Part IV: Depositional Environments
A depositional environment is a geomorphic unit in which deposition takes places.
Thus, the study of depositional environment is essentially the study of geomorphology,
i.e. recognition of geomorphic units. Geomorphic units are recognized by features
preserved in ancient sediments.
Principles of environmental interpretation and classification
Facies Analysis
1. Definition: A facies is a body of rock characterized by a particular combination
of lithology, texture, suite of sedimentary structures, fossil content, colour,
geometry, paleocurrent pattern, etc.
2. How is a facies formed? A facies is produced by one or several processes
operating in a depositional environment.
3. Description: Facies are best referred to objectively in purely descriptive terms,
using a few pertinent adjectives; examples could be cross-bedded, coarse
sandstone facies or massive pebbly mudstone facies.
4. Facies association: Groups of facies genetically related to one another and
which have some environmental significance can be designate as a facies
association. The facies comprising an association are generally deposited in
the same broad environment, in which there are several different depositional
processes operating.
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Facies analysis is to identify geomorphic units in which ancient sediments accumulated.
Sedimentary Environment
(Process Element)
Sedimentary Facies
(Response Element)
3
Boggs (2006), p.242
An example on facies classification for fluvial sediments
Facies interpretation is often facilitated by considering the vertical facies
succession. Where there is a conformable vertical succession of facies, with no
major breaks, the facies are the products of environments which were originally
laterally adjacent.
This concept has been appreciated since Johannes Walther expounded his
Law of Facies in 1894. The vertical succession of facies is produced by
the lateral migration of one environment over another (e.g. the
progradation of a delta or tidal flat). Where there are breaks in the
succession, seen as sharp or erosional contacts between facies, then
the facies succession need not reflect laterally adjacent envrionments
but could well be the products of widely separated environments.
Examples of fining-upward and coarsening-upward facies successions
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Boggs (2001), p.260
Fluvial example of a fining-upward sequence
Deltaic example of a coarsening-upward sequence
Progressive facies successions are commonly terminated by bounding
discontinuities of some type which generally characterized by abrupt changes
in lithology across discontinuities or abrupt changes in facies; these might be
erosion surfaces, or surfaces of non-deposition.
Simplified classification of ancient depositional environments
Boggs (2006), p.243
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Boggs (2001), p.261
11
Boggs (2001), p.261
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8. Continental Environments
In the continental environment, most sediment transport is accomplished by flows
that move in response to the gravity field from positions of greater to lesser potential
energy except wind-blown sediment. Where the flow paths of wind flows are
determined by the local barometric gradient rather than the earth's gravity field.
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8.1 Alluvial Fans ()
Alluvial fans are deposits with gross
shapes approximating a segment of a
cone and exhibiting a convex-up
transverse profile.
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Stanistreet & McCarthy (1993)
Boggs (2006), p.246
Debris-flow versus
stream-flow-dominated
alluvial fans
Boggs (2006), p.247
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Typical surface features and cross-sectional profiles of alluvial fans
Spearing (1974)
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8.2 River Systems
straight
meander
braided
Boggs (2001)
Galloway & Hobday (1996)
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Braided Rivers
Structure of bars and vertical
sequences in braided rivers
Boggs (2006), p.251
Boggs (2006), p.253
Galloway & Hobday (1983)
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Typical facies and vertical profiles
of braided rivers:
(A)shallow, gravel-bed braided river;
(B) sheetflood distal braided river
Fluvial architecture of braided-river deposits
Boggs (2006), p.256
Miall (1996)
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Gravelly braided-river deposits
Sandy braided-river deposits
()
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Morphological elements of
a meandering-river system
Point bars
Walker & Cant (1984)
Note: A thalweg is a line connecting the deepest points along a stream channel; it is
commonly the line of maximum current velocity.
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Typical lithofacies and vertical profiles
(A) Sandy meandering river;
(B) fine-grained meandering river
Helical flow
in a
meander
bend
Fluvial architecture of
meandering-river deposits
Miall (1996)
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Overbank Deposits
The majority of Sabunchi sediment (Pliocene, Russia) represents
deposition adjacent to channels and channel belts in flood-plain facies.
Sand bodies are thin and reduce thickness, connectivity, and grain size
along strike away from channels. Siltstones and muddy siltstones are
common and are continuous across the outcrops.
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Paleosols
Despite rapid accumulation rates,
pedogenesis is common in the
Sabunchi. Pedogenic features are
most pronounced within the distal
overbank facies, but occur in other
environments as well.
Reddish and red-brown horizons
typically contain several paleosol
indicators including glaes,
horizonization, precipitated minerals,
and rooting. Most of the soil features
are relatively immature, reflecting rapid
sediment accumulation and burial.
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Paleosols
Despite rapid accumulation rates, pedogenesis is common in the Sabunchi.
These inceptisols show rooting and weak horizonization associated with25
mineral precipitation.
Overbank Deposits
These mud and silt prone intervals contain interbedded thin sands. Mottling,
coloration, and rooting suggest common and cyclic paleosol formation. 26
Multistory Channels
Numerous, thick-bedded, multi-story fluvial packages crop out within the
succession, commonly above sequence boundaries. These range in
thickness from 6 to 40 meters of medium- to fine-grained sandstones
(occasionally coarse grained).
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Multistory Channels
6m
10 m
Multistory, sand-filled channels was cut by shale-filled channels (dash line
indicates channel bases).
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Channel Sands
The channel sandstones themselves comprise trough-crossbedded, planar
bedded, and low-angle inclined facies. These facies may change across or
within an individual channel. These high energy elements contrast with the
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climbing-ripple dominated sands bodies of the Sabunchi or Kirmaky Suites.
Channel Sands
Individual troughs can
be as large as 1 m in
height and reflect a
moderate spread of
paleocurrent azimuths.
In both these cases (and
others), trough lamina
sets are cut by root or
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burrowing traces.
