Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

Chapter 02
Decision Making and Branching

Lectures allotted: 12
Marks Given: 24

Contents:

2.1 Decision making and branching

if statement (if, if-else, else-if ladder, nested if-else)
2.2 The switch case statement, break statement.
2.3 Decision making and looping
while, do-while statements, for loop, continue statement

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

Decision Making Statements

Many times in the program such conditions occur when we want to

take the exact decisions in order to make an error free program. This kind of
situations can be handled using decision control instructions of C. It includes
if - else statements and the conditional operators. The decision control
structure in C can be implemented using:

a) The if statement
b) The if - else statement
c) Nested if – else
d) The else – if ladder
[Ref. 1a, 2a]
The if Statement

The general form or syntax of if statement looks like this:

if (condition)
{
//execute these statements;
}

Here, the keyword ‘if’ tells the compiler that what follows, is a decision
control instruction. The condition following the keyword if is always enclosed
within a pair of parentheses. If the condition is true, then the statements in
the parenthesis are executed. It the condition is not true then the statement
is not executed instead the program skips this part. The condition in C is
evaluated using C’s relational operators as well as logical operators. These
operators help us to build expression, which are either true or false.
For example:

X == Y X is equal to Y
X != Y X is not equal to Y
X < Y X is less than Y
X > Y X is greater than Y
X <= Y X is less than or equal to Y
X >= Y X is greater than or equal to Y

Demonstration of if statement:

/* Example 2.1 */
#include<stdio.h>
main( )
{
int num;
printf(“Enter a number less than 10 :”);
scanf(“%d”, &num);
if(num < = 10)
printf(“The number is less than 10”);

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

}
Sample output of this program will be:
Enter a number less than 10 : 7
The number is less than 10

Executing this another time:

Enter a number less than 10 : 15

After second statement there will no output because the condition

given in the ‘if’ statement is false. The ‘if’ statements are only executed
when the condition is true.
[Ref. 1b]
Flowchart

true condition

false

Statement-1 Statement-2

Statement-3

See the above flowchart. If the condition is true then statement-1 is

executed else and if false it won’t be executed. Remember, statements2 and
3 are executed always. The ‘condition’ can be the combination of relational
and logical operators also. Such as:

if (i > 1 || j!=5)
{
printf("i = %d “, i );
}
[Ref. 2b]
Multiple Statements within if

If it is desired that more than one statement is to be executed if the

condition following if is satisfied, then such statements must be placed within
pair of braces.
e.g The following program demonstrate that if year of service greater than 3
then a bonus of Rs. 2500 is given to employee. The program illustrates the
multiple statements used within if.

/* Example 2.2 calculation of bonus */

#include<stdio.h>
main( )
{

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

int bonus, cy, yoj, yos;

printf(“Enter current year and year of joining : ”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&cy,&yoj);
yos = cy - yoj;
if(yos > 3)
{
bonus = 2500;
printf(“Bonus = Rs. %d”, bonus);
}
}

Let’s see the output of this program:

Enter current year and year of joining : 2006 2001

Bonus = Rs. 2500

In this program, value of cy and yoj are taken from user i.e. 2006 and
2001. Value of yos will become 5. The condition within ‘if’ will check whether
the value of yos is greater than 3 or not. Here, condition will become true
and the statements followed by if are executed.

The if-else statement [Ref. 1c, 2c]

[Asked in S’07]
The ‘if’ statement by itself will execute a single statement or a group of
statements when the condition following if is true, it does nothing when the
condition is false. If the condition is false then a group of statements can be
executed using ‘else’ statement. Its syntax is as given below:

if(condition)
{
//statements1
}
else
{
//statements2
}

Here, if the condition is true then statements1 are executed else

statements2 are executed. It is demonstrated in following program.
[Ref. 2d]

/* Example 2.3 Calculation of gross salary */

#include<stdio.h>
main( )
{
float bs, gs, da, hra;
printf(“Enter basic salary”);
scanf(“%f”, & bs);
if(bs <1500)
{
hra = bs * 10/100;

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

da = bs * 90/100;
}
else
{
hra = 500;
da = bs * 98/100;
}
gs = bs+hra+da;
printf(“gross salary = Rs. %f”, gs);
}

When, we used if – else statements, either ‘if’ or ‘else’ statement block

will execute depending upon the condition given in the ‘if’ statement. The
‘else’ doesn’t require condition. Execution of ‘else’ block also depends on
if(condition). When it is false program control transfers to ‘else’ block.
[Ref. 1d, 2e]
Flowchart

true condition

false

Statement-1 Statement-2

Statement-3

Note:
1. Statements inside the ‘if’s curly braces are called as ‘if block’ and
statements for else’s curly braces are called as ‘else block’.
2. There is no necessity to have an else for if but, each else must match
an if statement else there will be a compiler error. The error will be
‘Misplaced else’.
3. If there is only one statement inside ‘if’ as well as ‘else’ block, we can
eliminate the curly braces.

Nested if – else [Ref 1e, 2f]

[Asked in S’07, W’07, S’08]
If we write an entire if - else construct within the body of the ‘if’
statement or the body of an ‘else’ statement. This is called ‘nesting’ of if-
else.

Syntax:

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

if(condition)
{
//statements1
if (condition)
{
//statements2
}
else
{
//statements3
}
}
else
//statements4

Here, the inner condition executed only when the outer condition of ‘if’
is true. This hierarchy of nesting of ‘if’ can be extended in deep with any
number of ‘if-else’ statements.

false
condition1

true
Statements-4
Statements-1

false
condition2

true
Statements-3
Statements-2

Observe the following example.

/* Example 2.4 */
#include<stdio.h>
main( )
{
int y;
printf(“Enter year : “);

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

scanf(“%d”, &y);
if(y > 2000)
{
printf(“\n Number is greater than 2000”);
if(y % 4 == 0)
{
printf(“\n This is leap year”);
}
else
printf(“\n This is not leap year”);
}
else
{
printf(“\n Number is less than 2000);
if(y % 4 ==0)
{
printf(“\n This is leap year”);
}
else
printf(“\n This is not leap year”);
}

Output:
Enter year : 1988
Number is less than 2000
This is leap year

When the user enters 1988, first if condition checks whether it is

greater than 2000 or not? Here this condition will become false and control
will transfer to else block. Again if(y % 4==0) inside else block will check
whether it is totally divisible by 4 or not? If it is yes, ‘if block’ will be
executed else ‘else block’ will be executed.

Several forms of if – else [Ref. 2g]

[Asked in S’08]
a) if (condition)
//perform this;

b) if (condition)
{
//perform this;
//as well as this;
}

c) if (condition)
//perform this;
else
//perform this;

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

d) if (condition)
{
//perform this;
//as well as this;
}
else
{
//perform this;
//as well as this;
}
e) if (condition)
{
//if (condition)
//perform this;
}
else
{
//perform this;
//as well as this;
}
f) if (condition)
{
if (condition)
//perform this;
else
//perform this;
}
else
{
if (condition)
//perform this;
else
//perform this;
}
[Ref. 2h]
Using Logical operators

As we have already seen the logical operators. The basic use of these
is related to if – else statement. These conditional operators are:
a) && (AND operator)
b) || (OR operator)
c) ! (NOT operator)
When, we want to specify more than one condition in the single if
statement we can use logical operators among these conditions. Though,
there are two & (and) in the operator it is pronounced as AND and || as OR.
&& Operator is used when there is necessity that both the conditions to be
true. || Operator is used when there is necessity that any one conditions to
be true. e.g.

if (a > 15 && b < 10)

{

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

printf(“Hello”);
}

Here, if value of ‘a’ is greater than 15 as well as value of ‘b’ is less

than 10 then printf(“Hello”); statement will be executed. Else it will perform
the statements after the if block. Similarly, see the example of OR operator.

if (a > 15 || b < 10)

{
printf(“Hello”);
}

Here, if value of ‘a’ is greater than 15 or value of ‘b’ is less than 10

then printf(“Hello”); statement will be executed. Else it will perform the
statements after the ‘if’ block.
Now, let’s focus on the NOT operator (!). This operator reverses the
value of expression it operates on; it makes true expression false and false
expression true. e.g.

! (a > 10)

This means that whether ‘a’ is not greater than 10. In other words, it
can be written as (a <= 10).

The else-if ladder [Ref. 1f, 2i]

[Asked in W’08]
There is another way of putting multiple ‘if’s together when multi-
path decisions are involved. A multipath decisions is a chain of ‘if’s in which
the statement is associated with each else in an ‘if’. It takes the following
general form:
if(condition1)
//statements1;
else if(condition2)
//statements2;
else if(condition3)
//statements3;
else if(condition n)
//statements n;
else
//statements-default;
//statements-x;

This construct is known as else-if ladder. The conditions are evaluated

from top to the bottom of ladder. As soon as true condition is found,
statements associated with it are executed and then program control is
transferred to the ‘statements-x’, skipping the rest of the ladder. When all
the conditions become false, then final else containing default statements
will be executed. This is shown in the following flowchart [Ref 1g].

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

false
condition

true condition false

Statement-1
false
true condition

Statement-2
true

Statement-3

Default
Statements

See the practical example on this.

/* Example 2.5 */
#include<stdio.h>
main( )
{
int a, b, c, d, e, per;
printf(“Enter marks of four subjects : “);
scanf(“%d %d %d %d”, &a, &b, &c, &d);
if(a < 40 || b < 40 || c < 40 || d < 40)
printf(“\n You have failed in one subject”);
per = (a + b + c + d) / 4;
if(per > = 60)
printf(“\n First class”);
else
{
if (per <=59 && per >=55)
printf(“\n Higher second class”);
else
if(per <=54 && per >=40)
printf(“Second class);
else
printf(“\n Fail”);
}
}

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

In this example we have used else – if ladder as well as logical

operators.

if(a < 40 || b < 40 || c < 40 || d < 40)

This statement will check whether marks of any one subjects is less
than 40 or not? If it is, it will execute the statement followed by ‘if’ i.e.

printf(“\n You have failed in one subject”);

Now, see the following statement,

if (per <=59 && per >=55)

Here, if the value of ‘per’ is less than or equal to 59 as well as greater

than or equal to 55 then the statement followed by this will be executed i.e.

printf(“\n Higher second class”);

Else, the control will move to the else block.

The ‘switch’ Statement [Ref. 1h, 2j]

[Asked in W’07, S’08, W’08]
This is another form of the multi-way decision statement. It is well
structured, but can only be used in certain cases. The switch statement tests
value of a given variable (or expression) against the list of case values and
when the match is found, a block of statements associated with that
statements are executed. The general form of switch statement is as follows:

switch(variable)
{
case value-1:
//statements1;
break;
case value-2:
//statements2;
break;
case value-3:
//statements3;
break;
- - - - -
- - - - -
default:
//default-statements;
break;
}
statements-x;

In the above given syntax, value-1, value-2, value-3…. are the set the
constants. When the value of the variable given in the switch brackets is

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

matched with any one of these values, the particular set of statements are
executed and then program control transfers out of the switch block. For
example, if value of variable is matched with ‘value-2’ then statements2 are
executed and the break statement transfers the program control out of the
switch. If the match is not found, the ‘default’ block is executed. Remember,
statements-x are executed in any case. Generally, switch case are executed
for menu selection problems.

For example:
/* Example 2.6 */
int number = 2;
switch(number)
{
case 0 :
printf("None\n");
break;
case 1 :
printf("One\n");
break;
case 2 :
printf("Two\n");
break;
case 5 :
printf("Several\n");
break;
default :
printf("Many\n");
break;
}

Here, the output of this program will be:- Two

Flowchart: there are two ways in which a switch flowchart can be drawn.

Variable
Value1 default
Value2

Stmt-1 Stmt-2 last

Next Statement

OR

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

Variable

Value1
Statements1
Value2
Statements2

Value3
Statements3

default
default-block

Statements-x

[Ref. 1i]

[Ref. 1j]
Rules of switch statement

ƒ The switch variable must be an integer or character type.

ƒ Case labels must be constants of constant expressions.
ƒ Case labels must be unique. No two labels can have the same value.
ƒ Case labels must end with a colon.
ƒ The break statement transfers the program control out of the switch
block. [Asked in W’07]
ƒ The break statement is optional. When the break is not written in any
‘case’ then the statements following the next case are also executed
until the ‘break’ is not found.
ƒ The default case is optional. If present, it will be executed when the
match with any ‘case’ is not found.
ƒ There can be at most one default label.
ƒ The default may be placed any where but generally written at the end.
When placed at end it is not compulsory to write the ‘break’ for it.
ƒ We can nest the switch statements.

Difference between if statement and switch statement

[Asked in S’07]

No. If statement Switch statement

It checks whether the condition is It is multi-way decision
1
true or false statement
It contains the condition which will It contains the variable whose
2
evaluates to true or false value is to be checked

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

It supports all types of conditions It supports checking only integer

3
and character values
Syntax: Syntax:
if(condition) switch(variable)
{ {
//statements case value1:
4 } break;
else case value2:
{ break;
//statements default:
} }

[Ref. 1k, 2k]

The loop control structures

Many times it is necessary to execute several statements repetitively

for certain number of times. In such cases, we can use looping statements of
C programming language. The statements are executed until a condition
given is satisfied. Depending upon the position of the condition in the loop,
the loop control structures are classified as the entry-controlled loop and
exit-controlled loop. They are also called as pre-test and post-test loops
respectively.
[Ref. 1l, 2l]
The ‘while’ loop

The ‘while’ is an entry-controlled loop statement having following

general form:

while(condition)
{
//loop statements or body of loop
}

Here, the condition is evaluated first, if it is true then loop statements

or body of the loop is executed. After this the program control will transfer to
condition again to check whether it is true or false. If true, again loop body is
executed. This process will be continued until the condition becomes false.
When is becomes false, the statements after the loop are executed. This is
also called as pre-test loop.
[Ref. 2m]
Flowchart

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

false
condition

true

Loop body

Statements after
the loop

For example: If we want to print the number from 1 to 30 using a ‘while’

loop, it can be written as:

int num = 1; /* initialize counter */

while(num<=30) /* check the condition */
{ /* start of loop */
printf(“\n%d”,num); /* print the number */
num++; /* increment the counter */
} /* end of loop */

See one more practical example of ‘while’ loop. That is, if we want to
find the addition of all the numbers from 10 to 20. It can be written as:

int x = 10, sum = 0; /* initialize variables */

while(x <=20) /* check the condition */
{ /* start of the loop */
sum = sum + x; /* add the values */
x++; /* increment counter */
} /* end of the loop */
printf(“\nAddition is : %d”,sum); /* print addition */

The do-while loop [Ref. 1m, 2n]

[Asked in W’08]
This is exit-controlled loop statement in which the condition of the
loop statement is written at the end of the loop. It takes the following
general form:

do
{
//loop statements or loop body
}
while(condition);

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

Here, when the program control is reached at do statement the loop

body or the statements inside the loop are executed first. Then at the end
the condition is the ‘while’ is checked. If it is true, then program control
again transfers to execute the loop statements. This process continues until
the condition becomes false. In short, we can say that the loop statements
are executed at least once without checking condition for its trueness.
[Ref. 2o]
Flowchart

Loop body

true
condition

false
Statements after
the loop

This loop is also referred as post-test loop structure. Consider the

same examples used above: If we want to print the number from 1 to 30
using a ‘do-while’ loop, it can be written as:

int num = 1; /* initialize counter */

do /* do-statement */
{ /* start of loop */
printf(“\n%d”,num); /* print the number */
num++; /* increment the counter */
} /* end of loop */
while(num<=30); /* condition */

See one more practical example of ‘do-while’ loop. That is, if we want
to find the addition of all the numbers from 10 to 20. It can be written as:

int x = 10, sum = 0; /* initialize variables */

do /* do-statement */
{ /* start of the loop */
sum = sum + x; /* add the values */
x++; /* increment counter */
} /* end of the loop */
while(x <=20); /* check the condition */
printf(“\nAddition is : %d”,sum); /* print addition */

Depending upon the problem statement given we can use either

‘while’ or ‘do-while’ loop statements.

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

Difference between ‘while’ and ‘do-while’

[Asked in S’07, W’07, S’08, W’08]

No. ‘while’ loop ‘do-while’ loop

It checks the condition at the It checks the condition at the end
1
start of the loop of the loop
This is of type entry controlled This is of type exit controlled loop
2
loop structure structure
The while loop is called as pre- The do-while loop is called as
3
test loop post-test loop
It is not guaranteed that how The loop body will be executed at
4 many times the loop body will get least once.
executed
Syntax: Syntax:
while(condition) do
5 { {
//loop body //loop body
} }while(condition);

[Ref. 1n, 2p]

The ‘for’ loop

The ‘for loop is an entry controlled loop structure which provides more
concise loop structure having following general form:

for(initialization ; condition ; increment/decrement)

{
//loop statements or loop body
}

The execution of ‘for’ loop statement takes as follows:

1. Initialization of loop control variables is done first using assignment
operators such as: i = 1 or count = 0 etc. Remember this part is
executed only once.
2. The condition given afterwards is checked then. If this condition is
true, the statements inside the loop are executed. Else program
control will get transferred nest statement after the loop. The
condition can be combination of relational as well as logical operators
such as:
count < 10
3. When the body of the loop is executed, program control will get
transferred back to ‘for’ statement for executing the third statement
that is, ‘increment/decrement’. In this part the loop control variable’s
value is incremented or decremented. Then program controls the
condition again to check whether it is true or not. If true, the loop
body executed again. And the process is continued again until the
condition evaluates to false.

Consider the following code of the program:

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

int x;
for(x = 0; x < 10; x++)
{
printf(“%d”, x);
}

This for loop is executed for 10 times and prints the 0 to 9 digits in one
line. In short the statements are executed in following sequence:

1. x = 0;
2. if(x<10)
print value of x on screen
3. increment value of x by one
4. if(x<10)
print value of x on screen
5. increment value of x by one
……….
When the condition becomes false, the loop gets terminated.

For example if we want to print all the even numbers from 1 to 25 it can be
written using ‘for’ loop as:

int i;
for(i = 1;i < 25; i++)
{
if(i%2 == 0)
printf(“\n%d”, i);
}

The flowchart [Ref. 2q] of for loop can be shown as below:

Initialization

false
condition

true
Increment/
decrement Loop body

Statements after
the loop

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

Program to find the factorial of the number using ‘for’ loop

/* Example 2.7 */
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int fact, num;
printf("Enter the number: ");
scanf("%d", &num);
for(fact=1 ; num>0 ; num--)
fact = fact * num;
printf("Factorial: %d", fact);
}

[Ref. 1o]
Additional features of ‘for’ loop

The ‘for’ loop have lot of capabilities that are not easily found in other
loop constructs. These are listed below:
a. More than one variable can be initialized at a time in the ‘for’ statement.
For example:

p = 1;
for(n = 0;n<10;n++)

can be re-written as–

for(p=1,n=0;n<10;n++)

b. Like initialization section, the increment section can also contain more
than one increment or decrement statements.
For example:

for(n=1, m=50 ; n<=0 ; n++, m––)

c. The condition may have any compound relation and the testing need not
be only loop control variable such as–

sum=0;
for(i=1; i<20 && sum<100; i++)
{
sum = sum + i;
}

d. It is also permissible to use expressions in initialization and increment/

decrement sections such as–

for(x= (m+n)/2; x>0; x= x/2)

e. One or more sections can be omitted, if necessary. Such as–

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

m = 5;
for( ; m!=100 ; )
{
printf(“%d\n”, m);
m = m + 5;
}

f. Giving a semicolon at the end of ‘for’ will not give any syntactical error
but, all the iterations of the loop will be taken place. (Note: iteration is
one execution of the loop). Such as–

for(i=0;i<100;i++);

This loop will be executed for 100 times without any output.
[Ref. 1p, 2r]
Nesting of the loops

Nesting of the loop statements is allowed in C programming language.

That is, we can write a ‘for’ loop inside another ‘for’ loop or any other loop in
another loop statement. It can be written as follows:

for(i = 0 ; i < 10 ; i++)

{
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
for(j = 0 ; j < 10 ; j++)
{
. . . . . . inner outer
. . . . . . loop loop
}
. . . . . .
}

The nesting may be continued up to any desired level. Here, for each
iteration of outer loop inner loop completes its all iterations. In above
example, the inner loop statements will be executed for 10 X 10 = 100
number of times. See one application of this concept. For example we
require following output:
*
**
***
****
In this case, the loops must be nested as shown below:

/* Example 2.8 */
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int x,y;
for(x = 0 ; x <= 3 ; x++)

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

{
for( y = 0 ; y <= x ; y++)
printf("*");
printf("\n");
}
}

[Ref. 1q]
Jumps in the loop

The break statement [Ref. 1r, 2s]

[Asked in W’08]
As we have already seen, the ‘break’ statement is used to exit out of
the switch statement. It is having another useful application in loop control
structures. That is, the ‘break’ statement is used to jump out of the loop.
When the ‘break’ is executed inside the loop, the program control will not
execute the loop for further iterations. Generally, the ‘break’ is associated
with if-statement. General form of using ‘break’ is:

break;

Flowchart

false
condition

true
break;
Loop body

Statements after
the loop

The dotted line shows the path where the program control will transfer.
For example:

/* Example 2.9 */
int x;
for(x = 10;x < 20; x++)
{
if(x%4==0)
break;
printf(“%d\n”);

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

The output of this program will be:

10
11

Because, when value of x becomes 12, the condition will be evaluated

to true and break get executed.

The ‘continue’ statement [Ref. 1s, 2t]

[Asked in S’07, W’07, S’08]
The continue statement is used to continue the next iteration of the
loop by skipping the statements in between. That is, when the ‘continue’ is
executed the statements following is will not be executed, the program
control will directly transfer to next iteration of the loop by increment or
decrement. Generally, the ‘continue’ is associated with if-statement. General
form of using ‘continue’ is–

continue;

Flowchart:

false
condition

Statements after true

continue
Statements before
continue
continue;

Statements after
the loop

The dotted line shows the path where the program control will transfer.
For example:

/* Example 2.10 */
int x;
for(x = 10;x < 20; x++)
{
if(x%4==0)
continue;

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

printf(“%d\n”);
}

The output of this program will be:

10
11
13
14
15
17
18
19

It has skipped the numbers which are divisible by 4, for which we have
skipped the printf statement.

-----------------------

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 Chapter 02 Decision Making and Branching

References

1. Programming in ANSI C
by, E Balagurusamy, Tata McGraw Hill, 4th Edition
a. Chapter 5, Topic 5.2, Page No. 114
b. Chapter 5, Figure 5.2, Page 116
c. Chapter 5, Topic 5.4, Page 119
d. Chapter 5, Figure 5.5, Page 120
e. Chapter 5, Topic 5.5, Page 122
f. Chapter 5, Topic 5.6, Page 126
g. Chapter 5, Figure 5.9, Page 127
h. Chapter 5, Topic 5.7, Page 129
i. Chapter 5, Figure 5.11, Page 131
j. Chapter 5, Page 133
k. Chapter 6, Topic 6.1, Page 152
l. Chapter 6, Topic 6.2, Page 154
m. Chapter 6, Topic 6.3, Page 157
n. Chapter 6, Topic 6.4, Page 159
o. Chapter 6, Page 161
p. Chapter 6, Page 164
q. Chapter 6, Topic 6.5, Page 166
r. Chapter 6, Topic 6.5, Page 167
s. Chapter 6, Page 171

2. Let us C
By, Yashwant Kanetkar, BPB Publications, 7th Edition
a. Chapter 2, Page 51
b. Chapter 2, Page 56
c. Chapter 2, Page 58
d. Chapter 2, Page 59
e. Chapter 2, Figure 2.5, Page 60
f. Chapter 2, Page 61
g. Chapter 2, Page 62
h. Chapter 2, Page 64
i. Chapter 2, Page 67
j. Chapter 4, Page 136
k. Chapter 3, Page 98
l. Chapter 3, Page 99
m. Chapter 3, Figure 3.2, Page 101
n. Chapter 3, Page 121
o. Chapter 3, Figure 3.5, Page 121
p. Chapter 3, Page 108
q. Chapter 3, Figure 3.4, Page 111
r. Chapter 3, Page 114
s. Chapter 3, Page 118
t. Chapter 3, Page 120

[email protected]

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