"n
2 '&i#les (* dete&(ine the le'el ") ulti(te ttin(ent
2 Ulti(te ttin(ent: the "utc"(e "& end p"int ") cCuisiti"n
2 Ulti(te: n"t s*n"n*("us with <nti'e2li!e=. Dut nti'e2li!eness: "ne "utc"(e
") L, cCuisiti"n
[Link] OF L,
Deh'i"&is( $S!inne&%
Uni'e&sl G&((& $Ch"(s!*%
B"nit"& The"&* $>&shen% su#the"&*
Output h*p"thesis $Swin%
Inte&cti"n -*p"thesis $L"ng%
Inte&lnguge the"&* $Selin!e&%
1. Deh'i"u&is(
Fi&st hl) ,;
th
C.: Deh'i"u&is( ws i(p"&tnt in ps*ch"l"g* nd educti"n
C"nseCuentl*: d"(inting the"&ies ") L, teching nd le&nig
Ch"(s!* c(e in 185; t" c&iticiLe this.
Bin ide: ll le&ning "ccu&s th&"ugh i(itti"n+ p&ctice+ &ein)"&ce(ent nd
h#it )"&(ti"n.
Ghen le&ne&s c"&&ectl* p&ctice lnguge tht pp&"4i(tes the input nd
&ecei'e p"siti'e &ein)"&ce(ent: h#its )"&(ed $s!inne&+ 1871%
C&iticised #* Ch"(s!*: child&enNs c&eti'it*+ n"t i(itti"n
8 P&")es"&: Nu&i Cl'"
Ling?@stic plicd l lengu ingles
,A Estudi"s ingleses
.ecentl*: s"(e p&inciples ") #eh'i"u&is( &e2su&)ced.
One ide is tht )i&st lnguge h#its l&ed* est#lished w"uld inte&)e&e with
)"&(ti"n ") h#its in L,
The c"nt&sti'e nl*sis h*p"thesis $CA-%: the &"le ") the L1 in L, le&ning%
Ghe&e di))e&ences 0 p&"#le(s
Ghen tested: )ilu&e t" p&edict e&&"&s nd p&edicti"n ") s"(e e&&"&s tht did n"t
"ccu&.
C"nseCuences: &ese&che&s in 1;s nd 3;s 0 'e&* little L1 in)luence in L,
cCuisiti"n.
Lte&: &e2est#lish i(p"&tnce ") L1 in)luence
2 in)luence 0 c"(ple4 nd chnging s the c"(petence ") L, le&ne&s
de'el"ps
Ch"(s!*Ns 'iew "n )i&st lnguge cCuisiti"n:
2 child&en (ust h'e nd innte lnguge )cult*. It ws ")ten Cuesti"ned+ #ut
p"ssi#le )"& L1 cCuisiti"n.
A#"ut L,: ("&e c"nt&"'e&sil
2 The <c&iticl pe&i"d= )"& lnguge cCuisiti"n
2 UG $unit g&((&% n" l"nge& 'il#le )te& pu#e&t*
2 S"+ "lde& L, le&ne&s (ust (!e use ") ("&e gene&l le&ning p&"cesses
2 Once L1 le&nt+ UG is n" l"nge& neut&l nd "pen t" the cCuisiti"n ") n*
lnguge
2 Le&ne&s pe&cei'e L, shped #* the w* thei& L1 &elises these p&inciples. UG
pe&specti'e "n SLA )"cus "n
2 Linguistic c"(petence $wht lnguge use& !n"ws%
BONITO. T-EO./
Sh&ing ssu(pti"ns with UG+ #ut speci)icll* SLA
Bin ide:
Adults 0 tw" independent s*ste(s )"& de'el"ping #ilit* in L,s: su#c"nsci"us lnguge
cCuisiti"n nd c"nsci"us lnguge le&ning
2 These s*ste(s &e inte&&elted: su#c"nsci"us cCuisiti"n ("&e )eed#ch+ "&
n&&"w.
>&shen $181;s% p&"p"sed )i'e h*p"thesis
2 The AcCuisiti"n 0 le&ning h*p"thesis
2 The ("nit"& h*p"thesis
2 The ntu&l "&de& h*p"thesis $e'e&*thing g"es )"ll"wing n "&de&%
2 The input h*p"thesis $*"u need t" &ecei'e input in "&de& t" p&"duce "&
unde&stnd%
2 The ))ecti'e )ilte& h*p"thesis $"u& "wn p&edisp"siti"n t" le&ning%
AcCuisiti"n: su#c"nsci"us p&"cess ") cCui&ing lnguges
Le&ning: c"nsci"us p&"cess ") le&ning.
ACHUISITION 0 [Link]
B"st )und(entl h*p"thesis
Di))e&ence #etween cCuisiti"n nd le&ning
2 cCuisiti"n 0 si(il& t" L1A 0 Le&ne&Ns )"cus: c"((unicting (essges nd
(enings
2 Le&ning: c"nsci"us p&"cess 0 le&ne&Ns ttenti"n: &ules nd )"&(s ") L,
1; P&")es"&: Nu&i Cl'"
Ling?@stic plicd l lengu ingles
,A Estudi"s ingleses
Tw" independent s*ste(s ") L, pe&)"&(nce
2 The cCui&ed s*ste(: su#c"nsci"us p&"cess 0 &eCui&ing (ening)ul inte&cti"n in
TL $t&get lnguge%+ ntu&l c"((unicti"n+ spe!e&s c"ncent&te n"t "n )"&(+
#ut "n c"((unicti'e ct.
2 <The le&ned s*ste(=: )"&(l inst&ucti"n 0 c"nsci"us p&"cess which &esults in
c"nsci"us !n"wledge <#"ut= the lnguge $e.g. g&((& &ules%
2 The le&ned s*ste( is less i(p"&tnt thn <cCuisiti"n= $>&shen%
BONITO. -/POT-ESIS
Sp"ntne"us speech "&igintes in the cCui&ed s*ste(
This h*p"thesis
2 e4plins the &elti"nship #etween cCuisiti"n nd le&ning
2 de)ines the in)luence ") le&ning "n cCuisiti"n
AcCuisiti"n s*ste(: initites utte&nce
Le&ning s*ste(: the <("nit"&= "& the <edit"&=
The <("nit"&=: plns+ edits nd c"&&ects when F c"nditi"ns &e (eet:
2 L, le&ne& hs su))icient ti(e t hisJhe& disp"sl
2 -eJshe )"cuses "n )"&( "& thi!s #"ut c"&&ectness
2 -eJshe !n"ws the &ule.
The &"les ") the ("nit"&:
2 t" c"&&ect de'iti"ns )&"( <n"&(l= speech
2 t" gi'e speech ("&e <p"lished= ppe&nce
Indi'idul '&iti"n ("ng lnguge le&ne&s with &eg&d t" <("nit"&= use:
2 "'e&2use&s: use the <("nit"&= ll the ti(e $int&"'e&t+ pe&)ecti"nists+ lc! ") sel)
c"n)idence%
2 unde&2use&s: p&e)e& n"t t" use thei& c"nsci"us !n"wledge $e4t&"'e&ts%
2 "pti(l2use&s: use the <("nit"&= pp&"p&itel*
[Link] [Link]. -/POT-ESIS
2 Bin ide: L, le&ne&s 0 p&edict#le stges in cCuisiti"n ") linguistic )etu&es
2 Dsed "n &ese&ch )indings
2 S"(e g&((ticl st&uctu&es tend t" #e cCui&ed e&lie& thn "the&s:
O&de& independent "): le&ne&Ns ge. L1 #c!g&"und+ c"nditi"ns ")
e4p"su&e.
Ag&ee(ent #etween indi'idul cCui&e&s n"t lw*s 1;;O in studies
Sttisticll* signi)icnt si(il&ities 0 s" ntu&e "&de& ") lnguge
cCuisiti"n c"n)i&(ed.
INPUT -/POT-ESIS
2 Bin ide: L, le&ning "ccu&s s &esult ") e4p"su&e t" (ening)ul nd '&ied
linguistic input.
2 Input e))ecti'e i):
C"(p&ehensi#le
O))e&ing e4p"su&e t" lnguge ("&e c"(ple4 thn wht hs l&ed* #een
cCui&ed.
2 This h*p"thesis 0 e4plnti"n ") h"w SLA t!e plce
2 Onl* c"nce&ned with <cCuisiti"n= n"t <le&ning=
11 P&")es"&: Nu&i Cl'"
Ling?@stic plicd l lengu ingles
,A Estudi"s ingleses
2 Le&ne&s i(p&"'e nd p&"g&ess l"ng <ntu&l "&de&= when &ecei'ing <input= "ne
step #e*"nd thei& stge ") linguistic c"(petence.
2 N"t ll le&ne&s the s(e le'el t the s(e ti(e+ s"
2 >&shenNs suggesti"ns: ntu&l c"((unicti'e input is the !e* t" designing
s*ll#us ensu&ing ech le&ne& will &ecei'e input tht is pp&"p&ite )"& hisJhe&
stge.
AFFECTIME FILTE. -/POT-ESIS
2 Bin ide: )"& success)ul cCuisiti"n le&ne&s (ust #e ("ti'ted t" le&n L, nd
pe&cepti'e t" c"(p&ehensi#le input.
2 S"(e ))ecti'e '&i#les pl* )cilitti'e in SLA: ("ti'ti"n+ sel) c"n)idence
nd n4iet*.
2 Le&ne&s with:
-igh ("ti'ti"n+ sel) c"n)idence+ g""d sel)2i(ge nd l"w le'el ")
n4iet*: ("&e success)ul
L"w ("ti'ti"n+ l"w sel) c"n)idence nd de#ilitting n4iet*: ))ecti'e
)ilte&+ )"&(ing (entl #l"c!.
2 c"nclusi"n: when )ilte& <up= it i(pedes SLA
2 P"siti'e ))ect 0 necess&*+ #ut n"t su))icient "n its "wn )"& SLA
OUTPUT -/POT-ESIS
2 Swin: i(p"&tnce ") c"(p&ehensi#le input+ #ut insu))icient t" ensu&e nti'e 0
li!e le'els ") g&((ticl ccu&nc*.
2 Bin ide: le&ne&s need t" #e pushed in thei& "utput )"& cCuisiti"n t" "ccu& nd
the* need t" p&"duce the t&get lnguge.
2 ."le ") "utput:
1. <Pushed lnguge use= the need t" p&"duce p&ecise+ c"he&ent nd pp&"p&ite
"utput in the p&"cess ") neg"titi"n (ening enc"u&ges the le&ne& t"
de'el"p the necess&* g&((ticl &es"u&ces.
,. Output p&"'ides the le&ne& with the "pp"&tunit* t" t&* "ut h*p"theses t" see
i) the* w"&!.
F. P&"ducti"n+ s "pp"sed t" c"(p&ehensi"n
(in )"&ce the le&ne&s t" ("'e )&"( se(ntic t" s*ntctic nl*sis
") the input it c"ntins
the t&igge& tht )"&ces le&ne&s t" p* ttenti"n t" the (ens ")
e4p&essi"n.
2 Opp"&tunities t" spe! (*#e n"t su))icient
2 N"t cle& 2 c"nclusi"n
[Link] -/POT-ESIS
2 A l"t ") lnguge le&ning t!es plce th&"ugh s"cil inte&cti"n
P&tl* #ecuse inte&l"cut"&s d:ust thei& speech t" (!e it ("&e
ccessi#le t" le&ne&s
1, P&")es"&: Nu&i Cl'"
Ling?@stic plicd l lengu ingles
,A Estudi"s ingleses
2 N"&(ll* ("di)icti"ns+ d:ust(ents nd si(pli)icti"ns in ll spects ")
lnguge.
O) nti'e spe!e&s when inte&cting with L, le&ne&s
Detween L, le&ne&s
These d:ust(ents ))ect ll &es ") lnguge+ including ph"n"l"g*+
'"c#ul&*+ s*nt4 nd disc"u&se.
2 L"ng $1885%: neg"titi"n ") (ening (* n"t #e en"ugh )"& the success)ul
de'el"p(ent ") L, '"c#ul&*+ ("&ph"l"g* nd s*nt4.
2 L"ngNs inte&cti"n h*p"thesis
Lnguge cCuisiti"n is st&"ngl* )cilitted #* the use ") TL in
inte&ecti"n
In p&ticul&: cCuisiti"n ") '"c#ul&* $l"ng+ 188;%
2 Inte&cti"n )cilittes SLA: c"n'e&sti"nl nd linguistic ("di)icti"ns
"ccu&&ing in disc"u&se p&"'ide le&ne&s with necess&* c"(p&ehensi#le linguistic
input.
2 L"ng $1885% #&"ught t"gethe& tw" (:"& pp&"ches in SLA:
-tch $1813%: i(p"&tnce ") c"n'e&sti"n "n the de'el"p(ent ")
g&((&
>&shenNs $1837% Input -*p"thesis: i(p"&tnce ") linguistic input in the
t&get lnguge $TL%
2 T" s"l'e c"((unicti"n di))iculties #etween nti'e spe!e&s nd n"n2nti'e
spe!e&s: use ") &epetiti"ns+ c"n)i&(ti"n chec!s+ c"(p&ehensi"n chec!s+ "&
cl&i)icti"n &eCuests.
2 Nti'e spe!e&s: n" c"nsci"us ("ti'ti"n t" tech g&((&.
2 Neg"titi"n: when "ne inte&ctnt signls t" the "the& tht s"(ething n"t
unde&st""d. Le&ne&s &ecei'e ("&e nd di))e&ent !inds ") input th&"ugh
neg"tited inte&cti"n 0 ("&e "pp"&tunities )"& "utput.
2 L"ng $1885%: neg"tited inte&cti"n electing negti'e )eed#c! 0 i(p"&tnt )"&
the le&ne& t" see di))e&ences #etween wht cn #e p&"duced nd wht is
necess&* t" p&"duce )"& c"(p&ehensi"n.
2 P&"cess ") neg"tited inte&cti"n:
Inte&cti"n negti'e )eed#c! N"ticing P ("di)icti"n ") "utput.
2 B"st )&eCuent negti'e )eed#c! in inte&cti"n: cl&i)icti"n &eCuests ") &ecsts.
2 E4tensi'el* tested in c"nt&"lled ts!s using l#"&t"&* nd si(ulted clss&""(
settings
[Link] T-EO./
2 Inte&2lnguge $inte&i( lnguge%: e(e&ging linguistic s*ste( de'el"ped #* n
L, le&ne& wh" hs n"t #ec"(e )ull* p&")icient *et #ut is pp&"4i(ting the
t&get lnguge
P&ese&'ing s"(e )etu&es ") thei& L1
O'e&gene&liLing TL &ules in spe!ing "& w&iting the TL
C&eting inn"'ti"ns.
2 Dsed "n le&ne&Ns e4pe&iences with the L, nd cn )"ssiliLe in n* stge
2 Inte&2lnguge &ules shped #*:
1F P&")es"&: Nu&i Cl'"
Ling?@stic plicd l lengu ingles
,A Estudi"s ingleses
L1 t&ns)e&
T&ns)e& ") t&ining
St&tegies ") L, le&ning $e.g si(pli)icti"n%
St&tegies ") L, c"((unicti"n
O'e&gene&liLti"n ") the t&get lnguge ptte&ns
2 Ide: <ps*ch"l"gicl st&uctu&e ltent in the #&in= cti'ted when tte(pting t"
le&n n L,
2 L&&* Selin!e& $181,%
Utte&nces p&"duced #* the le&ne&: di))e&ent )&"( th"se nti'e spe!e&s
w"uld p&"duce in the s(e situti"n
Inte&2lnguge: ("&e "& less t&get 0 li!e when p&"duced in di))e&ent
s"cil c"nte4ts
2 Fi&st used t" desc&i#e the linguistic stge L, le&nes g" th&"ugh while
(este&ing the TL
2 Since then+ l"t "n <inte&lnguge= 0 Di))e&ent pp&"ches
Fct"&s tht in)luence lnguge le&ning:
2 B"ti'ti"n
2 Le&ning st*les
2 Le&ning st&tegies
BOTIMATION
2 >e* '&i#le: with"ut it+ n"thing (uch hppens
2 B"st "the& '&i#les p&esupp"se s"(e ("ti'ti"n
2 B"ti'ti"n cn #e p&"("ted c"nsci"usl*:
E(pl"*ing ce&tin (eth"ds: p"ssi#le t" chnge le&ne&Ns ("ti'ti"n
p"siti'el*
S!ills in ("ti'ting le&ne&s: i(p"&tnt spect ") teche&sN (eth"d"l"g*
T-E SOCIAL NATU.E OF L, BOTIMATION
2 B"ti'ti"n t" le&n L,+ 'e&* di))e&ent )&"( "the& sch""l su#:ects
2 .es"ns:
L,: n"t "nl* le&ning c"((unicti"n c"de+ #ut le&ning sec"nd
cultu&e
2 S" L, ("ti'ti"n: st&"ng s"ci"cultu&l c"(p"nent:
Le&ne&s &eluctnt t" le&n n L, ") cultu&l g&"up t"w&ds which the*
h'e negti'e )eelings
Le&ne&s with p"siti'e ttitudes t"w&ds lnguge c"((unit* (*
inc&ese thei& ("ti'ti"n
BOTIMATION AS A D/NABIC [Link]
2 L, ("ti'ti"n in c"ntinu"us p&"cess ") chnge
2 DQ&n*ei $,;;1% est#lishes th&ee phses:
B"ti'ti"n needs t" #e gene&ted $ch"ice ("ti'ti"n%
19 P&")es"&: Nu&i Cl'"
Ling?@stic plicd l lengu ingles
,A Estudi"s ingleses
Gene&ted ("ti'ti"n need t" #e cti'el* (intined nd p&"tected
$e4ecuti'e ("ti'ti"n% 0 p&ticul&l* &ele'nt t" le&ning in clss&""(
settings+ whe&e l"t ") dist&cti"ns.
<B"ti'ti"nl &et&"specti"n=: le&ne&sN &et&"specti'e e'luti"n ") h"w
things went 0 the w* students p&"cess pst e4pe&iences will dete&(ine
the !ind ") cti'ities tht will ("ti'te the( in the )utu&e.
T-E BOST [Link] BOTIMES TO LEA.N AN L,
2 <Ch"ice ("ti'ti"n= i(p"&tnt c"(p"nents
Mlues nd ttitudes t" L,+ L, spe!e&s nd lnguge le&ning in gene&l.
2 E(phsis "n unde&stnding s"ci"cultu&l ntu&e ") L, ("ti'ti"n
2 Th&ee (in c"ncepts:
Integ&ti'e "&ientti"n:
P"siti'e disp"siti"n t" L,
Desi&e t" inte&ct with nd e'en #ec"(e si(il& t" (e(#e&s ")
L, c"((unit*
Inst&u(entl "&ientti"n:
Lnguge le&ning ss"cited with p"tentil p&g(tic gins ")
L, p&")icienc* $e.g. getting #ette& :"# "& highe& sl&*%
LINGUISTIC SELF2CONFIDENCE+ A >E/ FACTO.
2 <E4ecuti'e ("ti'ti"n=: i(p"&tnt spect 0 pe&cei'ed Culit* ") the le&ning
e4pe&ience
2 Schu(nn $1881%: hu(n pp&ise the sti(uli the* &ecei'e )&"( thei&
en'i&"n(ent l"ng )i'e di(ensi"ns:
N"'elt* 0 deg&ee ") une4pectednessJ )(ili&it*
Plesntness 0 tt&cti'eness
G"l "& need signi)icnce 0 whethe& the sti(ulus is inst&u(entl in
stis)*ing needs "& chie'ing g"ls.
C"ping p"tentil 0 whethe& the indi'idul e4pects t" #e #le t" c"pe with
the e'ent
Sel) nd s"cil i(ge 0 whethe& the e'ent is c"(pti#le with s"cil
n"&(s nd the indi'idulNs sel)2c"ncept
2 Teche&Ns ("ti'ti"nl in)luence: c&ucil
Thei& pe&s"nl ch&cte&istics
Thei& &elti"nship with the students
Speci)ic w*s the* ("del ("ti'ti"nl 'lues
2 P&ents: ls" i(p"&tnt
M&i"us )(il* ch&cte&istics nd p&ctices: lin!ed with sch""l
chie'e(ent.
17 P&")es"&: Nu&i Cl'"
Ling?@stic plicd l lengu ingles
,A Estudi"s ingleses
2 <B"ti'ti"nl &et&"specti"n=: '&i"us ch&cte&istics in)luence le&ne&sN "'e&ll
i(p&essi"ns #"ut the pst.
2 Feed#c!+ P&ise nd G&des &ecei'ed: ("st signi)icnt dete&(innts ") thei&
)inl sel)2e'luti"n. Dut: c&e)ul with g&des: getting g""d g&des cn #ec"(e
("&e i(p"&tnt thn le&ning.
B"ti'ti"n le&ne&s 0 -"wI
B"ti'ti"n &ese&ch cn help teche&s
2 -"wI P&"'iding p&cticl ("ti'ti"nl tecCniCues tht teche&s cn ppl*
DQ&(*ei identi)ies )"u& spects ") ("ti'ti"nl teching p&ctice:
2 C&eting #sic ("ti'ti"n c"nditi"ns:
Plesnt clss&""( t("sphe&e
2 Gene&ting initil student ("ti'ti"n
Enhncing le&ne&Ns 'lues nd ttitudes
B!ing teching (te&ils &ele'nt t" students
C&eting &elistic le&ne& #elie)s
2 Bintining nd p&"tecting ("ti'ti"n
B!ing le&ning sti(ulting
Setting speci)ic le&ne&Ns g"ls
P&esenting ts!s in ("ti'ti"nl w*
2 Enc"u&ging p"siti'e &et&"specti'e sel)2e'luti"n
P&"'iding ("ti'ti"nl )eed#c!
Inc&esing le&ne& stis)cti"n
O))e&ing &ew&ds nd g&des in ("ti'ting (nne&
Le&ning St*les
Di))e&ent le&ne&s P di))e&ent pp&"ch
2 Le&ning st*les see( t" #e &elti'el* st#le
C"nseCuence: teche&s (* n"t h'e (uch di&ect in)luence $unli!e with
("ti'ti"n%
2 Dut: teche&s cn ("di)* ts!s t" #&ing the #est "ut ") p&ticul& le&ning st*le
p&e)e&ences
Le&ne& St&tegies
2 Le&ning nd using L, 0 le&ne&s (* use st&tegies t" i(p&"'e pe&)"&(nce
Lnguge le&ning st&tegies 0 c"nsci"us+ se(ic"nsci"us th"ughts nd #eh'i"u&s
used t" i(p&"'e thei& !n"wledge nd unde&stnding ") TL
2 Lnguge use st&tegies 0 st&tegies )"& using TL+ including )"u& su#2sets ")
st&tegies
.et&ie'l st&tegies 0 used t" cll up lnguge (te&il )&"( st"&ge
.ehe&sl st&tegies 0 )"& p&ctising TL st&uctu&es
C"((unicti"n st&tegies 0 used t" c"n'e* (essge tht is #"th
(ening)ul nd in)"&(ti'e )"& the listene& "& &ede&
15 P&")es"&: Nu&i Cl'"
Ling?@stic plicd l lengu ingles
,A Estudi"s ingleses
C"'e& st&tegies 0 )"& c&eting n ppe&nce ") lnguge #ilit* s" s
n"t t" l""! unp&ep&ed+ )""lish "& e'en stupid.
2 Sel)2("ti'ting st&tegies 0 new &e: le&ne&Ns sel)2("ti'ting cpcit* is !e*
t" success
Sel)2("ti'ting St&tegies
E'en unde& d'e&se c"nditi"ns $e.g. clss&""(+ n" teche& ssistnce% s"(e le&ne&s &e
("&e success)ul thn "the&s.
These students use sel)2(nge(ent s!ills t" "'e&c"(e en'i&"n(entl dist&cti"ns "&
ph*sicl needsJsttes: the* ("ti'te the(sel'es.
E))ect "n the students:
2 .ising le&ne&Ns w&eness ") sel)2("ti'ti"n st&tegies
2 D&wing ttenti"n t" speci)ic st&tegies )"& gi'en situti"ns
Pedg"gicl i(plicti"ns
2 Steps teche&s t!e t" (!e thei& inst&ucti"n st*le nd st&tegies 0 #sed+ t"
("ti'te le&ne&s:
.is le&ne& w&eness #"ut le&ning st*le p&e)e&ences nd lnguge
le&ne& st&tegies t #eginning.
Find "ut st*les le&ne&s )'"u& nd st&tegies the* use.
P&"'ide guided e4e&cises "& e4pe&iences t" help students put st&tegies
int" p&ctice
Enc"u&ge students t" enhnce thei& cu&&ent st&teg* &epe&t"i&e
Enc"u&ge students t" use st&tegies e'en when t!ing &is!s
-ighliht c&"ss2cultu&l di)e&ences in h"w st&tegies (ight #e e(pl"*ed
As! students t" sh&e in)"&(ti"n #"ut le&ning st*le p&e)e&ences nd
st&tegies the* h'e gene&ted "& )"und p&ticul&l* use)ul.
[Link]
Int&"ducti"n. Bin p"ints ") inte&est
2 P&g(tics: stud* ") (ening #* 'i&tue ")+ "& dependent "n+ the use ") lnguge
2 T&diti"nll* )i'e (in &es:
Dei4is: c"nte4tul in)"&(ti"n &eCui&ed t" unde&stnd $he+ this%
C"n'e&sti"nl i(plictu&e: #sed "n dd&esseeNs ssu(pti"n tht
spe!e& )"ll"ws c"n'e&sti"nl (4i(s "& c""pe&ti'e p&inciple
P&esupp"siti"n: ssu(pti"n #"ut the w"&ld "& #c!g&"und
Speech cts: ct spe!e& pe&)"&(s in utte&nce $pe&(issi"n+ "))e&ing
in'itti"n+ c"((nd%
C"n'e&sti"nl st&uctu&e: h"w c"n'e&sti"n is "&gnised.
Ght is p&g(tics #"utI
2 P&g(tics c"nce&ned:
11 P&")es"&: Nu&i Cl'"
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N"t with lnguge pe& se
Dut with inte&&elti"nship #etween lnguge )"&(+ (essges nd lguge
use&s
2 P&g(tics: the stud* ") the (ening tht linguistic e4p&essi"ns &ecei'e in use
2 1
st
ts! ") p&g(tics: e4plin h"w p&ticipnts in dil"gue ("'e )&"(
dec"nte4tuliLed (ening ") w"&ds t" (ening in c"nte4t
Gh* stud*ing p&g(ticsI
2 T" #e #le t" c"((unicte nd p&"duce "utput p&"pe&l* nd nti'e li!e in L, in
n* c"nte4t "& situti"n
2 T" #e #le t" unde&stnd #"th w&itten nd sp"!en te4ts
The i(p"&tnce ") c"nte4t
2 C"nte4t pl*s (:"& &"le in c"((unicti"n p&"cess
2 Students (ust le&n i(p"&tnce ") c"nte4t when le&ning L,
2 In s"cil p&g(tics+ )"ll"wing )etu&es ") the situti"nl c"nte4t 0 c&ucil "n
pe"pleNs use ") lnguge:
The p&ticipnts: &"les+ p"we& di))e&entil+ distnce "& cl"seness
The (essge c"ntent: h"w c"stl* "& #ene)icil the (essge is t" he&e&
nd spe!e&+ h"w it ))ects the &elti"nship
The c"((unicti'e cti'it* $:"# inte&'iew+ (edicl c"nsultti"n% h"w
n"&(s in)luence lnguge #eh'i"u& such s &ight t" tl! "& s! Cuesti"ns
AcCuisiti"n ") L, p&g(tics
2 -"w d"es L, p&g(tic c"(petence de'el"pI
2 Besu&e(ent: lc! ") c"(("n (ens t" (esu&e p&g(tic de'el"p(ent
2 De'el"p(ent:
N"t cle& i) ntu&l de'el"p(ent
I(p"&tnt t" nl*se i) n* in)luence ") L1 in L, p&g(tics nd the
i(p"&tnce ") chun! le&ning.
P&g(tic t&ns)e&
2 P.T is p"ssi#le
This &e ") &ese&ch: c&"ss2cultu&l p&g(tics
B:"&it* ") studies: speech cts c&"ss cultu&es.
I(plicti"ns )"& L, teching nd le&ning ") the "cu&ence ") p"siti'e ndJ"&
negti'e p&g(tic t&ns)e&: 'e&* si(il& t" "the& t*pe ") t&ns)e&
Disc"u&se nl*sis:
13 P&")es"&: Nu&i Cl'"
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Li)e is c"nstnt )l"w ") disc"u&se2lnguge )uncti"ning in "ne ") (n* c"nte4ts tht
t"gethe& (!es up cultu&e.
F"& e4(ple+ "ne d*:
2 St&ts with disc"u&se: g&eeting pe"ple *"u li'e with "& enc"unte& )i&st thing in
the ("u&ning
Listening t" the &di" "& the TM
.eding the ppe& "& s"(ething "n the Inte&net
2 C"ntinues with ("&e disc"u&se
Discussing plns t #usiness (eeting
G&iting n unde&g&dute ess* in the li#&&*
O&de&ing )""d )"& lunch
2 T"w&ds the end ") the d*:
Ending *"u& d* c"n'e&sting with *"u& )(il*
Disc"u&se nd pplied linguistics
Lnguge le&ne&s h'e t" le&n n"t "nl* the lnguge+ #ut ls" h"w t" engge in
disc"u&se+ "ne ") the ("st i(p"&tnt g"ls in SL,
Gh* stud* ") disc"u&seI
Decuse itNs cent&l t" c"nce&ns ") pplied linguistics
C"&pus linguitics h'e c"nt&i#uted l"t t" the stud* ") disc"u&se #ecuse it p&"'ides
e4(plesJ(te&ils t" nl*se.
Disc"u&se nl*sis: is the stud* ") te4ts+ #"th sp"!en $"& te4t linguistics% nd w&itten ")
n* length.
The &"le ") disc"u&se nl*st
Disc"u&se nl*st: lw*s l""! t &el te4ts #ecuse stud* l"nge& pssges ") te4ts
$is ("&e li!el* t" )ind ("&e in)"&(ti"n%. G"&! with <utte&nces= 0 SeCuences ")
w"&ds w&itten "& sp"!en in speci)ic c"nte4ts
Disc"u&se nl*st )"cus "n:
2 The p&ticipnts+ thei& &elti"nship+ thei& g"ls+ thei& di))e&ences in p"we& nd
!n"wledge
2 The (ening ") pieces ") lnguge in p&ticul& c"nte4ts+ h"w we inte&p&et the
te4ts+ the clues su&&"unding the te4t tht en#le us t" unde&stnd the te4t
Disc"u&se nl*sis en#les linguists t":
2 Anl*se nd unde&stnd &el dt:
Te4ts w&itten #* L1 nd L, le&ne&s
.ec"&dings ") sp"!en "utput ") L, le&ne&s
2 Unde&stnd #ette& the !inds tht lnguge le&ne&s &e e4p"sed t" "utside the
clss&""(
In sh"ps+ #&s+ &estu&nts
The lnguge ") newsppe&s+ e'e&*d* c"n'e&sti"n
2 E'lute c"u&se #""!
-"w cl"sel* the pp&"4i(te uthentic lngugeI
Ght needs t" #e ("di)ied when uthentic te4ts used in the clss&""(I
18 P&")es"&: Nu&i Cl'"
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Di))e&ent t*pes ") te4ts
2 G&itten 's. Sp"!en
2 F"&(l 's. In)"&(l
Sp"!en )"&(l: p"liticl speech+ :"# inte&'iew+ lectu&e+ legl (tte&s+
(edicl c"nsultti"n
Sp"!en in)"&(l: n* c"n'e&sti"n+ lette&s+ p"stc&ds+ (essges+ e(ils
IBPLICATIONS FO. LANGUAGE TEAC-ING I2II
2 Disc"u&se nl*sis en#les lnguge p&ctiti"ne&s t" ("&e p&ecisel* design
s*ll#uses nd (te&ils. -elp teche&s+ pu#licists+ edit"&s t" p&ep&e #ette&
(te&ils.
2 Ghen ("delling di))e&ent t*pes ") w&iting $cde(ic ppe&+ #usiness lette&%+
disc"u&se nl*sis cn help teche&s t" e4plin )etu&es ") te4t t*pes ss"cited
with th"se t*pes ") w&iting
2 Aw&eness ") teche& 0 student inte&cti"n: disc"u&se nl*sis cn help teche&s
c"nside& thei& "wn inte&cti"n p&ctices in ("&e s*ste(tic (nne&.
2 Teche&s cn e'lute #ette& thei& "wn le&ne&sN pe&)"&(nce in clss&""( ts!s
$pi& w"&! nd g&"up w"&!% leding is #ette& clss&""( ts! desing.
2 C"n'e&sti"n nl*sis sh"ws tht e'e&*d* tl! $itNs n"t sp"ntne"us+ n"t
dis"&gnited 0 "&gnised in ce&tin w*%
This "))e&s the p"ssi#ilit* ") s*ste(tic teching ") (&!e&s nd
c"(("n d:cenc* pi&s $h"w &e *"uI Gell+ thn! *"u%
2 Disc"u&se nl*sis p&"'ides desc&ipti'e in)"&(ti"n )"& g&((&ins nd
le4ic"g&phe&s t" p&"duce ("&e t&ue t" li)e desc&ipti"ns nd guidelines )"& the
use ") lnguge.
CALL $C"(pute& Assisted Lnguge Le&ning%
De)initi"n
2 The &ese&ch )"& nd stud* ") pplicti"ns ") the c"(pute& in lnguge teching
"& le&ning. $Le'*+ 1881% $c"(pute& in gene&l sense+ n"t inte&net%
2 T" i(p&"'e the le&ning cpcit* ") th"se wh" &e #eing t"ught lnguge
th&"ugh c"(pute&iLed (ens $C(e&"n 1888%
2 Le&ne&s design nd e4ecute thei& "wn c"(pute& 0 #sed cti'ities $s"(eti(es
the student is #ette& thn the teche&%
E&l* hist"&*
2 Stn)"&d Uni'e&sit* $185;% 0 help students le&n Sl'ic Lnguges
2 Illin"is Uni'esit*: p&"g&((ed l"gic )"& ut"(ted teching "pe&ti"ns
$PLATO%: .ussin 0 English t&nslti"n c"u&se
P&"#le(s:
2 -igh c"sts: lc! ") p"pul&it*
A &* ") h"pe:
2 A&&i#l ") <(ic&"c"(pute& #""(= $181;% 0 chepe&
De'el"pe&s nd inst&uct"&s est&ted t" shi)t thei& ttenti"n t" pe&s"nl c"(pute&s
The #egining ") ("de&n CALL $183;%
,; P&")es"&: Nu&i Cl'"
Ling?@stic plicd l lengu ingles
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2 the&e ws chnge when 6"hn Unde&w""d dpted >&shenNs input the"&* t"
design CALL cti'ities
2 Input the"&* tells us tht clss&""( cti'ities sh"uld #e di&ected t" the
unc"nsci"us ("&e thn the c"nsci"us. Le&ning ") &ules. AcCuisiti"n will t!e
plce i) we p&"'ide "u& students with su))icient Cuntities ") c"(p&ehensi#le
input $Unde&w""d+ 1839%
2 P&inciples ") c"((unicti'e CALL &e #sed "n this the"&*: c"((unicti'e
CALL will i( t cCuisiti"n p&ctice &the& thn le&ning p&ctice
2 G&((& will lw*s #e i(plicit &the& thn e4plicit.
T"d* G&((& is n"t "nl* e4plicit+ is ("&e i(plicit #ecuse students p&ctice ls"
g&((& e4e&cises with the help ") c"(pute&s
2 Pe&s"nl c"(pute&s: esie& t" use p&"g&((es li!e <st"&*#"&d= "&
<-*pe&c"&d= in)luentil in 183;s
2 Single cti'ities: si(ulti"n+ te4t &ec"nst&ucti"n+ gp )illing+ speed2&eding nd
'"c#ul&* g(es.
2 C&itics Cuesti"ned e))ecti'eness nd suggested deepe& e4(inti"n ") CALL
cti'ities nd (te&ils.
The 188;s
2 .ec"gniti"n ") the i(p"&tnce ") inte&cti"n nd "the& )ct"&s &elted t"
selecti"n ") pedg"gicl (te&ils: &ec"nside& &elti"nship #etween the"&* 0
#sed L, pedg"g* nd CALL
2 .ese&ch "n pedg"gicl ts!s in L, clss&""(s
2 Teche&s #egn t" use netw"&!ed c"(pute&s
2 Bid2decde: e4pl"si'e g&"wth ") the Inte&net CALL educt"&s d"pt s"ci"2
c"ll#"&ti'e ("des ") le&ning.
.ecentl*
2 Inte&net usge:
N"t "nl* g&ete& ccess t" &es"u&ces
Dut ls" ("ti'ti"n )"& de'el"pe&s t" c&ete s"phisticted (te&ils tht
will tt&ct students.
Designing CALL cti'ities
2 Aspects t" t!e int" cc"unt
Ts! g"ls 0 wht intended t" chie'e with the speci)ic CALL cti'it*
Le&ne&Ns cti'it* 0 h"w the le&ne&s &e g"ing t" c&&* "ut the cti'it*
Speci)ics ") s")tw&e design 0 wht )etu&es the p&"g&((e hs i) it is
)&iendl*2use& nd s" "n.
Nu(#e& ") le&ne&s 0 depending "n the nu(#e& the t*pe ") cti'it* will
'&*
."le ") le&ne&s 0 h"w the* &e g"ing t" inte&ct with the p&"g&((e
T"d* pp&"p&ite CALL cn #e de)ined #*:
2 Lnguge le&ning p"tentil
2 Le&ne& )it
,1 P&")es"&: Nu&i Cl'"
Ling?@stic plicd l lengu ingles
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2 Bening )"cus
2 Authenticit*
2 P"siti'e i(pct
2 P&cticlit*
The &"le ") c"(pute&s
2 Deli'e&ing (te&ils
A l"t ") &el thn!s t" the Inte&net
2 C&eting elect&"nic (te&ils
Di))e&ent pp&"ches
2 -elping students with specil needs
E.g. sc&een &ede&s+ D&ille de'ices "& "the& ssisti'e techn"l"gies
The &"le ") students
2 The #eginning: SS $students% dependent "n p&"g&((es )"& g&((& nd
'"c#ul&*
2 Lte&: SS independent &elti"nships with the c"(pute&+ s p&"g&ess
2 B"&e &ecentl*:
SS e4pected t" w"&! c"ll#"&ti'el* nd utilise the c"(pute& s
<t""l#"4= )"& g&"up p&":ect w"&!
SS &e ("&e )(ili& with c"(pute&s: ("&e speci)ic ts!s
Aspects t" p* ttenti"n t"
2 SS #eh'i"u& &eg&ding "nline &eding+ listening+ spe!ing nd w&iting+
p&ticul&l* c"(p&ehensi"n ") L, (ulti(edi.
2 Speech: SS cn inte&ct with the c"(pute&
2 G&iting: SS p&"duce l"nge& pieces ") w&iting nd &e ("&e p"siti'e #"ut
w&iting when using c"(pute&s
2 SS need s"(e s!ills #e)"&e engging in c"(pute&2ssisted cti'ities+ lc! ")
th"se s!ills (* disc"u&ge p&ticipti"n.
The &"le ") inst&uct"&s
2 C"(pute&s h'e chnged
The w* (te&ils &e designed
The c"nducti"n ") ssess(ent
2 In the pst:
Teche& ws the (edit"& #etween the c"(pute& nd students
2 N"wd*s:
Teche&s: less int&usi'e &"le
The c"(pute& #ec(e n cti'e p&tne& &the& thn pssi'e ssistnt
2 S"(e inst&uct"&s:
.eluctnt t" use these new techn"l"gies in thei& clss&""(s
2 G""d students le'els ") c"(pute& lite&c* will enc"u&ge inst&uct"&s
-ISTO./ OF [Link] LINGUISTICS
2 Lnguge c"&p"& lw*s indispens#le in stud*ing ded lnguges+ unw&itten
lnguges nd dilects+ child lnguge cCuisiti"n nd le4ic"g&ph*
2 E'en with"ut c"(pute&s+ c"&pus linguistics (n* *e&s g".
,, P&")es"&: Nu&i Cl'"
Ling?@stic plicd l lengu ingles
,A Estudi"s ingleses
2 De)"&e c"(pute&s+ (n* e(pi&icl linguists did wht we cll n"w c"&pus
linguistics
2 E&l* c"nc"&dnces ") te4ts such s the Di#le "& Sh!espe&eNs w"&!s
2 T" p&"duce c"(p&ehensi'e dicti"n&ies: )&"( D&. 6"hns"nNs $1177% "nw&ds+
le4ic"g&phe&s h'e used Cu"tti"ns t" illust&te the uses nd (enings ")
w"&ds.
2 Detween 138;s nd 187;s i(p&essi'e Cuntitti'e c"&pus nl*ses.
C"&pus linguistics t"d*
2 P&"cess ") c&eting w&itten t&nsc&ipts ") sp"!en lnguge: ti(e2c"nsu(ing
2 E'en c"llecti"n ") w&itten te4ts is di))icult. E.g. when c&eting c"&pus ")
pe&s"nl lette&s+ the &ese&che& (ust decide #"ut spelling c"n'enti"ns nd
e&&"&s
2 Alth"ugh l"t ") c"&p"& 'il#le+ &ese&che&s e4pl"&ing speci)ic spect "&
pe&i"d will need new c"&pus
2 T" #uild c"&pus: ensu&e &ep&esentti'eness nd #lnce
2 The linguistic )etu&es "& &ese&ch Cuesti"ns #eing in'estigted will shpe the
c"llecti"n ") te4ts used in c&eting the c"&pus
2 Use ") c"(pute&s )"& nl*se: i(pe&ti'e
Tw" gene&l t*pes ") c"&p"&
1. S(ll )i&st gene&ti"n c"&p"& 185;s nd (uch l&ge& c"&p"& in 188;s
,. C&e)ull* designed &e)e&ences c"&p"&+ s(ll nd l&ge nd "the& specilised
c"&p"&+ &chi'es.
G&"up 1 0 $C(pus 'i&tul%
P&"#le(s
2 E4pensi'e
2 S":
N"t (n* li!el* t" #e c"(piled in the ne& )utu&e
B"&e li!el* s(ll specilised c"&p"&+ designed #* indi'idul $"& s(ll
g&"up ")% &ese&che&s.
G&"up , 0 $C(pus 'i&tul%
Le&ne&Ns c"&pus
2 A t*pe ") c"&pus #ec"(ing inc&esingl* i(p"&tnt
2 A c"&pus tht includes sp"!en "& w&itten s(ples p&"duced #* n"nnti'e
spe!e&s
2 The ("st well !n"wn e4(ple #eing the Inte&nti"nl C"pus ") Le&ne& English
$ICLE%
C"&p"& linguistics nd pplied linguistics
2 C"&p"& t" e4pl"&e chnges &elted t" lnguge de'el"p(ent+ #"th in L1 nd L,
situti"ns
2 I(pct ") c"&pus linguistics studies "n lnguge teching
A'il#ilit* ") c"&pus )inding nd t""ls )"& e4pl"&ing c"&p"& $("n"l"ne
"& w"&ds(ith t""ls% 0 #ene)it t" the lnguge clss&""(
2 C"&pus2#sed studies help
Decide which lnguge )etu&es nd st&uctu&es &e i(p"&tnt
See h"w '&i"us )etu&es nd st&uctu&es &e used
,F P&")es"&: Nu&i Cl'"
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Using c"&pus2#sed in)"&(ti"n when teching
2 Teche&s cn use c"&pus in)"&(ti"n when teching
2 Le&ne&s cn inte&ct with c"&p"& in tw" w*s
I) c"(pute& )cilities+ e4pl"&ing c"&p"&
In n" )cilities+ teche&s cn #&ing in p&int "uts "& &esults )&"( c"&pus
2 Need )"& clss&""(2#sed &ese&ch nd e4pe&i(entti"n "n the e))ecti'eness ")
e4p"sing lnguge students t" c"&p"&
2 E'idence )&"( c"&pus &ese&ch: #eginning t" h'e p"siti'e i(pct "n the
(te&ils tht we use t" tech lnguge
2 C"&pus linguistics gi'es students nd teche&s #ilit* t" e4pl"&e )"& the(sel'es
the w* tht '&i"us spects ") lnguge &e used
C"&pus linguistics nd Disc"u&se '&iti"n
2 Disc"u&se nl*sts use c"(pute& s")tw&e tht cn nl*se l&ge c"&p"&
2 C"&pus linguists: <l""!ing t lnguge use is #ette& s"u&ce )"& desc&ipti"n thn
nti'e spe!e& intuiti"n=
2 Tw" pp&"ches:
Huntit'e:
L""!s )"& the l&gest c"&pus p"ssi#le
Dt nl*sed c"(putti"nll*
Output: sets ") )igu&es tht tell the disc"u&se nl*sts #"ut the
)&eCuenc* ") "ccu&&ence ") w"&ds+ ph&ses+ c"ll"cti"ns "&
st&uctu&es
These sttistics used t" p&"duce dicti"n&ies+ g&((&s
Hulitti'e:
Th"se sttisticl )cts &ise the Cuesti"n: wh*I
Answe&s )"und in the c"nte4ts ") the te4ts in the c"&pus
Use)ul t" design lnguge teching (te&ils
,9 P&")es"&: Nu&i Cl'"
Ling?@stic plicd l lengu ingles
,A Estudi"s ingleses