Tall Building Structures Analysis and Design Smith Bryan Stafford Alex CoullTALL BUILDING STRUCTURES: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN Bryan Stafford Smith McGill University Montreal, Quebec Canada Alex Coull University of Glasgow Glasgow, Scotland United Kingdom ®) A WILEY-INTERSCIENCE PUBLICATION JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. New York * Chichester * Brisbane * Toronto * SingaporeANOTE TO THE READER: This ‘ook har been electronically reproduced from digital Information stored at John Wiley & Soas, lnc. We Jn recognition of the impanance of preserving what has been ‘writen, i isa policy of John Wiley & Sons. Inc., w have books of enduring Value published in the United Staics printed on acid-free paper, and we excn our best effarts to that end Copyright © 1991 by John Wiley & Sans, Inc, All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada Reproduction oF translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission ofthe copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for Permission oF funher information should be addressed 10 the Permissions Department. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Library of Congress Catalozing in Publication Data: Stafford Smith. Bryan, Tall building structures; analysis and design/ryan Stafford Smith. Alex Cou, Pe cm ‘A Wiley-Imerscience publication." Inctudes bibliographical references ISBN 0-471 —51237-0 |. Tall buildings- Design and ci neering. 1. Coull, Alex. IL THI611.859 1991 90—de20 ‘90-13007 cr ction. 2. Structural tle Printed and bound in the United States of America 9876543 To Beny and Frances(lm PREFACE This book is the indirect outcome of 25 years of research on tall building structures by the two authors, It began with their liaison in the mid-1960s at the University of Southampton, England, and has since continued in their respective Universities, of Surrey. McGill, Strathclyde, and Glasgow. ‘At the commencement of the period, the evolution of radically new structural forms gave great stimulus to devising appropriate methods of analysis. In the suc- ceeding quarter-century there have been great advances in the design and construc- tion of tall buildings throughout the world, and in the associated development of analytical techniques. In the early days, approximate techniques were being devised for specific, largely two-dimensional, structural forms, and the analysis of complex three-di- mensional systems represented a formidable challenge. Since then, there have been significant advances in both computer hardware and software: the power of com- puters has increased dramatically, and a large number of comprehensive general purpose analysis programs have been developed, based on the stiffness method of analysis. In principle at least, it is now theoretically possible to analyze accurately inwally any complex elastic structure, the only constraints being the capacity of the available computer, time, and cost However, the great power of this analytical facility has to be handled judi- ciously. Real building structures are so complex that even an elaborate computa- tional model will be a considerable simplification, and the results from an analysis will always be approximate, being at best only as good as the quality of the chosen model and method of analysis. It is thus imperative to be able to devise an ana- lytical model of the real structure that will represent and predict with appropriate accuracy, and as efficiently and economically. as possible, the response of the building to the anticipated forces. Models required for the early stages of design will often be of a different, lower level of sophistication than those for checking the final design. The task of structural modeling is arguably the most difficult one facing the structural analyst, requiring critical judgment and a sound knowledge of the struc- tural behavior of tall building components and assemblies. Also, the resulting data from the analysis must be interpreted and appraised with discernment for use with the real structure, in order to serve as a reasonable basis for making design deci- sions. ‘The rapid advances in the past quarter-century have slowed up, and the era is now one of consolidation and utilization of research findings. However, the ma- viiVill PREFACE jority of the research findings still exist only in the form of papers in research Joumals. which are not generally available or familiar to the design engineer. There is a need to digest and to bring together in a unified and coherent form the main corpus of knowledge that has been accumulated and to disseminate it to the struc- tural engineering profession, This task forms the main abjective of this volume. tis not possible to deal in a comprehensive manner in a single volume with all aspects of tall building design and construction, and attention has been focused on the building structure. Such important related topics as foundation design. con- struction methods, fire resistance, planning. and economics have had to be omit. ted, The intention has been to concentrate on the structural aspects that are pantic- ularly affected by the quality of tallness; topics that are of equal relevance to low- rise buildings have generally not been considered in any depth. ‘The major part of the book thus concentrates on the fundamental approaches 10 the analysis of the behavior of different forms of tall building structures, inchiding frame, shear wall, tubular, core, and outrigger-braced systems. Both accurate com. purer-based and approximate methods of analyses are included. The latter, al- hough being of value in their own right for the analysis of simplified regular fuctures, serve also to highlight the most important actions and modes of behav- of components and assemblies. and thus offer guidance to the engineer in de- /ising appropriate models for analytical purposes Introductory chapters discuss the forces to which the structure is subjected, the csign criteria that are of the greatest relevance and imponance to tall buildings, nd the various structural forms that have developed over the years since the early kyscrapers were first introduced at the tum of the century, A major chapter is evoted to the modeling of real structures for both preliminary and final analyses: ‘onsiderable attention is devoted to the assessment of the stability of the structure, nd the significance of creep and shrinkage in tall concrete buildings is discussed. inally. @ chapter is devoted to the dynamic response of structures subjected to and earthquake forces, including a discussion of the human response to tall uilding motions. In addition to the set of references appropriate to each chapter, a short bibli- graphy has also been presented. This has been designed to serve several purposes: ) note historically important papers, to recommend major works that themselves ontain large numbers of bibliographic references, and to refer to papers that offer terial oF information additional to that contained in the different chapters. Space aS prevented the production of a comprehensive bibliography, since the literature n the subject is now vast, Apologies are therefore due to the many authors whose ork has been omitted duc to either the demand for brevity or the oversight of the niters. In view of the wide variations in practice in different countries, it was decided >t to concentrate on a single set of units in the numerical examples presented to ustrate the theory. Thus both SE and US units will be found. The book is aimed at two different groups. First, as a result of the continuing ity in the design and construction of tall buildings throughout the world, it be of value to practicing structural engincers. Second, by treating the material PREFACE ix in a logical. coherent, and unified form, it is hoped that it can form the basis of an independent academic discipline, serving as a useful text for graduate student courses. and as an introduction to the subject for senior undergraduates. In writing the book, the authors are conscious of a debt to many sources, to friends, colleagues, and co-workers in the field, and to the stimulating work of those associated with the Council vn Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, the suc- Cessor to the Intemational Committee for the Planning and Design of Tall Buil ings. with whom they have been associated since its inception. A special privilege of working in a university is the opportunity to interact with fresh young minds Consequently, above all, they acknowledge their indebtedness to the many re- search students with whom they have worked over the years, who have done so much to assist them in their progress. Many of their names figure in the References and Bibliography. and many are now recognized authorities in this ficld. The au. thors owe them much, Although the subject material has altered considerably over the long period of writing, the authors also wish to acknowledge the helpful discussions with Pro- fessor Joseph Schwaighofer of the University of Toronto in the early stages of planning this work. Finally, the authors wish to express their gratitude to Ann Bless, Regina Gaionti and Marie José Nollet of McGill University, Andrea Green of Queens University, and June Lawn and Tessa Bryden of Glasgow University. who have contributed greatly to the production of this volume. B. STAFFORD SMITH Montreal, Quebec A. CouLt Glasgow, Scotland January 1991Ml CONTENTS 1. Tall Buildings Why Tall Buildings? Factors Affecting Growth, Height, and Seructural Form The Tall Building Structure 1.3.1 The Design Process Philosophy, Scope. and Content Raisons D'Bure Reference wit nb 2. Design Criteria 2.1, Design Philosophy 2.2 Loading 2.2.1 Sequential Loading 2.3. Strength and Stability 2.4. Stiffness and Drift Limitations $ Human Comfon Criteria -6 Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature Effects 7 Fire 8 Foundation Settlement and Soil-Structure Interaction Summary References 3. Loading 3.1 Gravity Loading 3.1.1 Methods of Live Load Reduction 3.1.2 Impact Gravity Loading 3.1.3 Construction Loads 3.2. Wind Loading 3.2.1 Simple Static Approach 3.2.2 Dynamic Methods 3.3. Earthquake Loading 3.3.1 Fquivalent Lateral Force Procedure 3.3.2 Modal Analysis Procedure CUA ene 10 10 ul 13 4 14 1s 16 17 18 19 20 20 21 22 23 25 26 29xi CONTENTS: 3.4 Combinations of Loading 3.4.1, Working Stress Design 3.4.2 Limit States Design 3.4.3 Plastic Design Summary References 4. Structural Form 4.1) Structural Form 4.1.1 Braced-Frame Structures 4.1.2 Rigid-Frame Structures 4.1.3 Infilled-Frame Structures Flat-Plate and Flat-Slab Structures Shear Wall Structures ‘Wall-Frame Structures Framed-Tube Structures Outrigger Braced Structures Suspended Structures Core Structures Space Structures Hybrid Structures 4.2. Floor Systems—Reinforced Concrete 4.2.1 One-Way Slabs on Beams or Walls 4.2.2 One-Way Pan Joists and Beams 4.2.3 One-Way Slab on Beams and Girders 4.2.4 Two-Way Flat Plate 4.2.5 Two-Way Flat Slab 4.2.6 Waffle Flat Slabs 4.2.7 Two-Way Slab and Beam 4.3 Floor Systems—Stee] Framing 4.3.1 One-Way Beam System 4.3.2 Two-Way Beam System 4.3.3 Three-Way Beam System 4.3.4 Composite Steel-Conerete Floor Systems Summary 5. Modeling for Analysis 5.1 Approaches to Analysis S.1.1 Preliminary Analyses | Intermediate and Final Analysis 5.1.3 Hybrid Approach to Preliminary and Final Analyses 20 30 30 3 2 37 37 38 40 4t AL 42 49 50 52 33 34 56 57 37 58 58 59 59 61 61 62 62 63 65 65 67 CONTENTS 5.2. Assumptions Materials Participating Components Floor Slabs Negligible Stiffnesses Negligible Deformations Cracking 5.3. High-Rise Behavior 5.4 Modeling for Approximate Analyses 3.4.1 Approximate Representation of Bents 5.4.2 Approximate Modeling of Slabs 5.4.3 Modeling for Continuum Analyses 5.5 Modeling for Accurate Analysis 5.5.1 Plane Frames 5.5.2 Plane Shear Walls 5.5.3 Three-Dimensional Frame and Wall Structures 5.5.4 P-Delta Effects 5.5.5 The Assembled Model 5.6 Reduction Techniques 3.6.1 Symmetry and Antisymmetry 5.6.2 ensional Models of Nontwisting Structures 5.6.3 ensional Models of Structures That Translate and Twist 5.6.4 Lumping 5.6.5 Wide-Column Deep-Beam Analogies Summary References 6. Braced Frames 6.1 Types of Bracing 6.2. Behavior of Bracing 6.3 Behavior of Braced Bents 6.4 Methods of Analysis 6.4.1 Member Force Analysis 64.2. Drift Analysis 6.4.3 Worked Example for Calculating Drift by Approximate Methods 6.5 Use of Large-Scale Bracing Summary References xii 103 104 105 106 106 109 MW 13 13 1s 119 124 128 1297.1 Rigid-Frame Behavior 7.2. Approximate Determination of Member Forces Caused by Gravity Loading 7.2.1 Girder Forces—Code Recommended Values 7.2.2 Two-Cycle Moment Distribution 7.2.3 Column Forces 7.3. Approximate Analysis of Member Forces Caused by Horizontal Loading 7.3.1 Allocation of Loading between Bents 7.3.2. Member Force Analysis by Portal Method 7.3.3 Approximate Analysis by Cantilever Method 7.3.4 Approximate Analysis of Rigid Frames with Setbacks 7.4 Approximate Analysis for Drift 7.4.1 Components of Drift 7.4.2 Correction of Excessive Drift 7.4.3 Effective Shear Rigidity (GA) 7.5 Flat Plate Structure—Analogous Rigid Frame 7.5.1 Worked Example 7.6 Computer Analysis of Rigid Frames 7.7 Reduction of Rigid Frames for Analysis 7.7.1 Lumped Girder Frame 7.7.2 Single-Bay Substitute Frame Summary References 8. Infilled-Frame Structures 8.1 Behavior of Infilled Frames 8.2. Forces in the Infill and Frame 8.2.1 Stresses in the Infill 8.2.2 Forces in the Frame 8.3 Development of the Design Procedure 8.3.1 Design of the Infill 8.3.2 Design of the Frame 8.3.3 Horizontal Deflection 8.4 Summary of the Design Method 8.4.1 Provisions 8.4.2 Design of the Infill 8.4.3. Design of the Frame 4.4 Deflections 130 131 133 133 133. 138 138 138 MI M46 150 152 156 157 158 159 161 161 161 163 165 166 168 169 72 172 4 4 175 7 V8 178 179 179 180 180. CONTENTS 8.5 Worked Example—Infilled Frame Summary References 9. Shear Wall Structures 9.1 Behavior of Shear Wall Structures 9.2 Analysis of Proportionate Wall Systems 9.2.1 Proportionate Nontwisting Structures 9.2.2 Propontionate Twisting Structures 9.3 Nonproportionate Structures 9.3.1 Nonproportionate Nontwisting Structures 9.3.2 Nonproportionate Twisting Structures 9.4 Behavior of Nonproportionate Structures 9.5 Effects of Discontinuities at the Base 9.6 Stress Analysis of Shear Walls 9.6.1 Membrane Finite Element Analysis 9.6.2 Analogous Frame Analysis Summary References 10, Coupled Shear Wall Structures 10.1 Behavior of Coupled Shear Wall Structures 10.2 Methods of Analysis 10.3. The Continuous Medium Method 10.3.1 Derivation of the Governing Differential Equations 10.3.2 General Solutions of Governing Equations 10.3.3. Solution for Standard Load Cases 10.3.4 Graphic Design Method 10.3.5 Coupled Shear Walls with Two Symmetrical Bands of Openings 10.3.6 Worked Example of Coupled Shear Wall Structure 10.3.7 Coupled Shear Walls with Different Support Conditions 10.4 Computer Analysis by Frame Analogy 10.4.1. Analysis of Analogous Frame 10.5 Computer Analysis Using Membrane Finite Elements Summary References 11. Walll-Frame Structures 11,1 Behavior of Symmetric Wall-Frames 11.2 Approximate Theory for Wall-Frames 11.2.1 Derivation of the Governing Differential Equation xv 180 182 183 184 184 186. 186. 187 190 199 199 202 206 206 207 21 212 213 213 25 216 216 222 223 231 235 236 243 246 247 252 253 254 255 237 260 260113 es WS 116 Solution for Uniformly Distributed Loading, Forces in the Wall and Frame Solutions for Alternative Loadings Determination of Shear Rigidity (GA) Analysis by the Use of Graphs Worked Example to Illustrate Approximate Analysis Computer Analysis Comments on the Design of Wall-Frame Structures 11.6.1 Optimum Structure 11.6.2 Curtailed or Interrupted Shear Walls 11.6.3 Increased Concentrated Interaction Summary References 12. Tubular Structures 12.1 Structural Behavior of Tubular Structures 12.1.1 Framed-Tube Structures. 12.1.2 Bundled-Tube Structures 12.1.3. Braced-Tube Structures General Three-Dimensional Structural Analysis Simplified Analytical Models for Symmetrical Tul ‘Structures: 12.3.1 lar nal Framed Tube to an Reduction of Three-Dime Equivalent Plane Frame 12.3.2 Bundled-Tube Structures 12.3.3 Diagonally Braced Framed-Tube Structures Summary References 13. Core Structures 13.1 13.2 13.3 Concept of Warping Behavior Sectorial Properties of Thin-Walled Cores Subjected to Torsion 13.2.1 Sectorial Coordinate ws’ 13.2.2 Shear Center 13.2.3 Principal Sectorial Coordinate (w) Diagram 13.2.4 Sectorial Moment of Inertia J, 13.2.5 Shear Torsion Constant J 13.2.6 Calculation of Sectorial Properties: Worked Example Theory for Restrained Warping of Uniform Cores Subjected to Torsion 13.3.1 Governing Differential Equation 297 297 303 305 306 307 310 ais 315 317 318 320 321 321 323 323 34 135 13.6 CONTENTS 13.3.2 Solution for Uniformly Distributed Torque 13.3.3 Warping Stresses 13.3.4 Elevator Cores with a Partially Closed Section 13.3.5 Forces in Connecting Beams 13.3.6 Solutions for Alternative Loadings Analysis by the Use of Design Curves Worked Example to Analyze a Core ‘Using Formulas and Design Curves ‘Computer Analyses of Core Structures, Membrane Finite Element Model Analysis Analogous Frame Analysis Two-Column Analogy Single Warping-Column Model Summary References 14, Outrigger-Braced Structures Wa 14,3 ad Method of Analysis 14.1.1 Assumptions for Analysis 14.1.2 Compatibility Analysis of a Two-Outrigger Structure 14.1.3 Analysis of Forces 14.1.4 Analysis of Horizontal Deflections Generalized Solutions of Forces and Deflections 14.2.1 Restraining Moments 14.2.2 Horizontal Deflections Optimum Locations of Outriggers Performance of Outrigger Structures 14.4.1 Optimum Locations of Outriggers 14.4.2 Effects of Outrigger Flexibility 14.4.3 “Efficiency” of Outrigger Structures 14.4.4 Altemative Loading Conditions Summary References 15. Generalized Theory 15.1 15.2 18.3 15.4 Coupled Wall Theory Physical Interpretation of the Deflection Equation Application to Other Types of Bent 15.3.1 Determination of Rigidity Parameters 15.3.2 Calculation of Defeetion Application to Mixed-Bent Structures xvii 325 326 329 331 332 332 333 a4 41 HS #9 353 354 355, 356 356 358 362 362 363 363 364 365 366 368 368 370 370 7 32 373 377 378 x9 38) 381xvii conTENTS: 15.5 15.6 Accuracy of the Method Numerical Example Summary References 16. Stability of High-Rise Buildings 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 Overall Buckling Analysis of Frames: Approximate Methods 16.1.1 Shear Mode 16.1.2 Flexural Mode 16.1.3 Combined Shear and Flexural Modes Overall Buckling Analysis of Wall-Frames 16.2.1 Analytical Method 16.2.2 Example: Stabili Second-Order Effects of Gra’ of Wall-Frame Structure Loading 16.3.1 The P-Delta Effect 16.3.2 Amplification Factor P-Delta Analysis 16.3.3 Iterative P-Delta Analysis 16.3.4 [terative Gravity Load P-Delta Analysis 16.3.5 Direct P-Delta Analysis Simultaneous First-Order and P-Delta Analysis 16.4.1 Development of the Second-Order Matrix 16.4.2 Negative Shear Area Column 16.4.3 Negative Flexural Stiffness Column Translational-Torsional Instability Out-of-Plumb Effects Stiffness of Members in Stabili ity Calculations Effects of Foundation Rotation Summary References 17, Dynamic Analysis m4 17.2 Dynamic Response to Wind Loading ITLL Sensitivity of Structures to Wind Forces 17.1.2 Dynamic Structural Response due to Wind Forces 17.1.3 Along-Wind Response 17.1.4 — Cross-Wind Response 17.1.5 Worked Example Dynamic Response to Earthquake Motions 17.2.1 Response of Tall Buildings to Ground Accelerations 17.2.2 Response Spectrum Analysis 383 384 386 387 389 390 391 391 392 392 396 398 398 399 401 403 405 408 410 all 414 414 415 416 47 419 420 421 422 423 429 430 431 43) 435 CONTENTS 17.2.3 Empirical Relationships for Fundamental Natural Frequency 17.2.4 Structural Damping Ratios 17.3. Comfon Criteria; Human Response to Building Motions 17.3.1 17.3.2 17.3.3 Summary References Human Perception of Building Motion Perception Thresholds Use of Comfort Criteria in Design 18. Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature Effects 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Effects of Differential Movements Designing for Differential Movement Creep and Shrinkage Effects 18.3.1 Factors Affecting Creep and Shrinkage Movements in Concrete 18.3.2 Determination of Vertical Shortening of Wails and Columns 18.3.3 Influence of Reinforcement on Column Stresses, Creep, and Shrinkage Worked Example Influence of Vertical Shortening on Structural Actions in Horizontal Members Temperature Effects Summary References APPENDIX 1. Formutas and Design Curves for Coupled Shear Walls AJ.1 Formulas and Design Curves for Altemative Load Cases Al.t.1 Formulas for Top Concentrated Load and Triangularly Distributed Loading AL.1.2 Design Curves Al.2 Formulas for Coupled Shear Walls with Different Flexible Support Conditions AL.3_ Stiffness of Floor Slabs Connecting Shear Walls AI.3.1 Effective Width of Floor Slab Al3.2 | Empirical Relationships for Effective Slab Width A1.3.3 Numerical Examples References xix 449 451 452 452 453, 457 458 459 461 461 462 464 464 468 471 472 418 475 478 478 480 480 482 487 489 493 495 4973X CONTENTS APPENDIX 2. Formulas and Graphs for Wall-Frame and Core Structures AZ. Formulas and Graphs for Deflections and Forces Uniformly Distributed Horizontal Loading A2.1.2 Triangularly Distributed Horizontal Loading 2.1.3. Concentrated Horizontal Load at the Top Bibliography Index. 502 502 502 506 512 S27APPENDIX 2. Formulas and Graphs for Wall-Frame and Core Structures A2.1 Formulas and Graphs for Deflections and Forces A2.1.1 Uniformly Distributed Horizontal Loading A24.2 Triangularly Distributed Horizontal Loading A2.1.3 Concentrated Horizontal Load at the Top Bibliography Index 512 527 CHAPTER 1 Tall Buildings This book is concemed with tall building structures. Tallness, however, is a rel- ative matter, and tall buildings cannot be defined in specific terms related just to height or to the number of floors. The tallness of a building is a matter of a person's or community's circumstance and their consequent perception: therefore, a mea- surable definition of a tall building cannot be universally applied. From the struc- ural engineer's point of view, however, a tall building may be defined as onc that, because of its height, is affected by lateral forces due to wind or earthquake actions to an extent that they play an important role in the structural design. The influence of these actions must therefore be considered from the very beginning of the design process. 1.4 WHY TALL BUILDINGS? Tall towers and buildings have fascinated mankind from the beginning of civili- zation, their construction being ly for defense and subsequently for ecclesi- astical purposes. The growth in modern tall building construction, however, which began in the 1880s, has been largely for commercial and residential purposes. Tall commercial buildings are primarily a response to the demand by business activities to be as close to each other, and to the city center, as possible, thereby putting intense pressure on the available land space. Also, because they form dis~ linctive landmarks, tall commercial buildings are frequently developed in city een- lers as prestige symbols for corporate organizations. Further, the business and tourist community, with its increasing mobility, has fuelled a need for more, fre- quently high-rise, city center hotel accommodations, The rapid growth of the urban population and the consequent pressure on lim= ited space have considerably influenced city residential development. The high cost of land, the desire to avoid a continuous urban sprawl, and the need to pre- serve important agricultural production have all contributed to drive residential buildings upward. In some cities, for example, Hong Kong and Rio de Janeiro, local topographical restrictions make tall buildings the only feasible solution for housing needs.1.2 FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH, HEIGHT, AND STRUCTURAL FORM The feasibility and desirability of high-rise structures have always depended on the available materials, the level of construction technology, and the state of de- velopment of the services necessary for the use of the building. As a result, sig- nificant advances have occurred from time to time with the advent of a new ma- terial, construction facility, or form of service. Mubtistory buildings were a feature of ancient Rome: four-story wooden tene- ‘ment buildings. of post and lintel construction, were common. Those built after the great fire of Nero, however, used the new brick and concrete materials in the form of arch and barrel vault structures, Through the following centuries, the two basic construction materials were timber and masonry. The former lacked strength for buildings of more than about five stories, and always presented a fire hazard. The latter had high compressive strength and fire resistance, but its weight tended to overload the lower suppons. With the rapidly increasing number af masonry high-rise buildings in North America toward the end of the nineteenth century, the limits of this form of construction became apparent in 1891 in the 16-story Mon- adnock Building in Chicago. With the space in its lower floors largely occupied by walls of over 2 m thick, it was the last tall building in the city for which massive load-bearing masonry walls were employed The socioeconomic problems that followed industrialization in the nineteenth century, coupled with an increasing demand for space in the growing U.S. cities, created a strong impetus to tall building construction. Yet the ensuing growth could nol lave been sustained without two major technical innovations that occurred in the middle of that century: the development of higher strength and structurally more efficient materials, wrought iron and subsequently steel, and the introduction of the elevator (cf. Fig. 1.1). Although the elevator had been developed some 20 years earlier, its potential in high-rise buildings was apparently not realized umtil its incorporation in the Equitable Life Insurance Building in New York in 1870. For the first time, this made the upper stories as attractive to rent as the lower ‘ones, and, consequently, made the taller building financially viable, The new materials allowed the development of lightweight skeletal structures, permitting buildings of greater height and with larger interior open spaces and windows, although the carly wrought-iron frame structures still employed load- bearing masonry facade walls. The first high-rise building totally supported by a metal frame was the 11-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago in 1883, fol- lowed in 1889 by the first all-steel frame in the 9-story Rand-McNally Building. Two years later, in the same city, diagonal bracings were introduced in the facade frames of the 20-story Masonic Temple to form vertical trusses, the forerunner of modem shear wall and braced frame construction. It was by then appreciated that at that height wind forces were an imponant design consideration. Improved de- sign methods and construction techniques allowed the maximum height of steel- frame structures to increase steadily, reaching a height of 60 stories with the con- struction of the Woolworth Building in New York in 1913. This golden age of OE eae ee eS ee 8 ee he ee ney ee 100 wrought son First steel Se aie sEELions f 60 1 [few Tors ! | of stortes tn tallest butliting si fast tron ere Chicago: New York Sehoo! 20 + Otis! elevator fio. a Electete elevator I 1850 1870 1890 1910 1936 Fig. 11 Growth in height of the first great era of American skyscrapers, American skyscraper construction culminated in 1931 in its crowning glory, the Empire State Building, whose 102-story braced steel frame reached a height of 1250 ft (381 m). Although reinforced concrete construction began around the turn of the century, it does not appear to have been used for multistory buildings until after the end of World War |. The inerent advantages of the composite material, which could be readily formed to simultaneously satisfy both aesthetic and load-carrying require- ents, were not then fully appreciated, and the early systems were purely imita- tions of their steel counterparts. Progress in reinforced concrete was slow and intermittent, and, at the time the steel-framed Empire State Building was com: pleted, the tallest concrete building, the Exchange Building in Seattle, had attained a height of only 23 stories. ‘The economic depression of the 1930s put an end to the great skyscraper era, and it was not until some years after the end of World War II that the construction of high-rise buildings recommenced, with radically new structural and architec~ tural solutions. Rather than bringing significant increases in height, however, these modem developments comprised new structural systems, improved material qual- ities and services, and better design and construction techniques. It was not until 1973 that the Empire State Building was eclipsed in height by the twin towers of the 110-story, 1350 ft (412 m) high World Trade Center in New York, using framed-tube construction, which was followed in 1974 by the 1450 ft (442 m) high bundled-tube Sears Tower in Chicago. Different structural systems have gradually evolved for residential and office buildings, reflecting their differing functional requirements. In modem office buildings, the need to satisfy the differing requirements of individual clients fora nearer eer eee floor space arrangements led to the provision of large column-free open areas to allow flexibility in planning. Improved levels of services have frequently neces- sitated the devotion of entire floors to mechanical plant, but the spaces lost can often be utilized also to accommodate deep girders or trusses connecting the ex- terior and interior structural systems. The earlier heavy internal partitions and ma- sonry cladding, with their contributions to the reserve of stiffness and strength. have largely given way to light demountable partitions and glass curtain walls, forcing the basic structure alone to provide the required strength and stiffness al and lateral loads, tural features of commercial buildings that have influenced struc- tural form are the large entrances and open lobby areas at ground level, the mul- tistory atriums, and the high-level restaurants and viewing galleries that may re- quire more extensive elevator systems and associated sky lobbies. A residential building’s basic functional requirement is the provision of self- contained individual dwelling units. separated by substantial partitions that provide adequate fire and acoustic insulation. Because the partitions are repeated from story to story, modern designs have utilized them in a structural capacity. leading to the shear wall, cross wall, or infilled-frame forms of construction. The trends 10 exposed structure and architectural cutouts, and the provision of setbacks at the upper levels to mect daylight requirements, have also been features ‘of modem architecture. The requirement to provide adequately stiff and strong structures, while accommodating these various features, led 10 radical develop- ments in structural framing. and inspired the new generation of braced frames, framed-tube and hull-core structures, wall-frame systems, and outrigger-braced structures described in Chapter 4. The latest generation of **postmodem’” build- ings, with their even more varied and irregular external architectural treatment, has led to hybrid double and sometimes triple combinations of the structural monoforms used for modem buildings. Speed of erection is a vital factor in obtaining a return on the investment in- volved in such large-scale projects. Most tall buildings are constructed in con- gested city sites, with difficult access; therefore careful planning and organization ‘of the construction sequence become essential. The story-to-story uniformity of most multistory buildings encourages construction through repetitive operations and prefabrication techniques. Progress in the ability to build tall has gone hand in hand with the development of more efficient equipment and improved methods of constriction, such as slip- and flying-formwork, concrete pumping. and the use of tower. climbing, and large mobile cranes. 1.3 THE TALL BUILDING STRUCTURE Ideally, in the early stages of planning a building. the entire design team. including the architect, structural engineer, and services engineer, should collaborate to agree on a form of structure to satisfy their respective requirements of function, safety and serviceability, and servicing. A compromise between conflicting demands will TE TALL OURS STRUCTURE be almost inevitable. In all but the very tallest structures, however, the structural arrangement will be subservient to the architectural requirememts of space armange- Ment and aesthetics. Often. this will lead to a tess-than-ideal structural solution that will tax the ingenuity, and probably the patience. of the structural engineer, The two primary types of vertical load-resisting elements of tall buildings are columns and walls, the latter acting either independently as shear walls of in as scinblics as shear wall cores. The building function will lead naturally to the pro~ Vision of walls to divide and enclose space, and of cores to contain and convey services such as elevators. Columns will be provided. in otherwise unsupported fegions, to transmit gravity loads and, in some types of structure, horizontal loads also. Columns may also serve architecturally as, for example, facade mullions, ‘The inevitable primary function of the structural elements is to resist the gravity loading from the weight of the building and its contents. Since the loading on different floors tends to be similar. the weight of the floor system per unit floor area is approximately constant, regardless of the building height. Because the grav ity load on the columns increases down the height of a building, the weight of columns per unit area increases approximately linearly with the building height, The highly probable second function of the vertical structural clements is to fesist also the parasitic load caused by wind and possibly earthquakes. whose mag~ mtudes will be obtained from National Building Codes or wind tunnel studies, The bending moments on the building caused by these lateral forces increase with at least the square of the height, and their effects will become progressively more important as the building height increases. On the basis of the factors above, the relative quantities of material required in the floors. columns, and wind bracing of 4 traditional steel frame and the penalty on these due to increasing height are ap: proximately as illustrated in Fig. 4.1. Because the worst possible effects of lateral forces occur rarely. if ever, in the life of the building, it is imperative to minimize the penalty for height to achieve an optimum design. The constant search for more efficient solutions led to the innovative designs and new structural forms of recent years (cf. Chapter 4). In developing a suitable system for resisting lateral forces, the engincer seeks to de- vise stiff horizontal interconnections between the various vertical components to form composite assemblies such as coupled walls and rigid frames, which, as dem= onstrated in later chapters, create a total structural assembly having a lateral stiff ness many times greater than the sum of the lateral stiffnesses of the individual vertical components. 1.3.1. The Design Process Once the functional layout of the structure has been decided, the design process generally follows a well-defined iterative procedure, Preliminary calculations for member sizes are usually based on gravity loading augmented by an arbitrary in- crement to account for wind forces. The cross-sectional areas of the vertical mem= bers will be based on the accumulated loadings from their associated tributary areas, with reductions to account for the probability that not all floors will beTALL BUILDINGS Subjected simultaneously to their maximum live loading, ‘The initial sizes of beams and slabs are normally based on moments and shears obtained from some simple method of gravity load analysis, such as two-cycle moment distibution, or from codified mid- and end-span values. A check is then made on the maximum horizontal deflection, and the forces in the major structural members, using some rapid approximate analysis technique If the deflection is excessive, or some of the members are inadequate, adjustments are made to the member sizes or the structural arrangement. If certain members attract excessive loads. the engineer may reduce their stiffness to redistribute the toad to less heavily stressed components. The procedure of preliminary analysis checking, and adjustment is repeated until a satisfactory solution is obtained. Invar‘ably. alterations to the initial layout of the building will be required as the client's and architect's ideas of the building evolve. This will call for structural modifications, or perhaps a radical rearrangement, which necessitates a complete review of the structural design, The various preliminary stages may therefore have to be repeated @ number of times before a final solution is reached. A rigorous final analysis. using a more refined analytical model. will then be made to provide a final check on deflections and member strengths. This will usu- ally inelude the second-order effects of gravity loads on the lateral deflections and member forces (P-Deita effects). A dynzmic analysis may also be required if, as a result of wind loading, there is any likelihood of excessive deflections due to ‘oscillations or of comfort criteria being exceeded, oF if earthquake loading has to bbe considered. At some stage in the procedure the deleterious effects of differential Movements due to creep. shrinkage. or temperature differentials will also be checked. In the design process, a thorough knowledge of high-rise structural components and their modes of behavior is a prerequisite to devising an appropriate load-re- sisting system. Such a system must be efficient, economic, and should minimize the structural penalty for height while maximizing the satisfaction of the basic serviceability requirements. With the increasing availability of general-purpose structural analysis programs. the formation of a concise and properly representa- tive model has become an important part of tall building analysis: this also requires a fundamental knowledge of structural behavior, Modeling for analysis is dis- cussed in Chapter 5. 1.4 PHILOSOPHY, SCOPE, AND CONTENT The iterative design process described above involves different levels of structural analysis, ranging from relatively crude and approximate techniques for the prelim- inary stages to sophisticated and accurate methods for the final check. The major part of this book is devoted therefore to a discussion and comparison of the dif- ferent practical methods of analysis developed for the range of structural forms ‘encountered in tall buildings. The emphasis throughout is on methods particular to tall building structures, with less importance placed on methods for general 16 RABONBDETHE 7 Mnictural analysis. which are treated comprehensively in other texts. It is thus assumed that the reader is already familiar with the fundamentals of the stiffness matix method and the finite element method of analysis, ‘The methods of analysis presented are, almost without exception, static, and assume linear elastic behavior of the structure. Although wind and earthquake forces are transient in nature, it is reasonable and practical to represent them in the majority of design situations by cquivalent static force distributions, as described in Chapter 3. Although recognizing that concrete and masonry behave in a nonli ear manner, a linear elastic analysis is still the most important tool for deciding a tall building’s structural design. Techniques do exist for the prediction of inelastic behavior, but they are not yet sufficiently well developed to be appropriate for lindertaking a detailed analysis of a highly indeterminate tall building structure, ‘The main emphasis of static linear analysis is applied to both components and assemblies found in tall buildings, ranging from the primary rigid frames. braced nd infilled frames. and shear walls. to the more efficient composite systems that inelude coupled shear walls, wall-frame and framed-tube structures, shear wall cores, and outrigger-braced structures. Methods suitable for both preliminary and final analyses are described and, Where appropriate. detailed worked examples are given to illustrate the steps in= Volved. Although computer-based matrix techniques form the most versatile and ‘Aecurate methods for practical structural analysis, attention is also devoted to the more limited and approximate continuum techniques. These serve well to provide an understanding of structural behavior and their generalized solutions indicate (ore clearly and rapidly the influence of changes in structural parameters. Such fn understanding can be valuable in selecting a suitable model for computer anal- ysis. The book concludes with a series of Appendices that include useful design formulas and charts. and a selective Bibliography of significant references to the subject matter of the various chapters. It is impracticable to deal comprehensively in a single volume with all aspects Of tall building structures. Important associated topics, therefore, including foun- dation systems, the detailed treatment of wind and earthquake forces and the as- sociated dynamic structural analysis, and construction procedures, which form ma- jor subjects in their own right, have had to be omitted. For a general discussion on all aspects of tall buildings, architectural, social, and technical, the reader is referred to the Reporis and Proceedings of the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, particularly the five-volume series of definitive Monographs [1.1]. 1.5 RAISONS D'ETRE ‘The authors believe that a book devoted to the analysis and design of tall building structures is merited on a number of counts. During the last few decades a large body of knowledge on the subject has accrued from an intensive worldwide re= search effort. The pace of this research has now abated, but the results are widely dispersed and still generally available only in research journals, Many of the anal-ysis techniques that have been developed are virtually unique (o tall buildings, and they form the foundations of an academic discipline that has required the research results to be digested, consolidated, and recorded in a coherent and unified form. Meanwhile high-rise construction continues apace, and there is a continuous de- mand for information from engineers involved in high-rise design, while structural engineering graduate students are enrolled in courses and conducting further re- search on tall building structures. This text is aimed to be of value to both the design office and those in the classroom or laboratory. The object of the book is therefore to offer a coherent and unified treatment of the subject analysis and design of high-rise building strictures. for practicing struc- tural engineers concemed with the design of tall buildings, and for senior under- graduate and postgraduate structural engincering students. REFERENCE 1.1 Monograph on Planning and Design of Tall Buildings, Vols, CB. CL. PC. SB. and SC. ASCE. 1980. MEE CHAPTER 2 Design Criteria ‘Tall buildings are designed primarily to serve the needs of an intended occupancy, Whether residential, commercial, or, in some cases, a combination of the two. The dominant design requirement is therefore the provision of an appropriate internal layout for the building. At the same time, itis essential for the architect to satisfy the client's expectations conceming the aesthetic qualities of the bi 3 exte= fior. The main design criteria are, therefore, architectural, and it is within these that the engineer is usually constrained to fit his structure. Only in exceptionally fall buildings will structural requirements become a predominant consideration, ‘The basic layout will be contained within a structural mesh that must be mini- mally obtrusive to the functional requirements of the building. Simultaneously, there must be an integration of the building structure with the various service sys- fems—heating, ventilating, air-conditioning, water supply and waste disposal, electrical supply, and vertical transpomtation—which are extensive and complex, nd constitute a major part of the cost of a tail building. Once the functional layout has been established. the engineer must develop a Mructural system that will satisfy established design criteria as efficiently and eco- Homically as possible. while fitting into the architectural layout, The vital struc- tural criteria are an adequate reserve of strength against failure, adequate lateral stiffness, and an efficient performance during the service life of the building. ‘This chapter provides a brief description of the important criteria that must be considered in the structural design of a tall building. Most of the principles of structural design apply equally to low-rise as to high-rise buildings, and therefore, for brevity, special attention is devoted to only those aspects that have particular consequences for the designers of high-rise buildings. 2.1 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY Chapter 1 described how radical changes in the structural form of tall buildings occurred in the construction period that followed World War II. Over the same Period, a major shift occurred in design philosophy, and the Code fe progressed from the earlier working stress or ultimate strength determi to modem more generally accepted probability-based approaches. The probabilis- tic approach for both structural properties and loading conditions has led to the 9limit states design philosophy, which is now almost universally accepted. The aim of this approach is to ensure that all structures and their constituent components are designed to resist with reasonable safety the worst loads and deformations that ane liable to occur during construction and service, and to have adequate durability during their lifetime. The entire structure, or any part of it, is considered as having “failed” when it reaches any one of various “limit states,”” when it no longer meets the prescribed limiting design conditions. Two fundamental types of limit state must be consid- te Limit states corresponding to the loads to cause failure, in- ; since events associated with collapse would be catastrophic, cadangering lives and causing serious financial losses. the probability of failure must be very low: and (2) the serviceability tates, which involve the criteria governing the service life of the building, and which. because the consequences of their failure would not be catastrophic. are permitted a much higher probability of occurrence, These are concerned with the fitness of the building for normal use rather than safety, and are of less critical importance A particular limit state may be reached as a result of an adverse combination of tandom effects. Partial safety factors are employed for different conditions that reflect the probability of certain occurrences or circumstances of the structure and loading existing. The implicit objective of the design calculations is then to ensure that the probability of any particular limit state being reached is maintained below an acceptable value for the type of structure concemed, ‘ The fellowing sections consider the criteria that apply in particular to the design of tall buildings. cluding instability 2.2 LOADING The structure must be designed to resist the gravitational and lateral forces, both permanent and transient, that it will be called on to sustain during its construction and subsequent service life. These forces will depend on the size and shape of the building. as well as on its geographic location, and maximum probable values must ‘be established before the design can proceed. 1% The probable accuracy of estimating the dead and live loads, and the probability of the simultaneous occurrence of different combinations of gravity loading. both dead and live, with either wind or earthquake forces, is included in limit states design through the use of prescribed factors. The load systems that must be considered are described in Chapter 3. 2.2.1 Sequential Loading For loads that are applied after completion of the building, such as live. wind, or seismic leading, the analysis is independent of the construction sequence, For dead loads, however, which are applied to the building frame as construction proceeds, the effects of sequential loading should be considered to assess the worst conditions to which any component may be subjected, and also to determine the true behavior of the frame «RA STIFFNESS AND DRIFT LIMITATIONS =—-11 In multistory reinforced conerete constriction, the usual Practice is to shore the freshly placed floor on several previously cast floors. The construction loads in the Supporting floors due to the weight of the wet concrete and formwork may appre- Glably exeeed the loads under service conditions. Such loads depend on the se- quence and rate of erection. Hf column axial deformations are calculated as though the dead loads are applied to the completed structure, bending moments in the horizontal components will fesult from any differential column shortening that is shown to result. Because of the cumulative effects over the height of the building, the effects are greater in the highest levels of the building. However, the effects of such differential movements would be greatly overestimated because in reality, during the construction se- quence, a panicular horizontal member is constructed on columns in Which the initial axial deformations due to the dead weight of the structure up to that partic- Uular level have already taken place. The deformations of that particular floor will then be caused by the loads that are applied subsequent to its construction. Such Sequential effects must be considered if an accurate assessment of the ‘structural actions due to dead loads is to be achieved, 2.3. STRENGTH AND STABILITY For the ultimate limit state. the prime design requirement is that the building struc» ture should have adequate strength to resist. and to remain stable under, the worst Probable load actions that may occur during the lifetime of the building, including the period of construction, This requires an analysis of the forces and stresses that will occur in the mem- bers as a result of the most critical possible load combinations, including the aug- mented moments that may arise from second-order additional deflections (P-Delta effects) (cf. Chapter 16). An adequate reserve of strength, using prescribed load factors, must be present. Particular attention must be paid to critical members, whose failure could prove catastrophic in initiating a progressive collapse of part of or the entire building. Any additional stresses caused by restrained differential movements due to creep, shrinkage, or temperature must be included (cf, Chapter 18) In addition, a check must be made on the most fundamental condition of equi- librium, to establish that the applied lateral forces will not cause the entire building to topple as a rigid body about one edge of the base. Taking moments about that edge. the resisting moment of the dead weight of the building must be greater than the overtuming moment for stability by an acceptable factor of safety 2.4 STIFFNESS AND DRIFT LIMITATIONS The provision of adequate stiffness, particularly lateral stiffness, is a major con: sideration in the design of a tall building for several important reasons. As far as the ultimate limit state is concemed, laterat deflections must be limited to preventsecond-order P-Delta effects duc to gravity loading being of such a magnitude as to precipitate collapse. In ternts of the serviceubility limit states, deflections must first be maintained at « sufficiently low level 1 allow the proper functioning of Ronstructural components such as elevators and doors; second. to avoid distress in the structure, to prevent excessive cracking and consequent loss of stiffness. and to avoid any redistribution of load to non-load-bearing partitions, infills, cladding, or glazing: and third, the structure must be sufficiently stiff to prevent dynamic motions becoming large enough to cause discomfort to occupants, prevent delicate work beng undertaken. or affect sensitive equipment. In fact, it is in the particular need for concer for the provision of lateral stiffness that the design of a high-rise building largely departs from that of a low-rise building. One simple parameter that affords an estimate of the lateral stiffness of a build- ing is the drift index, defined as the ratio of the maximum deflection at the top of the building to the total height, In addition, the corresponding value for a single story height, the interstory drift index, gives a measure of possible localized ex- cessive deformation. The control of lateral deflections is of particular importance for modem buildings in which the traditional reserves of stiffness due to heavy internal partitions and outer cladding have largely disappeared, It must be stressed, however, that even if the drift index is kept within traditionally accepted limits, such as gy. it does not necessarily follow that the dynamic comfort criteria will also be satisfactory. Problems may arise, forexample, if there is coupling berween bending and torsional oscillations that leads to unacceptable complex motions or accelerations. In addition to static deflection calculations, the question of the dy- namic response, involving the lateral acceleration, amplitude, and period of oscil- lation, may also have to be considered. The establishment of a drift index limit is a major design deci-ion, but, unfor- tunately, there are no unambiguous or widely accepted values, or even, in some of the National Codes concerned, any firm. guidance. The designer is then faced with having to decide on an appropriate value. The figure adopted will reflect the building usage, the type of design criterion employed (for example, working or ultimate load conditions), the form of construction, the materials employed, in- cluding any substantial infills or claddings, the wind loads considered, and, in particular, past experience of similar buildings that have performed satisfactorily. Design drift index limits that have been used in different countries renge from 0.001 to 0.005. To put this in perspective, a maximum horizontal top deflection of between 0.1 and 0.5 m (6 to 20 in.) would be allowed in a 33-story, 100-m (330-ft. | high building, or, alternatively, a relative deflection of 3 to 15 mm (0.12 to 0.6 in.) over a story height of 3 m (10 ft). Generally, lower values should be used for hotels or apartment buildings than for office buildings, since noise and movement tend to be more disturbing in the former. Consideration may be given to whether the stiffening effects of any internal partitions, infills, or claddings are included in the deflection calculations. The consideration of this limit state requires an accurate estimate of the lateral deflections that occur, and involves an assessment of the stiffness of cracked mem- bers, the effects of shrinkage and creep and any redistribution of forces that may wwe er. tae fesuilt, and of any: rotational foundation movement, In the design process, the stiff hess of joints, particularly in precast or prefabricated structures, must be given Special attention to develop adequate lateral stiffness of the siructure and to prevent any possible progressive failure, The possibility of torsional deformations must nol be overlooked, In practice, non-load-bearing infills, partitions, extemal wall panels, and win- dow glazing should be designed with sufficient clearance or with flexible SUPpORs: 1 accommodate the calculated movements. Sound engineering judgment is required when deciding on the drift index limit to be imposed. However, for conventional structures, the preferred acceptable range is 0.0015 to 0.003 (that is, approximately alo to sto), and sufficient stiffness must be provided to ensure that the top deflection does not exceed this value under extreme load conditions. As the height of the building increases. drift index coef- ficients should be decreased to the lower end of the range to keep the top story deflection to a suitably low level. Succeeding chapters describe how deflections may be computed. ‘The drift criteria apply essentially t0 quasistatic conditons, When extreme force ¢onditions are possible. ar where problems involving vortex shedding or other unusual phenomena may occur, a more sophisticated approach involving a dy- namic analysis may be required. If excessive, the drift of a structure can be reduced by changing the geometric configuration to alter the mode of lateral load resistance. increasing the bending stiffness of the horizontal members, adding additional stiffness by the inclusion of stiffer wall or core members, achieving stiffer connections, and even by sloping the exterior columns, In extreme circumstances, it may be necessary to add dam- pers, which may be of the passive or active type. 2.5 HUMAN COMFORT CRITERIA If a tall flexible structure is subjected to lateral or torsional deflections under the action of fluctuating wind loads, the resulting oscillatory movements can induce a wide range of responses in the building's occupants, ranging from mild discomfort fo acute nausea. Motions that have psychological or physiological effects on the occupants may thus result in an otherwise acceptable structure becoming an un desirable or even unrentable building There are as yet no universally accepted international standards for comfort criteria, although they are under consideration, and engineers must base their dé- sign criteria on an assessment of published data. It is generally agreed that accel- eration is the predominant parameter in determining human response to vibration, but other factors such as period, amplitude, body orientation, visual and acoustic cues, and even past experience can be influential. Threshold curves are available that give various limits for human behavior. ranging from motion perception through work difficulty to ambulatory limits, in terms of acceleration and period.‘A dynamic analysis is then required to allow the predicted response of the building to be compared with the threshold limits. The questions of human response to motion, comfort criteria, and their influ- ence on structural design are considered in Chapter 17 2.6 CREEP, SHRINKAGE, AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS In very ull concrete buildings. the cumulative vertical movements due to ercep and shrinkage may be sufficiently large to cause distress in nonstructural element and to induce significant structural actions in the horizontal elements. especially in the upper regions of the building. In assessing these long-term deformations, the influence of # number of significant factors must be considered. particularly the conerete properties. the loading history and age of the concrete at load appli- cation. and the volume~surface ratio and amount of reinforcement in the members concemec. The structural actions in the horizontal elements caused by the resulting relative vertical deflections of their supports can then be estimated, The differential movements due (0 creep and shrinkage must be considered structurally and accom- modated as far as possible in the architectural details at the design stage. However. by attempting to achieve a uniformity of stress in the vertical components. it is possible 19 reduce as far as possible any relative vertical movement due to creep. In the construction phase. in addition to creep and shrinkage. elastic shortening will occur in the vertical elements of the lower levels due to the additional loads imposed ty the upper stories as they are completed. Any cumulative differential movements will affect the stresses in the subsequent structure, especially in build- ings that include both in situ and precast components. In buildings with partially or fully exposed exterior columns, significant tem- Perature differences may occur between exterior and interior columns, and any restraint to their relative deformations will induce stresses in the members con- cemed. The analysis of such actions requires a knowledge of the differential tem- Peratures hat are likely to occur between the building and its exterior and the temperature gradient through the members. This will allow an evaluation of the free thermal length changes that would occur if no restraint existed, and, hence, using a standard elastic analysis, the resulting thermal stresses and deformations may be determined. Practical methods for analyzing the effects of creep, shrinkage. and temperature are discussed in Chapter 18. 2.7 FIRE The design considerations for fire prevention and protection, smoke control, fire- fighting, and escape are beyond the scope of a book on building structures, How- ever, since fire appears to be by far the most common extreme situation that will OC re ae ermuee ery =| Uae catise damage in structures, i¢ must bea primary consideration in the design pro- cess, ‘The characteristic feature of a fire, such as the temperature and duration, can be estimated from a knowledge of the important parameters involved. particularly the quantity and nature of combustible material present. the possibility and extent of ventilation, and the geometric and thermal properties of the fire compartment involved. Once the temperatures at the various surfaces have been determined, from the gas temperature curve. it is possible to estimate the heat flow through the insulation and structural members. A knowledge of the temperature gradient across the member. and the degree of restraint afforded by the supports and surrounding structure. enables the stresses in the member to be evaluated. The mechanical Properties of the structural materials, particularly the elastic modulus or stiffness and strength. may deteriorate rapidly as the temperature rises, and the resistance to loads is greatly reduced. For example the yield stress of mild steel at a temper- ature of 700°C is only some 10-20% of its value at room temperature, Over the same temperature range. the elastic modulus drops by around 40-50%, The enitical temperature at which large deflections or collapse occurs will thus depend on the materials used. the nature of the structure, and the loading conditions, ‘The parameters that govern the approach are stochastic in nature, and the results of any calculation can be given only in probabilistic terms. The aim should be (o achieve a homogeneous design in which the risks due to the different extreme tuations are comparable. Designing against fire is, however. a specialist discipline, and the interested reader is referred to the Monograph on Tall Buildings (Vol. CL) [2 2.8 FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT AND SOIL-STRUCTURE INTERACTION ‘The gravity and lateral forces on the building will be transmitted to the earth through the foundation system, and, as the principles of foundation design are not affected by the quality of tallness of the superstructure, conventional approaches will suf- fice. The concern of the structural designer is then with the influence of any foun dation deformation on the building's structural behavior and on the soil-stricture interactive forces. Because of its height, the loads transmitted by the columns in a tall building can be very heavy. Where the underlying soil is tock or other strong stable subgrade, foundations may be carried down to the stiff load-bearing layers by use of piles, caissons, or deep basements. Problems are not generally encountered with such conditions since large variations in column loadings and spacings can be accommodated with negligible differential settlement. In areas in which soil con- ditions are poor, loadings on foundation elements must be limited to prevent shear- ing failures or excessive differential settlements. Relief may be obtained by ex- cavating a weight of soil equal to a significant portion of the gross building weight. Because of the high short-term transient moments and shears that arise from windtoads, particular attention must be given to the design of the foundation system for resisting moments and shears, especially if the precompression due to the dead weight of the building is not sufficient 10 overcome the highest tensile stresses. caused by wind moments. leading to uplift on the foundation. The major influences of foundation deformations are twofold. First. if the bases of vertical elements yield, a stress redistribution will occur, and the extra loads imposed on other elements may then further increase the deformation there. The influence of the relative displacements on the forces in the horizontal elements must then be assessed. Second, if an overall rotational settlement @ of the entire foundation occurs. the ensuing lateral deftections will be magnified by the height to give a top deflection of H@. As well as increasing the maximum drift. the movement will have a destabilising effect on the structure as a whole. by increasing. any P-Delta effects that occur (ef. Chapter 16). sthucture interaction involves both static and dynamic behavior. The for- mer is generally treated by simplified models of subgrade behavior, and finite cle- ment methods of analysis are usual. When considering dynamic effects. both in- teractions between soil and structure, and any amplification caused by a coincidence of the natural frequencies of building and foundation, must be included. Severe permanent structural damage may be caused by earthquakes when large deforma- tions occur due to the soil being compacted by the ground vibration, which under certain conditions may result in the development of excess hydrostatic pressures sufficient to produce liquefac instability may be prevented or reduced in intensity by appropriate soil investigation and foundation design. On the other hand, the dynamic response of buildings to ground vibrations, which is also affected by soil conditions, cannot be avoided and must be considered in desigr, A general discussion ofall aspects of the design of foundations for tall buildings is given in Reference 2.2. SUMMARY Probability-based limit states concepts form the basis of modem structural design codes. This chapter summarizes the most important limit states involved in the design of tall building structures. Ultimate limit states are concerned with the max- imum load and carrying capacity of the structure, where the probability of failure must be very low, whereas serviceability limit states are concemed with actions that occur during the service life of the structure, and are permitted to/have a much ‘higher probability of occurrence, The most important ultimate limit state requirement is that the structure should have adequate strength and remain stable under all probable load combinations that may occur during the construction and subsequent life of the building. When assessing stability, any second-order P-Delta effects in heavily loaded slender ‘members must be considered, Any stresses induced by relative movements caused ‘by creep, shrinkage, and temperature differentials must be included. ae ‘One major serviceability limit state criterion lies in the provision of adequate atiffness, particularly lateral stiffness, to avoid excessive cracking in concrete and to avoid any toad transfer to non-load-bearing components. to avoid excessive secondary P-Delta moments caused by lateral deflections, and to prevent any dy- pamic motions that would affect the comfort of the occupants. One measure of the stiffness is the drift of the structure and this should be limited to the range of 0,0015 to 0.003 of the total height. Similar limits should be imposed on the ac- ceptable interstory drift index. The stresses and loss of stiffness that might result from a building fire must be 4 major consideration, as this is not a remote possibility. However. designing against fire is a specialist discipline that cannot be covered in any detail here, Although the principles of foundation design are not affected by the height of a building, the situation for tall buildings is different as @ result of the high short ferm transient moments and shears that arise from wind loads. The high dead load caused by the height of the building produces large compressive stresses on the foundation, and excessive differential settlements must be avoided. Any lateral deflections caused by rotational settlement will be magnified by the height of the building, and the soil-structure interaction must be considered, particularly under: seismic actions. REFERENCES 2.1 Tall Building Criveria and Loading. Vol. CL. Monograph on Planning and Design of Tall Buildings. ASCE. 1980. pp. 251-390 Tall Building Systems and Concepis, Vol. SC. Monograph on Planning and Design of Tall Buildings, ASCE, 1980, pp. 259-340.ME CHAPTER 3 Loading Loading on tall buildings differs from loading on low-rise buildings in its accu- mulation into much larger structural forces, in the increased significance of wind loading. and in the greater importance of dynamic effects. The collection of gravity loading over a large number of stories in a tall building can produce column loads ‘of an order higher than those in low-rise buildings. Wind loading on a tall building acts not only over a very large building surface, but alsa with greater intensity at the greater heights and with a larger moment arm about the base than on a low- rise building. Although wind loading on a low-rise building usually has an insig- nificant influence on the design of the structure, wind on a high-rise building can have @ dominant influence on its structural arrangement and design. In an extreme case of a very slender of flexible structure, the motion of the building in the wind May have to be considered in assessing the loading applied by the wind. In earthquake regions. any inertial loads from the shaking of the ground may well exceed the loading duc to wind and, therefore, be dominant in influencing the building's structural form, design. and cost. As an inemtial problem, the build- ing’s dynamic response plays a large part in influencing. and in estimating, the effective loading on the structure. With the exception of dead loading, the loads on a building cannot be assessed accurately. While maximum gravity live loads can be anticipated approximately from previous field observations, wind and earthquake loadings are random in nature. more difficult to measure from past events, and even more difficult to pre- diet with confidence. The application of probabilistic theory has helped to ration- alize, if not in every case to simplify, the approaches to estimating wind and earth- quake loading. Itis cifficult 1o discuss approaches to the estimation of loading entirely in gen- eralities because the variety of methods in the differeat Codes of Practice, although rationally based, tend to be empirical in their presentation. Therefore, in some parts of this chapter, methods from reasonably representative modem Codes are given in detail to illustrate current philosophies and trends. 3.1 GRAVITY LOADING Although the tributary areas, and therefore the gravity loading, supported by the beams and slabs in a tall building do not differ from those in a low-rise building. 18 9.) GRAVITY LOADING. the accumulation in the former of many staries of loading by the columns and “Walls can be very much greater ‘As ina low-rise building, dead loading is calculated from the designed member Sizes and estimated material densities, This is Prone to minor inaccuracies such as “ifferences between the real and the designed sizes, and between the actual and the assumed densities, Live londing is specified as the intensity of a uniformly distributed floor loud, secording to the occupancy or use of the space, In certain situations such as in parking. areas. offices, and plant rooms, the floors should be considered for the alternative worst possibility of specified concentrated loads. The magnitudes of live loading specified in the Codes are estimates based on a Combination of experience and the results of typical field surveys. The differences between the live load magnitudes in the Codes of different countries (some ex. amples of which are shown in Table 3.1 (3.1]) indicate a lack of unanimity and Gonsistency sufficient to raise questions about their accuracy. Load capacily ex= Periments have shown that even the Code values, which are usually aceepied as conservative, may in some circumstances underestimate the maximum, possible values, Patter distribution of gravity live loading over adjacent and altemate Spans should be considered in estimating the local maxima for member forces, while live load reductions may be allowed to account for the improbability oF total loading being applied simultancously over larger areas, 3.1.1 Methods of Live Load Reduction The philosophy of live load reduction is that although, at some time in the life of 4 structure, itis probable that a small area may be subjected to the full intensity TABLE 3.1 Live Load Magnitudes United Great USSR, States Britain Japan (SN and (ANSI (CP3-CH.V (AU PLLA. Ie AS8.1-1972)——PT.1:1967) Standard) 62) kPa psf kPa psf_kPaops Pa pak Office buildings Offices 24 % 25 53 29 6 20 ab Corridors 3.8 O25 3 2900 a6) Lobiies 48 100 25. 52 "a9 Sig ee Residential ‘Apartments LS 3p he org Howe! 19. 40 20 2 us ee Corridors 3880 1837029 Public rooms 48100 2.0. 4235 78 al Fram Ref. (3.1) "Same values as for occupancyof live load, itis improbable that the whole of a large area or a collection of areas, and the members supporting them, will be subjected simultaneously to the full live oad, Consequently, it is reasonable to design the girders and columns ‘supporting 2 large tributary area for significantly less than the full live loading. The different methods of live load reduction generally allow for the girders. columns, and walls to be designed for a reduced Proportion of the full live load with an increased amount of supported area. An upper limit is usually placed on the reduction in order to retain an adequate margin of safety. The following three examples of methods of live load reduction serve to illus- trate how the general philosophy may be applied [3.1] |. Simple percentages may be specified for the reductions and for the limiting amount, For example. the supporting members may be designed for 100% Of the live lead on the roof, 85% of that on the top floor, and further reduc. tions of 5% for cach successive floor down toa minimum of 50% of the live load. + A tributary area formula may be given, allowing a more refined definition of the reduction. with the limit built into the formula. For example, the Supporting members may be designed for a live load equal to the basic live ‘oad multiplied by a factor 0.3 + 10/A. where A is the accumulated area in square feet 3. An even more sophisticated formula-type method may define the maximum reduction in terms of the dead-to-live load ratio. For example, jt may be Specified that the maximum percentage reduction shall not exceed [100 x (D + L)1/4. 332, in which D and L are the intensities of dead and live lozding, respectively. This particular limit is intended to ensure that if the full live load should occur over the full tributary area, the element would no be stressed to the yield point, 3.1.2. Impact Gravity Loading Impact loading occurs as a gravity live load in the case of an elevator being ac- celerated upward or brought to a rest on its way down, An increase of 100% of the static elevator load has usually been used to give a satisfactory performance of the supporting structure [3.1]. 3.1.3 Construction Loads Construction loads are often claimed to be the most severe loads that a building has to withstand. Certainly, many more failures occur in buildings under construe. tion than in those that are complete, but it is rare for special provision to be made for constriction loads in tall building design. If, however. in a building with an unusual structure, a lack of consideration for construction loading could increase the total cost of the project, an carly liaison between the designer and contractor on making some provision would obviously be desirable _ ae hae = a Typically, the construction load that has to be supported is the weight of the floor forms and a newly placed slab, which, in total, may equal twice the floor dead load, This load is supported by props that transfer it to the three oF four Previously constructed floors below. Now. with the possibility of as little as 3-day cycle. oreven 2-day cycle, story construction, and especially with concrete pump= ing. which requires a more liquid mix, the problem is more severe: this is because the newly released slab, rather than contributing to supporting the construction loads. is still in need of support itself, The climbing crane is another common construction load. This is usually sup- Ported by connecting it 10 a number of floors below with, possibly, additional shoring in stories further below. 3.2 WIND LOADING The lateral loading due to wind or eanhquake is the major factor that causes the design of high-rise buildings to differ from those of low- to medium-rise buildings, For buildings of up to about 10 stories. and of typical proportions, the desiga is rarely affected by wind loads. Above this height, however, the increase in size of the structural members, and the possible rearrangement of the structure to account for wind loading, incurs a cost premium that increases progressively with height. With innovations in architectural treatment, increases in the strengths of materials, and advances in methods of analysis. tall building structures have become more cfficient and lighter and, consequently, more prone to deflect and even ta. sway under wind loading. This served as a spur to research, which has produced signif= icant advances in understanding the nature of wind loading and in developing methods for its estimation. These developments have been mainly in experimental and theoretical techniques for determining the increase in wind loading due to gusting and the dynamic interaction of structures with gust forces. The following review of some representative Code methods, which includes ‘ones that are relatively advanced in their consideration of gust loading, summarizes the state of the art. The first method described is a static approach, in that it ase sumes the building to be a fixed rigid body in the wind. Static methods are appro- Priate for tall buildings of unexceptional height, slenderness, or susceptibility to vibration in the wind. The subsequently described dynamic methods are for ex ceptionally tall, slender, of vibration-prone buildings. These may be defined, for example, as in the Uniform Building Cade (3.2), as those of height greater than 400 ft (123 m), or of a height greater than five times their width, or those with structures that are sensitive to wind-excited oscillations. Alternatively. such ex- ceptional buildings may be defined in.a more rigorous way according to the natural frequency and damping of the structure, as well as to its proportions and height (3.3) ‘The methods are now explained with a level of detail intended to convey for ‘cach its philosophy of approach. For more detailed information, sufficient to allow the use of the methods, the reader is referred to the particular Codes of Practice,3.2.1 Simple Static Approach Uniform Building Code (1988) Method [3.2]. The method is representative of modem static methods of estimating wind louding in that it accounts for the effects of gusting and for local extreme pressures over the faces of the building, It alse accounts for local differences in exposure between the open countryside and a city center, as well as allowing for vital facilities such as hospitals, and fire and Police stations, whose safety must be ensured for use after an extreme windstorm, ‘The design wind pressure is obtained from the formula P= CC gd (3.1) in which C, is a coefficient to account for the combined effects of height, exposure, and gusting, as defined in Table 3.2 , is a coefficient that allows for locally higher pressures for wall and roof clements as compared with average overall presstires used in the design of the Primary structure, For example. C, has a value of 1.4 when using the projected area methad of calculating wind loading for structures over 40 ft in height, whereas it has a local value of 2.0 at wall comers, The pressure q, is a wind stagnation pressure for a minimum basic S0-year wind speed at a height of 30 ft above ground. as given for different regions of the United States in a wind speed comtour map, Where tocal records indicate greater than basic value of the wind speed. this value should be used instead in determining 4, The importance factor / is taken as 1.15 for postdisaster buildings and 1.00 for all other buildings. TABLE 3.2 Combined Height, Exposure, and Gust Factor Coefficient (C.) Height above Average Level of Adjoining Ground (ft) Exposure C* Exposure BY 0-20 12 07 20-40 13 0.8 40-60 1s 10 60-100 16 La 100-150 18 13 150-200 19 La 200-300 24 Le 300-400 22 18 Reproduced from the 1988 edition of the Uniform Building Code, cupye ght © 198k With the permission of the publishers. the Intemational Cunterence uf Building OF Fics “Exposure C represents the most severe exposure with a flat and sipen terrain, Ee posure B has terrain with buildings. forest_or surtace irmegularitios 20 fw owas in height —— ee ee eae 3.2.2. Dynamic Methods If the building is exceptionally slender or tall, or if it is located in extremely severe: ‘exposure conditions, the effective wind loading on the building may be increased by dynamic interaction between the motion of the building and the gusting of the Wind. If it is possible to allow for it in the budget of the building, the best method of assessing such dynamic effects is by wind tunnel tests in which the relevant properties of the building and the surrounding countryside are modeled. For build- ings that are not so extreme as to demand a wind tunnel test, but for which the imple design procedure is inadequate, alternative dynamic methods of estimating the wind loading by calculation have been developed. The wind tunnel experi- mental method and one of the dynamic calculation methods will be reviewed briefly Wind Tunnel Experimental Method. Wind twanel tests to determine loading may be quasisteady for determining the static pressure distribution or force on a building. The pressure or force coefficients so developed are then used approach is satisfactory for buildings whose motion is negligible and therefore has little effect on the wind loading If the building stendcmess or flexibility is such that its response to excitation by the energy of the gusts may significantly influence the effective wind loading, the wind tunnel test should be a fully dynamic one, In this case, the elastic struce tural properties and the mass distribution of the building as well ay the relevant characteristics of the wind should be modeled Building models for wind tunnel tests are constructed to scales which vary from joo (0 Two. depending on the size of the building and the size of the wind tunnel, with a scale of gj being common. Tall buildings typically exhibit a combination ‘of shear and bending behavior that has a fundamental sway mode comprising a flexurally shaped lower region and a relatively linear upper region. This can be represented approximately in wind tunnel tests by a rigid model with a flexurally spring base. It is not necessary in such a model to represent the distribution of ‘mass in the building, but only its moment of inemia about the base. More complex models are used when additional modes of oscillation are ex= pected including, possibly, torsion. These models consist of lumped masses, Springs. and flexible rods, designed to simulate the stiffnesses and mass properties of the prototype. Wind pressure measurements are made by flush surface pressure taps on the faces of the models, and pressure transducers are used to obtain the mean, root mean square (RMS), and peak pressures. The wind characteristics that have to be generated in the wind tunnel are the vertical profile of the horizontal velocity, the turbulence intensity, and the power spectral density of the longitudinal component. Special “boundary layer” wind tunnels have been designed to generate these characteristics. Some use long work- ing sections in which the boundary layer develops naturally over a rough floor:other shorter ones include grids, fences. or spires at the test section entrance to- gether with a rough floor, while some activate the boundary layer by jets or driven flaps. The working sections of the tunnel are up to a maximum of about 6 f and they operate at atmospheric pressure [3.4]. Detailed Analytical Method. Wind tunnel testing is 2 highly specialized, complex, and expensive procedure, and can be justified only for very high cost projects. To bridge the gap between those buildings that require only a simple approach 10 wind loading and those that clearly demand a wind tunnel dynamic test, more detailed analytical methods have been developed that allow the dynamic wind loading to be calculated (3.5, 3.6]. The method described here is based an the pioneering work of Davenport and is now included in the National Building Code of Canada, NBCC (3.7. 3.8}. ‘The external pressure or suction p on the surface of the building is obtained using the basic equation P= 9.G,C (3.2) in which the exposure factor C, is based on a mean wind speed vertical profile, which varies according to the roughness of the surrounding terrain, Three types of exposure are considered: generally open terrain with minimal obstruction; semi: obstructed terrain such as suburban, urban, and wooded areas, and heavily obstructed areas with heavy concentrations of tall buildings and at least 50% of all the buildings exceeding four stories. A formula expressing the value of C, as a power of the height is given in the Code for each of the three exposure conditions. The gust effect factor C, is the ratio of the expected peak loading effect to the mean loading effect. It allows for the variable effectiveness of different sizes of gusts and for the load magnification effect caused by gusts in resonance with the vibrating structure. C, is given in the Code by a series of formulas and graphs that, although not difficult to use, are too complex to describe here. They can be summarized briefly, however, as expressing the loading effect in terms of the in- teraction between the wind speed spectrum and the fundamental mode dynamic response of the structure, which involves the natural frequency and damping of the structure, using a transfer or admittance function. Coefficient C, is the external pressure coefficient averaged over the area of the surface considered. Its value is influenced by the shape of the building. the wind direction, and the profile of the wind velocity, and is usually determined from the wind tunnel experiments on small-scale models Details of the method are given in the National Building Code of Canada and in its Supplement (3.7, 3.8]. A similar method by [3.6] is claimed to give conservative wind loads, but of a significantly lower magnitude than those from the NBCC method. Obviously scope exists for further verification and, possibly, simplification of the dynamic load calculation methods. 3.3 EARTHQUAKE LOADING Earthquake loading consists of the inertial forces of the building mass that result from the shaking of its foundation by a seismic disturbance. Earthquake resistant design concentrates particularly on the translational inertia forces. whose effects on a building are more significant than the vertical or rotational shaking compo~ ents. Other severe earthquake forces may exist, such as those due to landsliding. subsidence, active faulting below the foundation, or liquefaction of the local subgrade as a result of vibration. These disturbances, however, which are local effects, can be so massive as to defy any economic eanhquake-resistant design, and their possibility may suggest instead the selection of an altemative site. Where earthquakes occur. their intensity is related inversely to their frequency of occurrence: severe earthquakes are rare, moderate ones occur more often, and minor ones are relatively frequent. Although it might be possible to design a build- ing to resist the most severe earthquake without significant damage. the unlikely need for such strength in the lifetime of the building would not justify the high additional cost. Consequently. the general philosophy of earthquake-resistant de~ sign for buildings is based on the principles that they should: 1. resist minor earthquakes without damage; 2. resist moderate earthquakes without structural damage but accepting the probability of nonstructural damage: 3. resist average earthquakes with the probability of structural as well as non- structural damage. but without collapse. Some adjustments are made to the above principles to recognize that certain buildings with a vital function to perform in the event of an earthquake should be stronger. ‘The magnitude of earthquake loading is a result of the dynamic response of the building to the shaking of the ground. To estimate the seismic loading two general approaches are used, which take into account the properties of the structure and the past record of earthquakes in the region. The first approach, tcrmed the equivalent lateral force procedure. uses a simple estimate of the structure's fundamental period and the anticipated maximum ground acceleration, or velocity, together with other relevant factors, to determine a max- imum base shear. Horizontal loading equivalent to this shear is then distributed in some prescribed manner throughout the height of the building to allow a static analysis of the structure. The design forces used in this equivalent static analysis are less than the actual forees imposed on the building by the corresponding earth- quake, The justification for using lower design forces includes the potential for greater strength of the structure provided by the working stress levels, the damping provided by the building components, and the reduction in force duc to the effec- tive ductility of the structure as members yield beyond their elastic limits. The‘method is simple and rapid and is recommended for unexceptionally high buildings with unexceptional structural arrangements. It is also useful for the preliminary design of higher buildings and for those of « more unusual structural arrangement, which may subsequently be analyzed for seismic loading by a more appropriate method. The second, more refined. procedure is a modal analysis in which the modal frequencies of the structure are analyzed and then used in conjunction with earth- quake design spectra to estimate the maximum modal responses, These are then combined to find the maximum values of the responses. The procedure is more complex and longer than the equivalent lateral force procedure, but it is more accurate 2s well as being able to account approximately for the nonlinear behavior of the structure. The two procedures are now discussed in more detail 3.3.1 Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure In the United States there are various code methods with similarities in some re- spects but having fundamental philosophical differences in the ways they express the seismicity of a region and the effect of the type of structural system: for ex- ample. the BOCA Basic Building Code [3.9}, the National Building Code [3.10]. the Standard Building Code {3.11}, and the Uniform Building Code [3.2]. The equivalent lateral force method in the Uniform Building Code (UBC). which is used in the western United States and in many other locations will be discussed here. It is based on the 1988 earthquake code of the Structural Engineers Associ ation of California [3.12]. Determination of the Minimum Base Shear Force. The UBC states that the structure shall be designed to resist a minimum total lateral seismic load V. which shall be assumed to act nonconcurrently in onthogonal directions parallel to the main exes of the structure, where Vis calculated from the formula v=——W (3.3) in which ¢c (3.4) The design base shear equation (3.3) provides the level of the seismic design loading for a given structural system. assuming that the structure will undergo inelastic deformation during a major earthquake. The coefficients in Eq. (3.3) take into account the effects of the seismicity of the area, the dead load, the structural type and its ability to dissipate energy without collapse. the response of the struc- ture, the interaction of the structure with the ground, and the importance of the Mructure, The zone coefficient Z corresponds numerically to the effective peak ground acceleration (EPA) of a region, and is defined for the United States by a map that isdivided into regions representing five levels of ground motion (3.2), As an EPA. it is used to scale the spectral shape given by the coefficient C, Eq. (3.4). so that the product of the coefficients Z and C represents an acceleration response spectrum envelope having a 10% probability of being exceeded in 50 years. The importance factor / is concerned with the numbers of people in the building whose safety is directly at risk. and whether the building has an immediate post- earthquake role in the safety and recovery of the community. ‘The coefficient C represents the response of the particular structure to the earth quake acceleration spectrum. The curve given by Eq, (3.4) is a simplified multi- mode acceleration respanse spectrum normalized to an effective peak ground ac- eeleration of | basis. It is a function of the fundamental period of the structure 7, and a site coefficient $, which is included to adjust the shape of the appropriate frequency response content of the site soil conditions, The UBC has categorized the broad range of soil characteristics into four types, and a site coefficient has been assigned to each of these depending on the soil type and depth, A maximum limit on C = 2.75 for any structure and soil site condition is given to provide a simple seismic load evaluation for design projects where it is not practical to eval- uate the site soil conditions and the structure period, In addition, to assure that & minimum base shear of 3% of the building weight is used in Seismic Zone 4, with Proportional values in the lower zones, a lower limit of C/Ry = 0.075 is pre- scribed. The structural system factor Ry is a measure of the ability of the structural system to sustain cyclic inelastic deformations without collapse. It is in the de nominator of the design base shear equation (3.3) so that design loads decrease for systems with large inelastic deformation capabilities, The magnitude of Rw de- pends on the ductility of the type and material of the structure. the possibility of failure of the vertical load system, the degree of redundancy of the system that would allow some localized failures without overail failure, and the ability of the secondary system, in the case of dual systems, to stabilize the building when the primary system suffers significant damage, ‘The factor Wis normally the total dead load of the building. ‘The value of V from Eq. (3.3) gives the magnitude of the total base shear that must be distributed over the height of the structure for the equivalent static anal- ysis Distribution of Total Base Shear. Having determined a value for the total base shear it is necessary, in order to proceed with the analysis, to allocate the base shear as effective horizontal loads at the various floor levels. In deciding on an appropriate distribution for the horizontal load the following factors are consid« ered.:A. The effective load at a Noor level is equal to the product of the mass assigned to that floor and the horizontal acceleration at that level. . The maximum acceleration at any level of the structure in the fundamental mode is proportional to its horizontal displacement in that mode. 3, The fundamental mode for a regular structure, consisting of shear walls and frames, is approximately linear from the base. A ressonable distribution of the total base shear throughout the height would be in accordance with a linear acceleration distribution, as given by wi, Rey se (3.5) = wh, where 1; and w, are those portions of W assigned to levels i and x, respectively: that is, the weight at or adjacent to levels / and x, and assigned to those levels for the purpose of the analysis For structures whose weight is distributed uniformly over their height, the hor- izontal load distribution resulting from Eq. (3.5) forms a triangle. with a maximum value at the top. Such a distribution has been found to be appropriate for buildings of relatively stocky proportions where only the fundamental mode is significant In more slender, longer period buildings. however, higher modes become signif- icant, causing a greater proportion of the total horizontal inertia forces to act near the top: the intensity of this effect is related to the period of the building. Conse~ quently, this is reflected in the UBC [3.2], and in other Codes. by applying a part of the total loading as a concentrated horizontal force F, at the top of the building. The remainder of the total base shear is then distributed over the height of the building as an inverted triangle. Torsion in any story of the building is prescribed in the UBC [3.2], to be taken as the product of the story shear and an eccentricity resulting from the addition of a calculated eccentricity of the mass above, from the center of rigidity of the story. and an accidental eccentricity of 3% of the plan dimension of the building perpen- dicular to the direction of the force being considered. If torsional irregularities exist, the accidental eccentricity is to be increased by an amplification factor re- lating the maximum story drift at one end of the structure to the average of the story drifts of the two ends of the structure. Explanatory material and related technical information useful to the designer in the application of the design procedure for this equivalent static approach is pro- vided in the tentative commentary of the 1988 earthquake code of the Structural Engineers Association of California [3.12]. The Applied Technology Council (ATC) produced a report in 1978 with a sec- ond printing in 1984, Tentative Provisions for the Development of Seismic Regu- lations for Buildings, ATC 3-06 Amended [3.13], for the consideration of building authorities across the United States. Its recommendations indicate the likely de- ee eee te tee velopments in the equivalent lateral force procedures of the major Codes, Details: in the approach of the ATC 3:06 have been reviewed by Berg [3.14]. Many of the ATC’s provisions have been used by SEAQC, and consequently the Intemational Conference of Building Officials, as well as the National Research Council of Canada. as key resource documents to develop their new code editions, Recom= mended Lateral Force Requirements and Tentative Commentary (3.12, Uniform Building Code (3.2), and National Building Code of Canada (3.7, respec tively. 3.3.2 Modal Analysis Procedure The equivalent static load type of analysis is suitable for the majority of high-rise structures. If, however, either the lateral load resisting elements or the vertical distribution of mass are significantly irregular over the height of the building. as in buildings with large floor-to-floor variations of internal configuration, or with setbacks, an analysis that tukes greater consideration of the dynamic characteristics of the building must be made. Usually. in such cases. a modal analysis would be appropriate. ‘A detailed explanation of the theory and procedure of modal analysis is given in Chapter 17 and in other texts [3.15, 3.16). Reviewing the method briefly. how= ever, in a modal analysis a lumped mass model of the building with horizontal degrees of freedom at each floor is analyzed to determine the modal shapes and modal frequencies of vibration. The results are then used in conjunction with an earthqtake design response spectrum, and estimates of the modal damping. 10 determine the probable maximum response of the structure from the combined effect of its various modes of oscillation. Buildings in which the mass at the floor levels is highly eccentric from the corresponding centers of resistance will be subjected to torque, causing the pos sibility of significant torsional vibrations and of coupling between the lateral and torsional mode. The modal method can also be applied to the analysis of such a building, by adding to the structural model a third, rotational, degree of freedom at each floor level. The modal method is applicable, in the strictest sense, only to linear elastic systems. Consequently, the results for a building structure's response are, at best, only an approximate estimate, because of its typically being designed to suffer significant inelastic deformations in only moderate earthquakes. More accurate values of response may be obtained for some buildings by the modal analysis method. using modified design response spectra for inelastic systems [3.16]. 3.4 COMBINATIONS OF LOADING Methods of accounting for load combinations and their effects on the design of members vary according to the Code used and to the design philosophy. The come bi ion of dead and live loading with reductions in the live loading to allow forthe improbability of fully loaded tributary areas, and considering patterned live loading for the worst effects. have already been discussed. ‘The wpproaches to combinations of loading by (wo north American Codes. the Uniform Building Code (3.2) and the National Building Code of Canada (3.7). will be referred to as representative of many of the major building Codes. 3.4.1 Working Stress Design ‘The UBC and NBCC both assume that wind and earthquake loading need not be taken to act simultaneously. The UBC considers the improbability of extreme grav- ity and wind, or earthquake. loadings acting simultaneously by allowing for the combination 2 one-third increase in the permissible working stresses. which is equivalent to a 25% reduction in the sum of the gravity and wind. or earthquake. loading. The NBCC approach to allowing for the improbability of the loads acting simul- taneously’ is to apply a reduction factor to the combined loads rather than 10 allow an increase in the permissible stresses, with greater reductions for the greater num- ber of load types combined. 3.4.2 Limit States Design In limit states design, the adequacy of the building and its members is checked against factored loads in order to satisfy the various safety and serviceability’ limit states, ‘The UBC requires that the strength must be able to resist the actions resulting from the combination of the individually factored dead and live loads, where the Joad factors take into account the Variability of the load and load pattems. Ifa wind load or earthquake load is to be included, a reduction factor is applied to the-combination of the individually factored loads to allow for the improbab of the maximum values of the wind or earthquake, and other live loads occurring simultaneously, In the NBCC, three factors are required to account for combinations of loading in limit states design: a load factor, which accounts for the variability of the loads as before; a load combination factor, which is applied to loads other than dead loads and accounts for the improbability of their extreme values acting simulta- neously; and an importance factor, which allows a reduction where collapse is not likely to have serious consequences, In both the UBC and the NBCC the strength requirement is satisfied by ensuring that the factored resistance of the members is not less than the corresponding ac- tions caused by the factored loads. 3.4.3 Plastic Design In buildings in which plastic design is used for pans or the whole of the steel framed structure, available methods of analysis are based on proportional systems of loading. that is load combinations in which increasing toads maintain their rel- alive magnitudes. Consequently. all the loads within a combination are given the same load factor. ‘SUMMARY Loading on high-rise buildings differs from loading on low-rise buildings mainly in its accumulation over the height to cause very large gravity and lateral load forces within the structure. In buildings that are exceptionally slender or flexible, the building dynamics can also become important in influencing the effective load- i Gravity loading consists of dead loading. which can be predicted reasonably accurately. and live loading, whose magnitudes are estimates based on experience and field surveys. and which are predictable with much less accuracy. The prob: ability of not all parts of a floor supported by a beam, and of not all floors sup: ported by a column, being subjected to the full live loading simultaneously, is provided far by reductions in the beam loading and in the column loading, re= spectively, in accordance with various formulas. It is sometimes necessary 10 con: sider also the effects of construction loads Wind loading becomes significant for buildings over about 10 stories high, and: progressively more so with increasing height, For buildings that are not Very tall or slender, the wind loading may be estimated by a static method, Modem static methods of determining a design wind loading account for the region of the country where the building is to be located, the exposure of the particular location. the effects of gusting. and the importance of the building in a postwindstorm situation, For exceptionally tall. slender, or flexible buildings, it is recommended that a wind tunnel test on a model is made to estimate the wind loading. Boundary layer wind tunnels, which simulate the variation of wind speed with height, and the gusting are used for this purpose. For buildings that do not quite fall into the category that demands a wind tunnel. test, or for those that are in that category but whose budget dees not allow such a test, dynamic methods of calculating the wind load have been developed. Earthquake loading is a result of the dynamic response of the building to the shaking of the ground. Estimates of the loading account for the properties of the structure and the record of earthquakes in the region. For unexceptionally high buildings with unexceptional structural arrangements an equivalent lateral force method is recommended. In this, the loading is estimated on the basis of a simple approximation for the structure's fundamental period, its dead load, the anticipated ground acceleration or velocity, and other factors relating to the soil site condi- ions, structure type and the importance of its use. The method gives the value of the maximum horizontal base shear, which is then distributed as an equivalent lateral load over the height of the building so that a static analysis can be per- formed.If the building is exceptionally tall, or imegular in its structure or its mass dis- tnbution, a modal analysis procedure is recommended for estimating the earth: quake loading. The modal shapes and frequencies of vibrution are analyzed; these are used in conjunction with an eanhquake design response spectrum and estimates of the modal damping to determine the probable maximum responses. The modal method ¢an also allow for the simultaneous torsional oscillation of the building. Methods of combining types of loading vary wecarding to the design method and the Code of Practice concemed. Although dead load is considered to act in full all the time. live loads do not necessarily do so. The probability of the full gravity live loading acting with either the full wind, earthquake, or temperature loading is low, and of all of them acting together ig even lower. This is reflected in the Codes by applying a greater reduction factor to those combinations incor- Porating more different types of loading, Wind and earthquakes are assumed never to act simultaneously. REFERENCES 3.1 Tall Building Criteria and Loading. Monograph on Planning and Design of Tall Buildings, Vol. CL, ASCE, New York, 1980, 3.2 Untiorm Building Code, 1988, Imemational Conference of Building Officials, Whit- tier, California, 3.3. Cock, N. J. The Designer's Guide 1a Wind Loading of Building Structures, Part 1, Building Research Establishment Repo, Butterworths. London. 1985. 3.4 Simu, E, and Scanlan, R. H. Wind Effects on Siructures, 2ad ed,, Wiley Intersci- ence, New York, 1986. 3.5 Davenport. A. G. “Gust loading factors,” J. Struct. Div.. Proc. A.S-C-E, 93, June 1967, 12-34. 3.6 Simiu, E. “Equivalent static wind loads for tall building design,"" J. Struct, Div. Proc. 4.S.C.E. 102, April 1976, 719-737. 3.7 National Building Code of Canada, 1990, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Canada. 3.8 Supplement to she National Building Code ef Canada, 1990, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Canad 3.9 The BOCA Basie Building Code—1990, Building Officials and Code Administrators Imersational, Homewood, Illinois. 3.10 The Navional Building Code~1976, American Insurance Association, New York 3.11 Standard Building Code, 1988 Edivion, Souther Building Code Congeess Intema- tional, Birmingham, Alabama. 3:12 Recommended Laterat Force Requirements and Commentary. Seismology Commit- tee, Structural Engineers Association of California, 1988. 3.13 Tentative Provisions for the Development of Seismic Regulations for Buildings, ATC 3-06 Amended. Applied Technology Council, National Bureau of Standards. Wash- ington, D.C., 1984. S14 Berg, G. V. Seismic Design Codes and Procedures, Banhquake Engineering Re- search Institute, Berkeley, California, 1982. 31S Clough. R. W. and Penzien, J. Dynamics of Srrucneres, MeGraw-Hill, New York. 1975, 3.16 Newmark. N- M. and Hall. W. J. Earthquake Spectra and Design, Earthquake En- gineering Research Institute. Berkeley. California, 1982,ME CHAPTER 4 Structural Form From the structural engineer's point of view, the determination of the structural form of a high-rise building would ideally involve only the selection and arrange- ment of the major structural elements to resist most efficiently the various com- binations of gravity and horizontal loading. In reality. however. the choice of structural form is usually strongly influenced by other than structural considera- tions. The range of factors that has to be taken into account in deciding the struc- tural form includes the intemal planning. the material and method of construction. the external architectural treatment, the planned location and routing of the service systems, the nature and magnitude of the horizontal loading, and the height and proponions of the building. The taller and more slender a building. the more im- portant the structural factors become, and the more necessary it is to choose an appropriate structural form In high-rise buildings designed for a similar purpose and of the same material and height, the efficiency of the structures can be compared roughly by their weight per unit Foor area. In these terms. the weight of the floor framing is influenced mainly by the floor span and is virtually independent of the building height, while the weight of the columns, considering gravity load only, is approximately pro- portional to the height (Fig. 4.1). Buildings of up to 10 stories designed for gravity loading can usually accommodate wind loading without any increase in member sizes, because of the typically allowed increase in permissible stresses in Design Codes for the combined loading. For buildings of more than 10 stories, however, the additional material required for wind resistance increases nonlinearly with height so that for buildings of 50 stories and more the selection of an appropriate structural form may be critical for the economy, and indeed the viability, of the building. A major consideration affecting the structural form is the function of the build- ing. Modem office buildings call for large open floor spaces that can be subdivided with lightweight partitioning to suit the individual tenant's needs. Consequently. the structure's main vertical components are generally arranged, as far as possible, around the perimeter of the plan and, internally, in groups around the elevator, stair, and service shafts (Fig. 4.2). The floors span the areas between the exterior and interior components, leaving large column-free areas available for office plan- ning. The services are distributed horizontally in each story above the partitioning and are usally concealed in a ceiling space. The extra depth required by this space 34 — “SIRE Canes aero 6 Tota} steo! a Ss 8 Ea ed | ied brates oo 2 16 ge Floor framing oO 10 2 30 4 50 60 70 @0 90 100 110 Number of Floors Fig. 4.1 Weight of sicel in tall buildings, causes the typical story height in an office building to be 11 ft-6 in. (3.5 m) or more In a residential building or hotel. accommodation is subdivided permanently and usually repetitively from floor to floor. Therefore. continuously vertical col- umns and walls can be distributed over the plan to form, or fit within, the parti tioning (Fig. 4.3). The services can then be run vertically. adjacent to the walls and columns or in separate shafts, to emerge in each story either very close to where required, or to be distributed horizontally from there to where required, along the corridor ceiling spaces. With the caception of the corridors, therefore, a ceiling space is not required, and the soffit of the slab can serve as the ceiling. This allows the story heights in a typical residential building or hotel to be kept down to approximately 8 f-8 in. (2.7 m). A 40-story residential building is. there fore, generally of significantly less height than a 40-story office building, In addition to satisfying the previously mentioned nonstructural requirements, the principal objectives in choosing a building's structural form are to arrange 10 support the gravity. dead and live. loading, and to resist at all levels the external yt Perimeter columns Large, clear Floor space brEo Central core Fig. 4.2 Plan of office block (tube-type).WS CHAPTER 4 Structural Form From the structural engineer's point of view. the determination of the structural form of a high-rise building would ideally involve only the selection and arrange~ ment of the major structural elements to resist most efficiently the various com- binations of gravity and horizontal loading. in reality. however. the choice of structural form is usually strongly influenced by other than structural considera- tions, The range of factors that has to be taken into account in deciding the struc- tural form includes the internal planning, the material and method of construction, the extemal architectural treatment, the planned location and routing of the service systems, the nature and magnitude of the horizontal loading, and the height and proportions of the building. The taller and more slender a building, the more im- portant the structural factors become, and the more necessary it is to choose an appropriate structural form. In high-rise buildings designed for a similar purpose and of the same material and height, the efficiency of the structures can be compared roughly by their weight per unit floor area. In these terms, the weight of the floor framing is influenced ‘mainly by the floor span and is virtually independent of the building height. while the weight of the columns, considering gravity load only, is approximately pro- portional to the height (Fig. 4.1). Buildings of up to 10 stories designed for gravity loading can usually accommodate wind loading without any increase in member sizes, because of the typically allowed increase in permissible stresses in Design ‘Codes for the combined loading. For buildings of more than 10 stories, however, the additional material required for wind resistance increases nonlinearly with height so that for buildings of 50 stories and more the selection of an appropriate structural form may be critical for the economy, and indeed the viability, of the ‘building. A major consideration affecting the structural form is the function of the build- ing. Modem office buildings call for large open floor spaces that can be subdivided with lightweight partitioning to suit the individual tenant's needs. Consequently, the structure's main vertical components are generally arranged, as far as possible, around the perimeter of the plan and, intemally, in groups around the elevator. stair, and service shafts (Fig. 4.2). The floors span the areas between the exterior and interior components, leaving large column-free areas available for office plan- ning. The services are distributed horizontally in each story above the partitioning and are usually concealed in a ceiling space. The extra depth required by this space 34 Wind bracing Coluens Mesght of steel (1b/xa. ft) Floor framing, 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 69 70 BG 80 100 110 Wusber of floors Fig. 4.1. Weight of stee! in tall buildings. causes the typical story height in an office building to be 11 ft-6 in. (3.5 m) or more. In a residential building or hotel. accommodation is subdivided permanently and usually repetitively from floor to floor. Therefore, continuously vertical col- ums and walls can be distributed over the plan to form, or fit within, the pami- tioning (Fig, 4.3). The services can then be run vertically, adjacent to the walls and columns or in separate shafis, 10 emerge in each story either very close to where required, or to be distributed horizontally from there to where required, along the corridor ceiling spaces. With the exception of the corridors, therefore, ceiling space is not required, and the soffit of the slab can serve as the ceiling. This allows the story heights in a typical residential building or hotel to be kept down to approximately 8 ft-8 in. (2.7 m). A 40-story residential building is. there- fore, generally of significantly less height than a 40-story office building. In addition to satisfying the previously mentioned nonstructural requirements, the principal objectives in choosing a building's structural form are to arrange to support the gravity, dead and live, loading, and to resist at all levels the extemal Perimeter columns Large, clear floor soace - Central core pxeg Fig. 4.2 Plan of office block (tube-type).Fig. 4.3. Plan of residential block. horizontal load shear, moment. and torque with adequate strength and stiffness. ‘These requirements should be achieved, of course, as economically as possible With regard to horizontal loading, a high-rise building is essentially a vertical cantilever. This may comprise one or more individually acting vertical cantilevers, such as shear walls or cores, each bending about its own axis and acting in unison only through the horizontal in-plane rigidity of the floor slabs. Alternatively, the cantilever may comprise a number of columns or walls that are mobilized to act compesitely, to some degree, as the chords of a single massive cantilever, by vertically shear-resistant connections such as bracing or beams, The lateral stiff- ness and strength of both of these basic cantilever systems may be further enhanced ifthe major vertical elements have different free deflection characteristics, in which case they will interact horizontally through the connecting slabs and beams. Within the constraints of the selected structural form, advantage may be taken of locating the main vertical members on plan so that the dead load compressive stresses suppress the lateral load tensile stresses, thereby avoiding the possibility of net tension occurring in the vertical members and uplift on the foundations. Particular emphasis is placed in some types of structural form on routing the grav- ity lead to the outer vertical members to achieve this purpose. Steel freming has played a pioneering role in the history of tall buildings. It is appropriate for all heights of structure and, because of its high strength-to-weight ratio, it has always been the material of construction for the tallest buildings. It allows the possibility of longer floor spans, and of partial prefabrication, leading to reduced site work and more rapid erection. Its disadvantages, however. include ceding fire and rust protection, being expensive to clad, and requiring costly di- agonal bracing or rigid-frame connections. After the earlier use of steel through the first half of the century. in the form of braced construction, it has evolved in its structural forms somewhat in parallel with reinforced concrete to include rigid-frame, shear wall, wall-frame, tube and braced-tube, and outrigger types of arrangements. as well as in forms more par- ticular 10 steel such as the suspended structure and the highly efficient massive space frame, — 4.) STRUCTURAL FORM = a7 Reinforced concrete tall buildings were introduced approximately two decades after the first steel tall buildings. Understandably, the earlier concrete building structures were influenced in form by the skeletal. column and girder arrangements of their steel counterpans. but they differed in depending on the inherent rigid: frame action of concrete construction to resist horizontal loading. Subsequently, the flat plate and flat slab forms were introduced and these, with the moment- fesistant frame. continued as the main repertoire of reinforced concrete high-rise structural form until the late 1940s. A major step forward in reinforced concrete high-rise structural form came with the introduction of shear walls for resisting horizontal loading. This was the first ina series of significant developments in the structural forms of concrete high-rise buildings, freeing them from the previous 20- to 25-story height limitations of the Figid-frame and flat plate systems. The innovation and refinement of these new forms, together with the development of higher strength concretes, has allowed the height of concrete buildings to reach within striking distance of 100 stories. Of the following structural forms, some are more appropriate to steel and others to reinforced concrete; many are suitable for cither material, while a few allow or demand a combination of materials in the same structure. They are described in a roughly historical sequence. ‘The structural form of tall buildings, as discussed so far, has concemed mainly the arrangement of the primary vertical components and their interconnections, This topic would not be complete, however. without including consideration of floor systems, because some of them play an integral part with the vertical com> Ponents in resisting the lateral, as well as the gravity. loading. The last part of the chapter is devoted, therefore, to a brief review of the floor systems used in tall buildings. Many of these are commonly used also in low-rise buildings but are included here for completeness. 4.1 STRUCTURAL FORM 4.1.1 Braced-Frame Structures In braced frames the lateral resistance of the structure is provided by diagonal members that. together with the girders, form the “‘web"" of the vertical tmuss, with the columns acting as the “‘chords’* (Fig. 4.4). Because the horizontal shear on the building is resisted by the horizontal components of the axial tensile or compressive actions in the web members, bracing systems are highly efficient in resisting lateral loads. Bracing is generally regarded as an exclusively steel system because the diag- ‘onals are inevitably subjected to tension for one or the other directions of lateral loading, Concrete bracing of the double diagonal form is sometimes used, how- ever, with cach diagonal designed as a compression member to cary the full ex- temal shear. The efficiency of bracing, in being able to produce a laterally very stiff structure for a minimum of additional material, makes it an economical structural form forSingle diagons? bracing Double diagona! Chevron Story-height knee —___— Fig. 4.4 Braced frame—showing different types of bracing any height of building, up to the very tallest. An additional advantage of fully triangulated bracing is that the girders usually participate only minimally in the lateral bracing action: consequently, the floor framing design is independent of its level in the structure and, therefore, can be repetitive up the height of the building with obvious economy in design and fabrication. A. major disadvantage of diagonal bracing is that it ebstructs the intemal planning and the location of windows and doors. For this reason. braced benis are usually incorporated internally along wall and partition lines, and especially around elevator, stair, and service shafts. An- other drawback is that the diagonal connections are expensive to fabricate and erect The tracitional use of bracing has been in story-height, bay-width modules (Fig. 4.4) that are fully concealed in the finished building. More recently, however. external larger scale bracing, extending over many stories and bays (Fig. 4.5), has been used to produce not only highly efficient structures, but aesthetically attrac- tive buildings. Bracing and its modes of behavior are described in more detail in Chapter 6 4.1.2 Rigid-Frame Structures Rigid-frame structures consist of columns and girders joined by moment-resistant connections. The lateral stiffness of a rigid-frame bent depends on the bending stifiness of the columns, girders. and connections in the plane of the bent (Fig 4.6). The figid frame's principal advantage is its open rectangular arrangement, which allows freedom of planning and easy fitting of doors and windows. If used as the only source of lateral resistance in a building. in its typical 20 fi (6 m)~30 ft (9 m) bay size, rigid framing is economic only for buildings up to about 25 stories. Above 25 stones the relatively high lateral flexibility of the frame calls for uneconomically large members in order 10 control the drift. 4) STRUCTURAL FORM $y ut bbb dd Fig. 4.5. Large-scale braced frame Rigid-frame construction is ideally suited for reinforced concrete buildings be- cause of the inherent rigidity of reinforced concrete joints. The rigid-frame form is also used for steel frame buildings. but moment-resistant connections in steel tend to be costly. The sizes of the columns and girders at any level of a rigid frame are directly influenced by the magnitude of the extemal shear at that level, and they therefore increase toward the base. Consequently. the design of the floor framing cannot be repetitive as it is in some braced frames. A further result is that sometimes it is not possible in the lowest stories to accommodate the required depth of girder within the normal ceiling space. 4 | Ye tid 4 Fig. 4.6 Rigid frame:Gravity loading also is resisted by the rigid-frame action. Negative moments are induced in the girders adjacent to the columns causing the mid-span positive moments to be significantly less than in a simply supported span. In structures in which gravity toads dictate the design, economies in member sizes that arise from this effect tend to be offset by the higher cost of the rigid joints While rigid frames of a typical scale that serve alone to resist lateral loading have an economic height limit of about 25 stories. smaller scale rigid frames in the form of a perimeter tube. or typically scaled rigid frames in combination with shear walls or braced bents, can be economic up io much greater heights. These structural forms are described Later in this chapter. The detailed behavior of rigid frames is discussed in Chapter 7. 4.1.3 Infilled-Frame Structures In many countries infilled frames are the most usual form of construction for tall buildings of up to 30 stories in height. Column and girder framing of reinforced concrete, or sometimes steel, is infilled by panels of brickwork, blockwork. or cast-in-place concrete. When an infilled frame is subjected to lateral loading, the infill behaves effec- tively as a strut along its compression diagonal to brace the frame (Fig. 4.7). Because the infills serve also as external walls or internal partitions, the system is an economical way of stiffening and strengthening the structure. The complex interactive behavior of the infill in the frame, and the rather rane dom quality of masonry, has made it difficult to predict with accuracy the stiffness and strength of an infilled frame. Indeed, at the time of writing, no method of analyzing infilled frames for their design has gained general acceptance. For these reasons, and because of the fear of the unwitting removal of bracing infills at some time in the life of the building, the use of the infills for bracing tall buildings has mainly been supplementary to the rigid-frame action of concrete frames. An out- line of a method for designing infilled frames is given in Chapter 8. Infill Dvagonal strut action of infill tebe et Fig. 4.7 Infilled frame. 4.1.4 Flat-Plate and Flat-Slab Structures ‘The flat-plate structure is the simplest and most logical of all structural forms in that it consists of uniform slabs, of 5-8 in. (12-20 cm) thickness, connected rig- idly to supporting columns (Fig. 4.27). The system, which is essentially of rein- forced concrete, is very economical in having a flat soffit requiring the most un- complicated formwork and, because the soffit can be used as the ceiling, in creating 4 minimum possible floor depth. Under lateral loading the behavior of a flat-plate structure is similar to that of a rigid frame, that is, its lateral resistance depends on the flexural stiffness of the ‘components and their connections, with the slabs corresponding to the girders of the rigid frame. It is particularly appropriate for apartment and hotel construction Where ceiling spaces are not required and where the slab may serve directly as the ceiling. The flat-plate structure is economical for spans of up to about 25 ft (8m), above which drop panels can be added to create a flat-slab structure (Fig. 4.28) for spans of up to 38 ft (12 m). Buildings that depend entirely for their lateral resistance on flat-plate or flat- slab action are economical up to about 25 stories. Previously. however, when Code requirements for wind design were less stringent, many flat-plate buildings were constructed in excess of 40 stories, and are still performing satisfactorily. 4.1.5 Shear Wall Structures Concrete of masonry continuous vertical walls may serve both architecturally as partitions and structurally to carry gravity and lateral loading. Their very high in= plane stiffness and strength makes them ideally suited for bracing tall buildings. Ina shear wall structure, such walls are entirely responsible for the lateral load resistance of the building. They act as vertical cantilevers in the form of separate planar walls, and as nonplanar assemblies of connected walls around elevator, stair, and service shafts (Fig. 4.8). Because they are much stiffer horizontally than rigid frames, shear wall structures can be economical up to about 35 stories, In contrast to rigid frames, the shear walls’ solid form tends to restrict planning where open internal spaces are required. They are well suited, however, 10 hotels and residential buildings. where the floor-by-floor repetitive planning allows the walls to be vertically continuous and where they serve simultaneously as excellent acoustic and fire insulators between rooms and apartments. If, in low- to medium-rise buildings, shear walls are combined with frames, it is reasonable to assume that the shear walls attract all the lateral loading so that the frame may be designed for only gravity loading. It is especially important in shear wall structures to try to plan the wall layout so that the lateral load tensile stresses are suppressed by the gravity load stresses. This allows them to be de- signed to have only the minimum reinforcement, Shear wall structures have been shown to perform well in earthquakes, for which case ductility becomes an im portant consideration in their design. The behavior and methods of analysis of shear wall structures are discussed in detail in Chapter 9,ali th tl y\\ ‘\ AT A Y LLLLL LL LY PDIDID IIIT ITLL a \ LZ Ah AAA Apdo Va Sse 4 Fig. 4.8 Shear wall structure. Coupled Wall Structures. A coupled wall structure is a particular, but very common, form of shear wall structure with its own special problems of analysis and design. It consists of two or more shear walls in the same plane. or almost the ‘same plane, connected at the floor levels by beams or stiff slabs (Fig. 4.9), The effect of the shear-resistant connecting members is to-cause the set of walls 10 behave in their plane partly as a composite cantilever, bending about the common centroidal axis of the walls. This results in a horizontal stiffness very much greater than if the walls acted as a set of separate uncoupled cantilevers. Coupled wails occur often in residential construction where lateral-load resist- ant cross walls, which separate the apartments, consist of in-plane coupled pairs, or trios, of shear walls between which there are corridor or window openings. Coupled shear walls are considered in detail in Chapter 10. Although shear walls are obviously more appropriate for concrete construction, they have occasionally been constricted of heavy steel plate, in the style of mas. sive vertical plate or box girders, as parts of steel frame structures. These have been designed for locations of extremely heavy shear, such as at the base of ele- vator shafts, 4.1.6 Wall-Frame Structures ‘When shear walls are combined with rigid frames (Fig. 4.10) the walls. which tend to deflect in a flexural configuration, and the frames, which tend ta deflect in ——— SO Bete eae ete Fig. 4.9 Coupled shear wall structure. Sheer wells Rigid frames ee Fig. 4.10. Wall-frame structurea shear mode, are constrained to adopt a common deflected shape by the horizontal rigidity of the girders and slabs. As a consequence. the walls and frames interact horizontally. especially at the top, to produce a stiffer and stronger structure, The interacting wall-frame combination is appropriate for buildings in the 40- to 60-story mange, well beyond that of rigid frames or shear walls alone. An additional. less well known feature of the wall-frame structure is that, in a carefully “tuned"* structure, the shear in the frame can be made approximately uniform cver the height, allowing the floor framing to be repetitive Although the wall-frame structure is usually perceived as a concrete structural form. with shear walls and conerete frames, a steel counterpant using braced frames and steel rigid frames offers similar benefits of horizontal interaction. The braced frames behave with an overall flexural tendency to interact with the shear mode of the rigid frames. Detailed descriptions of the behavior and methods of analysis for wall-frame structures are given in Chapter 11. 4.1.7 Framed-Tube Structures The lateral resistance of framed-tube structures is provided by very stiff moment- resisting frames that form a ‘tube’ around the perimeter of the building, The frames consist of closely spaced columns, 6-12 it (2~4 m) between centers. joined by deep spandrel girders (Fig. 4.11). Although the tube carries all the lateral load- ing, the gravity loading is shared between the tube and interior columns or walls. When lateral loading acts. the perimeter frames aligned in the direction of loading ‘act as the “webs” of the massive tube cantilever, and those normal to the direction of the loading act as the ‘‘flanges."* The close spacing of the columns throughout the height of the structure is usu- ally unacceptable at the entrance level. The columns are therefore merged, or ter- minated on a transfer beam, a few stories above the base so that only a few. larger, more widely spaced columns continue to the base. The tube form was developed originally for buildings of rectangular plan, and probably its most efficient use is in that shape. It is appropriate, however, for other plan shapes. and has occasion- ally been used in circular and triangular configurations. The tbe is suitable for both steel and reinforced concrete construction and has been used for buildings ranging from 40 to more than 100 stories. The highly Fepetitive pattern of the frames lends itself to prefabrication in stee!, and to the use of rapidly movable gang forms in concrete, which make for rapid construction, ‘The framed tube has been one of the most significant modem developments in high-rise structural form. It offers a relatively efficient, easily constructed struc- ture, appropriate for use up to the greatest of heights. Aesthetically, the tube"s extemally evident form is regarded with mixed enthusiasm: some praise the logic of the clearly expressed structure while others criticize the grid-like facade as small- windowed and uninterestingly repetitious. The tube structure's structural efficiency, although high. still leaves scope for improvement because the “*flange’” frames tend to suffer from "shear lag": this Ee aoe nem ere op Eolunns te carey oraesty loads Framed=tube to carry gravity and entire lateral loading ~YOOOG HATH HHUA) 4.11 Framed tube results in the mid-face ““flange”* columns being less stressed than the comer col- umns and, therefore, not contributing as fully as they could to the flange action. Tube-in-Tube or Hull-Core Structures. This variation of the framed tube consists of an outer framed tube, the “*hull.”” together with an internal elevator and service core (Fig. 4.12). The hull and core act jointly in resisting both gravity and lateral loading. In a steel structure the core may consist of braced frames. Whereas in a concrete structure it would consist of an assembly of shear walls, To some extent, the outer framed tube and the inner core interact horizontally as the shear and flexural components of a wall-frame structure, with the benefit of increased lateral stiffness. However, the structural tube usually adopts a highly dominant role because of its much greater structural depth. Bundied-Tube Structures. This structural form is notable in its having been used for the Sears Tower in Chicago—the world’s tallest building. The Sears Tower consists of four parallel rigid steel frames in each orthogonal direction, intercon= nected to form nine “*bundled" tubes (Fig. 4.13a), As in the single-tube structure, the frames in the direction of lateral loading serve as ‘‘webs" of the vertical can- tilever, with the normal frames acting as *flanges.""Core Lor taser tube) Hull (or outer: tube) Stories 91-110 _-Two tubes omitted Three odditions? tubes omitted Fig. 4.12. Tube-in-tube, The introduction of the internal webs greatly reduces the shear lag in the flanges; consequently their columns are more evenly stressed than in the single-tube struc- ture, and their contribution to the lateral stiffness is greater, This allows columns of the frames to be spaced further apart and to be less obtrusive. In the Sears Tower, advantage was taken of the bundled form to discontinue some of the tubes, and so reduce the plan of the building at stages up the height (Fig. 4.13b. c, and a, FB Braced-Tube Structures. Another way of improving the efficiency of the e3 g framed tube, thereby increasing its potential for use to even greater heights as well ge 8 as allowing greater spacing between the columns, is to add diagonal bracin, ig to the 33 é faces of the tube. This arrangement was first used in a steel structure in 1969, in BS 5 Chicago's John Hancock Building (Fig. 4.14), and in a reinforced concrete struc- 2 ture in 1985, in New York’s 780 Third Avenue Building (Fig. 4.15). In the steel tube the bracing traverses the faces of the rigid frames, whereas in the concrete structure the bracing is formed by a diagonal pattem of concrete window-size panels, poured integrally with the frame. Because the diagonals of a braced tube are connected to the columns at each intersection, they virtually eliminate the effects of shear lag in both the flange and td) Fig. 4.13, (2d) Bundled-tube.eS Fig. 4.14 Steel-braced tube. a =o Window openings. omitted to create diagonal bracing system iD Bio BREE Fig. 4.18 Concrete-braced tube, 4.1 STRUCTURAL FORM = 4 web frames. As a result, the structure behaves under lateral loading more like a ‘braced frame, with greatly diminished bending in the members of the frames. Con~ sequently, the spacing of the columns can be larger and the depth of the spandrels less, thereby allowing larger size windows than in the conventional tube structure. In the braced-tube structure the bracing contributes also to the improved per- formance of the tube in carrying gravity loading: differences between gravity load stresses in the columns are evened out by the braces transferring axial loading from the more highly to the less highly stressed columns. 4.1.8 Outrigger-Braced Structures This efficient structural form consists of a central core, comprising cither braced frames or shear walls, with horizomal cantilever ‘outrigger’ trusses or girders. connecting the core to the outer columns (Fig. 4. 16a). When the structure is loaded horizontally. vertical plane rotations of the core are restrained by the outriggers through tension in the windward columns and compression in the leeward columns, (Fig. 4.16b). The effective structural depth of the building is greatly increased. thus augmenting the lateral stiffness of the building and reducing the lateral de~ flections and moments in the core, In effect, the outriggers join the columns to the core to make the structure behave as a partly composite cantilever. Perimeter columns, other than those connected directly to the ends of the out~ riggers, can also be made to participate in the outrigger action by joining all the perimeter columns with a horizontal truss of girder around the face of the building Outrigger rrusses Braced. ‘ 4 ' 1 Compression Tenston —4| (a) {b) Fig. 4.16 (a) Outrigger-braced structure; (b) outriggerbraced structure under toad,at the outrigger level. The large, often two-story, depths of the outrigger and pe~ fimeter trusses make it desirable to locate them within the plant levels in the build- ing, The degree to which the perimeter columns of an outrigger structure behave compositely with the core depends on the number of levels of. outriggers and their stiffnesses, Multilevel outrigger structures show a considerable increase in their effective moment of resistance over single outrigger structures. This increase di- minishes, however, with each additional level of outriggers, so that four or five levels appears to be the economic limit. Outrigger-braced structures have been used for buildings from 40 to 70 stories high, but the system should be effective and efficient for much greater heights. 4.1.9 Suspended Structures ‘The suspended structure consists of a central core, or cores. with horizontal cans tilevers at roof level. to which vertical hangers of steel cable. rad. or plate are attached. The floor slabs are suspended from the hangers (Fig. 4.1 7a). ‘The advantages of this structural form are primarily architectural in that, except for the presence of the central core, the ground story can be entirely free of major vertical members, thereby allowing an open concourse: also, the hangers, because they are in tension and consequently can be of high strength stecl, have a minimum sized section and are therefore less obtrusive. The potential of this latter benefit tends to be offset, however, by the need to proof the hangers against fire and rust, thereby significantly increasing their hulk. The suspended structure has some con- struction advantages in allowing the core, cantilevers, and hangers to be con- structed while the slabs are being poured on top of each other at ground level; the slabs are then lifted in sets and fixed in position (Fig. 4.17b). The structural disadvantages of the suspended structure are that it is inefficient in first transmitting the gravity loads upward to the roof-level cantilevers before returning them through the core to the ground, and that the structural width of the building at the base is limited to the relatively narrow depth of the core. which Testricts the system to buildings of lesser height. A further problem is caused by the vertical extension of the slender hangers that. over the range from zero to full live loading, can result in significant changes in the levels of the edges of the slabs. This effect increases at each level dawn the length of the hangerand. consequently, is worst at the lowest hung floor. The problem can be limited by restricting the maximum number of floors supported by a single length of hanger to about 10, and by having multilevel cantilever systems (Fig. 4.18). Similarly to outrigger structures, and for the same reasons, the cantilevers are normally incorporated within the plant levels Variations from the single-core hanging structure include two- and four-core structures, in which vertical hangers are suspended from massive girders that span between the cores, or in which hangers are draped, catenary fashion, between the cores. The benefits of such multicore hanging siructures include large open floor spaces at all levels, and the possiblity of a column-free ground story. Cantilever truss Located and Fixed separately, Ny [aVATS 3] ZSPN Horsted in sets Tenporary enclosure (b) Go) Fig. 4.17. (a) Suspended structure; (b] sequence of construction—suspended structiire, 51at the outrigger level. The large, often two-story, depths of the outrigger and pe~ rimeter trusses make it desirable to locate them within the plant levels in the build- ing. ‘The degree to which the perimeter columns of an outrigger structure behave compositely with the core depends on the number of levels of outrigpers and their stiffnesses. Multilevel outrigger structures show a considerable increase in their effective moment of resistance over single outrigger structures. This increase di- minishes, however, with each additional level of outriggers, so that four or five levels appears to be the economic limit. Outrigger-braced structures have been used for buildings from 40 to 70 stories high, but the system should be effective and efficient for much greater heights. 4.1.9 Suspended Structures The suspended structure consists of a central core, o cares. with horizontal can~ tilevers at roof level, to: which vertical hangers of steel cable, rod, or plate are: attached. The floor slabs aré suspended from the hangers (Fig. 4.17). ‘The advantages of this structural form are primarily architectural in that, except for the presence of the central core, the ground story can be entirely free of major. vertical members, thereby allowing an open concourse: also, the hangers, because they are ir tension and consequently can be of high strength steel, have a minimum, sized section and are therefore less obtrusive. The potential of this latter benefit tends to be offset, however, by the need to proof the hangers against fire and rust, thereby significantly increasing their bulk. The suspended structure has some con- struction advantages in allowing the core, cantilevers, and hangers to be con- structed while the slabs are being poured on top of each other at ground level; the slabs are then lifted in sets and fixed in position (Fig. 4.17b) ‘The structural disadvantages of the suspended structure are that it is inefficient in first transmitting the gravity loads upward to the roof-level cantilevers before returning them through the core to the ground, and that the structural width of the building at the base is limited to the relatively narrow depth of the core, which restricts the system to buildings of lesser height. A further problem is caused by ‘the vertical extension of the slender hangers that, over the range from zero to full live loading, can result in significant changes in the levels of the edges of the slabs. This effect increases at each level down the length of the hanger and, consequently, is worst at the lowest hung floor. The problem can be limited by restricting the maximum number of floors supported by a single length of hanger to about 10, and by having multilevel cantilever systems (Fig. 4.18). Similarly to outrigger structures, and for the same reasons, the cantilevers are normally incorporated within the plant levels. Variations from the single-core hanging structure include two- and fous-core Structures, in which vertical hangers are suspended from massive girders that span between the cores, or in which hangers are draped, catenary fashion, between the cores. The benefits of such multicore hanging structures include large open floor spaces at ail levels, and the possiblity of a column-free ground story Horsted in sets Temporary enclosure ‘of each other La Slabs cast on top (oy -suspended structure Fig. 4.17 (a) Suspended structure; (b) sequence of consimiction 51Cantilever supporting upper region of Moors Cantilever supporting lower region of floors Fig. 4.18 Two-ticred suspended structure, 4.1.10 Core Structures In these structures a single core serves to carry the entire gravity and horizontal Inading (Fig. 4.19). In some. the slabs are supported at cach level by cantilevers Cantilever support for ‘each fleor =Canti lever support ing @ number of floors Core Fig. 4.19 Core structure. ACTING Pee ee from the core, In others, the slabs are supported between the core and perimeter columns, which terminate either On major cantilevers at intervals down the height, or on a single massive cantilever a few stories above the ground. Similarly Co the suspended building, the merits of the system are mainly archi« tectural, in providing a column-free perimeter at the ground level and at other levels just below the cantilevers, The structural penalties are considerable, hows ever, in having only the small effective structural depth of the core and, therefore, being inefficient in resisting lateral loading. as well as in supporting the floor load- ing by cantilevers—a highly inefficient structural component. 4.1.11 Space Structures The primary load-resisting system of a space structure consists essentially of a three-dimensional triangulated frame—as distinct from an assembly of planar bents—whose members serve dually in resisting both gravity and horizontal load= ing. The result is a highly efficient, relatively lightweight structure with a potential for achieving the greatest heights. The 76-story Hong Kong Bank of China Build- ing (Fig. 4.20) is a classic example of this structural form Fig. 4.20, Space structure.Inner, braced core ‘Outer, space frane 4.21 Space structure. Although simple in their overall concept. space structures are usually geomet- rically complex, which calls for considerable structural ingenuity in transferring both the gravity loading and the lateral loading from the floors to the main struc- ture. One solution is to have an inner braced core, which serves to collect the lateral loading, and the inner region gravity loading. from the slabs over a number of multistory regions. At the bottom of each region, the lateral and gravity loads are transferred Out to the main joints of the space frame (Fig. 4.21) Although the multidirectional inclined members of the space frame are struc- wwrally awkward and costly to connect, as well as making the fenestration difficult, the structural form is visually interesting and aesthetically very pleasing in its ap- parent simplicity. 4.1.12 Hybrid Structures ‘Many of the previously described structural arrangements are particularly suitable for prismatically shaped, tower or block, so-called “modem” buildings, which can be completely structured by a single identifiable system. for example. a tube or a wall-frame. Partly asa reaction to an increasingly monotonous urban environment consist- ing of regularly shaped and repetitive ‘‘modem" buildings, and partly because the analysis ane design of much more complex structures have become feasible, ar- a ee ek rene ve chiteets have responded with a new generation of “postmodem'* buildings that are emphatically nonregular in shape, with large-scale cut-outs. flutings, facets, and crowns that defy classification in their intricacy and variety. Buildings of a nonprismatic shape are less amenable to a single form of structure and, therefore, the engineer has to improvise in developing a satisfactory structural solution. In such situations combinations of two or even more of the basic struc- tural forms have often been used in the same building, either by direct combination as, for example, in a superimposed tube and outrigger system (Fig. 4.22), or by _ adopting different forms in different parts of the structure as, for example, in a tube system on three: faces of the building and a space frame on a faceted fourth face (Fig. 4.23). During the earlier period of the rapid development of structural form. that is from the 1950s until the mid-1970s. the single form high-rise structure had the advantage that it was usually possible to make an approximate but acceptable struc- tural analysis either by hand or by the use of a small computer. Now. with the ready availability of powerful computers and highly efficient structural analysis Programs. an engineer possessing a sound knowledge of structural form and be- havior should be able to devise and analyze a structure to suit a building of almost any conceivable irregularity Core and outrigger system Framed-tube. Fig. 4.22 Hybrid structureInner, braced core ‘Outer, space frane Fig. 4.21 Space structs Although simple in their overall concept, space structures are usually geomet- Fieally complex. which calls for considerable structural ingenuity in transferring both the gravity loading and the lateral loading from the floors to the main strac- ture. One solution is to have an inner braced core, which serves to collect the lateral loading, and the inner region gravity loading, from the slabs over a number of muliistory regions, At the bottom of each region, the lateral and gravity loads are transferred out to the main joints of the space frame (Fig. 4.21) Althougn the multidirectional inclined members of the space frame are struc- turally awkward and costly to connect, as well as making the fenestration difficult, the structural form is visually interesting and aesthetically very pleasing in its ap- parent simplicity. 4.1.12 Hybrid Structures Many of the previously described structural arrangements are parti for prismatically shaped, tower or block, so-called ‘modern’ buildings. which can be completely structured by a single identifiable system, for example. a tube ora wall-frame Partly asa reaction to an increasingly monotonous urban environment consist ing of regularly shaped and repetitive “modem” buildings. and partly because the analysis and design of much more complex structures have become feasible, ar- a er rerere rene ner chitects have responded with a new generation of ‘‘postmodem* buildings that are emphatically nonregular in shape, with large-scale cut-outs, flutings. facets, and crowns that defy classification in their intricacy and variety, Buildings of a nonprismatic shape are less amenable to a single form of stmcture and, therefore. the engineer has to improvise [Link] a satisfactory structural solution. In such situations combinations of two or even more of the basic struc- ural forms have often been used in the same building, either by direct combination as, for example, in a superimposed tube and outrigger system (Fig. 4.22), or by adopting different forms in different pars of the structure as, for example. ina ube system on three faces of the building and a space frame on a faceted fourth face (Fig. 4.23). During the earlier period of the rapid development of structural form, that is from the 1950s until the mid-1970s. the single form high-rise structure had the advantage that it was usually possible to make an approximate but acceptable struc~ tural analysis either by hand or by the use of a small computer, Now. with the ready availability of powerful computers and highly efficient structural analysis programs, an engineer possessing a sound knowledge of structural form and be» havior should be able to devise and analyze a structure to suit a building of almost any conceivable irregularity. Core and outrigger syster Fig. 4.22 Hybrid structure.4.2 FLOOR SYSTEMS—REINFORCED CONCRETE An appropriate floor system is an important factor in the overall economy of the building. Some of the factors that influence the choice of floor system are architectural. For example, in residential buildings. where smaller permanent di- visions of tne floor space are required, shorter floor spans are possible; whereas, in modem office buildings. that require more open, temporarily subdivisible floor spaces, longer span systems are necessary. Other factors affecting the choice of floor system are related to its intended structural performance. such as whether it is to participate in the lateral load-resisting system, and to its construction, for example, whether there is urgency in the speed of erection. Reinforced concrete floor systems are grouped into two categories: one-way, in ‘which the slab spans in one direction between supporting beams or walls, and two- way, in which the slab spans in orthogonal directions. In both systems. advantage is taken of continuity over interior supports by providing negative moment rein- forcement in the slab. Framed-tube on three faces of building =, KS Lx Space frase on fourth face if (NK) SS x HKSSV bd Lg fi SY 5 7 ELS YS x7 L& VL Ly SW Is > SSN SSS SASSY Fig. 4.23 Hybrid strucwre, Fig. 4.24 One-way slab 4.2.1 One-Way Slabs on Beams or Walls A solid slab of up to 8 in, (0.2 m) thick, spanning continuously over walls or beams up to 24 ft (7.4 m) apart (Fig, 4.24), provides a floor system requiring. simple formwork. possibly flying formwork, with simple reinforeement, The sys~ tem is heavy and inefficient in its use of both concrete and reinforcement. It is: appropriate for use in cross-wall and cross-frame residential high-rise construction and, when constructed in a number of uninterrupted continuous spans. lends itself to prestressing. 4.2.2 One-Way Pan Joists and Beams A thin, mesh-reinforced slab sits on closely spaced cast-in-place joists spanning between major beams which transfer the load to the columns (Fig. 4.25). The slab may be as thin as 2.5 in, (6m) while the joists are from 6 in. (15 em).to 20 in, 451 cm) in depth and spaced from 20 10 30 in. (76 cm) centers. The compositely acting slab and joists form in effect a sct of closely spaced T-beams, capable of large, up to 40 ft (12.3 m), spans, The joists are formed between reusable pans that are positioned to set the regular width of the joist. as well as any special widths, 4.2.3 One-Way Slab on Beams and Girders A one-way slab spans between beams at a relatively close spacing while the beams are supported by girders that transfer the load to the columns (Fig. 4.26). The Fig. 4.25 One-way pan joistsFig. 4.26 One-way slab on beams and girders shon spanning slab may be thin, from 3 to 6 in. (7.6-15 cm) thick, while the system is capable of providing long spans of up to 46 ft (14 m). The principal merits of the system are its long span capability and its compatibility with a two- way lateral load resisting rigid-frame structure. 4.2.4 Two-Way Flat Plate A uniformly thick. two-way reinforced slab is supported directly by columns of individual short walls (Fig. 4.27). It can span up to 26 ft (8 m) in the ordinary seinforced form and up 10 36 ft (11 m) when posttensioned. Because of its sim- Plicity. it is the most economical floor system in terms of formwork and reinforce- ment. Its uniform thickness allows considerable freedom in the location of the supporting columns and walls and, with the possibility of using the clear soffit as a ceiling, i! results in minimum story height. 4.2.8 Two-Way Flat Slab The flat slab differs from the flat plate in having capitals and/or drop panels at the tops of the columns (Fig. 4.28). The capitals increase the shear capacity, while Fig. 4.27 Two-way flat plate Fig. 4.28 Two-way flat slab. the drop panels increase both the shear and negative moment capacities at the supponis, where the maximum values occur. The flat slab is therefore more appro- priate than the lat plate for heavier loading and longer spans and, in similar situ- ations, would require less concrete and reinforcement. It is most suitably used in square, or near-to-square, arrangements, 4.2.6 Waffle Flat Slabs A slab is supported by a square grid of closely spaced joists with filler panels over the columns (Fig. 4.29). The slab and joists are poured integrally over square, domed forms that are omitted around the columns to create the filler panels. The forms, which are of sizes up to 30 in. (76 m) square and up te 20 in. (50 em) deep. provide a geometrically interesting soffit, which is often left without further finish as the ceiling 4.2.7 Two-Way Slab and Beam The slab spans two ways between orthogonal sets of beams that transfer the load to the columns or walls (Fig. 4.30). The two-way system allows a thinner slab and is economical in concrete and reinforcement. It is also compatible with a lateral Joad-resisting rigid-frame structure. The maximum length-to-width ratio for a slab to be effective in two directions is approximately 2. SS = SSS SESS EST SES ee SSS SS = Fig. 4.29 Waffte flat slabFig: 4.30. Two-way slab and beam 4.3. FLOOR SYSTEMS—STEEL FRAMING ‘The steel-framed floor system is characterized by a reinforced concrete slab sup- ported on a steel framework consisting variously of joists, beams. and girders that transfer the gravity loading to the columns. The siab component is usually one- Way With either a cast-in-place solid reinforced concrete slab from 4 in. (10 cm) 17 in, (18 em) thick, oF a concrete on metal deck slab with a varicty of possible section shapes and a minimum slab thickness from 2.5 in. (6 cm} (Fig. 4.31). oF a slab of precast units laid on steel beams and covered by a thin concrete topping (Fig. 4.32). A major consideration in the weight and cost of a steel frame building is the weight of tke slab. A floor arrangement with shorter spanning, thinner slabs is desirable. Longer span, closer spaced beams supporting a shont-spanning slab is a typical arrangement meeting these requirements. The following types of steel oor framing are categorized according to the spanning arrangement of the supporting steel framework. 4.3.1 One-Way Beam System A rectangular grid of columns supports sets of parallel longer span beams at a relatively close spacing, with the slab spanning the shorter spans transversely to the beams (Figs. 4.33). In cross-frame structures, the beams at partition lines may be deepened to participate in lateral load resisting rigid frames or braced bents. Fig. 4.31 Concrete oni metal deck Fig. 4.33 One-way beam system in steel, 4.3.2 Two-Way Beam System In buildings in which columns are required to be farther apart in both directions, 4 Wwo-way frame system of girders and beams is often used, with the slab spanning between the beams (Fig. 4.34). To minimize the total structural depth of the floor frame, the heavily loaded girders are aligned with the shorter span and the rela lively lightly loaded secondary beams with the longer span. Fig. 4.34 Two-way beam system in steelFig. 4.35 Three-way beam system in stee! 4.3.3 Three-Way Beam System In buildings in which the columns have to be very widely spaced to allow large internal column-free areas, a three-way beam system may be necessary (Fig. 4.35). A deep lattice girder may form the primary component with beams or open web joists forming the secondary and tertiary systems. In each case the system is ar- ranged to provide relatively short spans for the supponted concrete slab. 4.3.4 Composite Steel-Concrete Floor Systems The use of sicel members to support a concrete floor slab offers the possibility of composite construction in which the steel members are joined to the slab by shear connectors so that the slab serves as a compression flange. In one simple and constructionally convenient slab system, stecl decking, which is often used to act merely as rapidly erected permanent formwork for a bar-rein- forced slab, serves also as the reinforcement for the concrete slab in a composite role, using thicker wall sections with indentations or protrusions for shear connec- tors (Fig. 4.36). Fig. 4.36 Steel decking composite slab. Fig. 4.37 Composite frame system, Fig. ‘Composite frame and steel decking, Slabs may also be designed to act compositely with the supporting beams by, the more usual forms of stud, angle, or channel shear connectors, so that the slab alone spans the short distance between the beams while the compositely acting slab and beam provide the supporting system (Fig. 4.37). The further combination of a concrete slab on metal decking with shear connectors welded through to the supporting beam or truss is an efficient floor system (Fig. 4.38) SUMMARY The structural form of a high-rise building is influenced strongly by its function, while having to satisfy the requirements of strength and serviceability under all probable conditions of gravity and lateral loading, Other influential factors include: the building's material of construction, its accommodation of services and. of course, its overall economy. The taller # building, the more important it is eco nomically to select an appropriate structural form The basic structural forms of the first half of the twentieth century were the braced frame, which is unrestricted in height but limited to stecl structures, andthe rigid frame or the flat plate, which are ceonomical to only about 25 stories in height and appropriate particularly to concrete structures. These forms have now: been augmented by a variety of other forms that allow structures of greater effi- ciency and height to be achieved in both steel and concrete. Advances have oce curred mainly in the use of shear walls, framed tubes, large-scale braced systems, and space frames, and in better recognizing and accounting for the various types ‘of vertical and horizontal interaction between the major vertical components. The single structural forms used in the vertically prismatic “modem high-rise. buildings of the 1950s. 1960s. and early 1970s have given way 10 some extent to hybrid. or mixed. forms in the less regularly shaped “*postmodem”” buildings of the later 1570s and 19803. In these mixed forms, combinations of two or more of the single forms are used to fit the “postmodern” buildings” irregular shapes or cut-outs, Floors slabs are invariably of reinforced concrete, The most appropriate type ‘of floor framing system may depend on the material of construction of the building, whether the building is for office use—requiring larger spans. or residential use— allowing shorter spans. and whether the floor system is expected to participate in the lateral load resistance of the building. Reinforced concrete systems include one- or two-way spanning. slabs on # $y tem of beams or beams and girders. Alternatively, two-way spanning slabs or waffle slabs with or without drop panels, and supported directly by columns. allow the possibility of lesser floor depths and a nonuniform column grid, Steel-framed floor systems consist of a slab, which may be of solid one-way reinforced concrete, or of concrete on metal decking, or of precast concrete units, supported ky a one-, two- or three-way steel beam system. Composite stec!-concrete floor systems consist of a steel frame supporting either a solid reinforced-conerete slab joined to the frame by shear connectors, or a con- crete on stecl decking slab with or without shear connectors joining it to the frame. GME CHAPTER 5 Modeling for Analysis A building"s response to leading is governed by the components that are stressed as the building deflects. Ideally, for ease and accuracy of the structural analysis. the participating components. would include only the main structural elements: the slabs, beams, girders. columns, walls, and cores. In reality, however, other, non- structural, elements are stressed and contribute to the building's behavior, these include, for example, the staircases, partitions, and cladding. To simplify the prob- lem it is usual, in modeling a building for analysis, to include only the main struc- tural members and to assume that the effects of the nonstructural components are small and conservative. To identify the main structural elements, it is necessary 10 recognize the dom> inant modes of action of the proposed building structure and to assess the extent of the various members’ contribution to them. Then, by neglecting consideration of the nonstructural components, and the less essential structural components, the problem of analyzing a tall building structure can be reduced to.a more viable size, For extremely large or complex building structures, it may be essential to ne duce even further the size of the analysis problem by representing some of the structure’s assemblies by simpler analogous components. This chapter reviews the more usual approaches to analysis, the most commonly made assumptions, and the principles and techniques employed in forming a model for structural analysis, 5.1 APPROACHES TO ANALYSIS ‘The modeling of @ tall building structure for analysis is dependent to some extent ‘on the approach to analysis, which is in turn related to the type and size of structure and the stage of design for which the analysis is made. The usual approach is to ‘conduct approximate rapid analyses in the preliminary stages of design, and more detailed and accurate analyses for the final design stages. A hybrid approach is also possible in which a simplified model of the total structure is analyzed first. after which the results are used to allow part by part detailed analyses of the stric= ture. 5.1.1 Preliminary Analyses The purpose of preliminary analyses, that is analyses for the early stages of design, may be to compare the performance of altemative proposals for the structure. orto determine the deflections and major member forces in a chosen stricture so as to allow it to be properly proportioned. The formation of the model and the pro- cedure fora preliminary analysis should be rapid and should produce results that are dependable approximations, The model and its analysis should therefore rep- resent fairy well, if not absolutely accurately, the principal modes of action and interaction of the major structural elements. The simplifications adopted in making a preliminary analysis are often in the formation of the structural model. Sometimes the approximation is large. as, for example, when numerous hinges are inserted at assumed points of contraflexure in the beams and columns of a rigid frame to convert it from a highly statically indeterminate into a statically determinate system, thus allowing a simple solution using the equilibrium equations. Or the approximation may be to assume a simple cantilever to represent a complex bent, or that a bent is uniform throughout its height and that its beams are smeared" to allow a continuum solution. These are just a few of the gross approximations that may be made in a structural mode! to allow a relatively simple preliminary analysis to be achieved. Allemalive and sometimes additional simplifications adopted for the prelimi- ary analysis concern the loading. For example. it is common to make an as- sumption for the distribution, between the individual bents, of the total external loading on the building, and then to analyze each bent in tum for its assumed loading. In structures with different types of bents, this is a highly uncertain ap proach. Or, if a continuum analysis is to be made, it will be assumed that the load is applied in some continuous distribution over the height of the structure rather than as it really occurs, at discrete cladding connection levels. Even with the gross approximations made in simplifying the structure and the loading, itis generally expected that a preliminary analysis should give results for deflections and main member forces that are dependably within about 15% of the values from an accurate analysis. 5.1.2 Intermediate and Final Analysis The requirement of intermediate and final analyses is that they should give, as accurately as possible, results for deflections and member forces. The model should, therefore, be as detailed as the analysis program and computer capacity will allow for its analysis. All the major modes of action and interaction, and as many as possible of the lesser modes, should be incorporated, Except where a structure is symmetrical in pian and loading, the effects of the structure's twisting should be included. The most complete approach to satisfying the above requirements would be a three-dimensional stiffness matrix analysis of a fully detailed finite element model of the structure. The columns, beams, and bracing members would be represented by beam elements, while shear wall and core components would be represented by assemblies of membrane elements. Cemtain reductions in the size or complexity of the model might be acceptable while allowing it to still qualify in accuracy as a final analysis; for example, if the a sructure-and loading are symmetrical, « three-dimensional analysis of a halfestruc= ure model, or even a two-dimensional analysis of a fully interactive two-dimen- sional model, would be acceptable. Or, if repetitive regions up the height of a structure can be simplified by a lumping technique, this also would be acceptable. In contrast to the reductions above, however, certain final analyses may require separate, more detailed analyses of particular parts, using the forces or applied displacements from the main analysis, for example, in deep beams at transition levels of the structure, oF around irregularities. or hales in shear walls, 5.1.3 Hybrid Approach to Preliminary and Final Analyses If the three-dimensional analysis of a fully detailed model of a structure presents 10 formidable a task of bookkeeping or computation. an altemative might be to use a hybrid, two-stage approach that would serve dually for the preliminary and final analyses. When a structure consists of bents that are representable by simple equivalent cantilevers, a three-dimensional model of the structure can be formed by an as- sembly of the cantilevers that can be analyzed to find the approximate deflections and bent loadings. Detailed, two-dimensional models of the individual bents sub» jected to the determined loadings are then analyzed individually to find the member forces and to allow the member sizes to be adjusted. This first cycle of the overall three-dimensional and individual two-dimensional analyses would be considered preliminary. In the second cycle, the three-dimensional model, with the cantilevers modified to represent the adjusted bents, would then be analyzed to obiain the corrected bent loadings. These bent loadings would then be used to reanalyze the two-di- mensional bents to obtain the final member forces and structure deflections, Using this two-stage procedure, a single large three-dimensional analysis of a detailed mode! can be avoided, and replaced by a number of simpler analyses. ‘All approaches to analysis call for a sound understanding of high-rise structural behavior and a knowledge of modeling techniques. The hybrid approach in pat ular requires special care in forming the three-dimensional camilever model to obtain reliable results. An understanding of high-rise behavior and modeling is valuable not only for analysis, but also for deciding on and developing the struc tural forms of proposed tall buildings. 5.2 ASSUMPTIONS An attempt to analyze a high-rise building and account accurately for all aspects of behavior of all the components and materials. even if their sizes and properties were known, would be virtually impossible. Simplifying assumptions are neces- sary to reduce the problem to a viable size. Although a wide variety of assumptions is available. some more valid than others, the ones adopted in forming a particular model will depend on the arrange=ment of the structure, its anticipated mode of behavior, and the type of analysis, ‘The most common assumptions are as follows. 5.2.1 Materials ‘The material of the structure and the structural components are linearly elastic, This assumption allows the superposition of actions and deflections and, hence, the use of linear methods of analysis. The development of linear methods and their Solution by computer have made it possible to analyze large complex statically indeterminate structures. Although nonlinear methods of analysis have been and are still being devel- oped. their use at present for high-rise buildings is more for research than for the design office. 5.2.2 Participating Components Only the primary structurat componenis participate in the overall behavior. The ‘effects of secondary structural components and nonstructural components are ase sumed to be negligible and conservative. Although this assumption is generally valid, exceptions occur. For example, the effects of heavy cladding may be not negligible and may significantly stiffen a structure; similarly, masonry infills may significantly change the behavior and increase the forces unconservatively in a surrounding frame. 5.2.3 Floor Siabs Floor slabs are assumed to be rigid ia plane. This assumption causes the hori- zontal plane displacements of all vertical elements at a floor level to be definable in terms of the horizontal plane rigid-body rotation and translations of the floor Slab. Thus the number of unknown displacements to be determined in the analysis is greatly reduced. Although valid for practical purposes in most building structures, this assump- tion may no: be applicable in certain cases in which the slab plan is very long and harrow, oF it has a necked region, or it consists of precast units without a topping 5.2.4 Negligible Stiffmesses Component stiffnesses of relatively small magnitude are assumed negligible, These often include, for example, the transverse bending stiffness of slabs. the minor-axis stiffness of shear walls, and the torsional stiffness of columns, beams, and walls. The use of this assumption should be dependent on the role of the component in the structure's behavior. For example, the contribution of a slab"s bending resistance to the lateral lead resistance of a column-and-beam rigid-frame structure is negligible, whereas its contribution to the lateral resistance of a flat plate structure is vital and must not be neglected. — CA 5.2.5 Negligible Deformations Deformations that are relatively small, and of litle influence, are ne- glected. These include the shear and axial deformations of beams, the previously discussed in-plane bending and shear deformations of floor slabs, and, in low: to medium-rise structures, the axial deformations of columns. 5.2.6 Cracking The effects of cracking in reinforced concrete members due to fiexural tensile suresses are assumed representable by a reduced moment of inertia. The gross inertias of beams are usually reduced to 50% of their uncracked values, while the 21055 inertias of columns are reduced to 80%. 5.3 HIGH-RISE BEHAVIOR A reasonably accurate assessment of a proposed high-rise structure's behavior is necessary to form a properly representative model for analysis. A high-rise struc= essentially a vertical cantilever that is subjected to axial loading by gravity and to transverse loading by wind or earthquake. Gravity live loading acts on the slabs, which transfer it horizontally to the ver~ tical walls and columns through which it passes to the foundation. The magnitude of axial loading in the vertical components is estimated from the slab snbutary areas. and its ealculation is not usually considered to be a difficult problem. Hor izontal loading exerts at each level of a building a shear, a moment, and some- times, a torque, which have maximum values at the base of the structure that increase rapidly with the building's height. The response of a structure to horizon+ tal loading, in having to carry the external shear, moment, and torque, is more complex than its first-order response to gravity loading. The recognition of the structure's behavior under horizontal loading and the formation of the correspond: ing model are usually the dominant problems of analysis. The principal criterion of a satisfactory model is that under horizontal loading it should deflect similarly to the prototype structure. The resistance of the structure to the external moment is provided by flexure of the vertical components, and by their axial action acting as the chords of a vertical truss. The allocation of the external moment between the flexural and axial actions ‘of the ventical components depends on the vertical shearing stiffness of the “"web'” System connecting the vertical components, that is, the girders, slabs, vertical dia- phragms, and bracing. The stiffer the shear connection, the larger the proportion of the external moment that is carried by axial forces in the vertical members, and the stiffer and more efficiently the structure behaves. The described flexural and axial actions of the vertical components and the shear action of the connecting members are interrelated , and their relative contributions define the fundamental characteristics of the structure. It is necessary in forming 8 model to assess the nature and degree of the vertical shear stiffness between theES METER eee tela en eee ee Vertical components so that the resulting flexural and axially generated resisting moments will be apportioned properly. The horizontal shear at any level ina high-rise structure is resisted by shear in the vertical members and by the horizontal component of the axial force in any diagonal bracing at that level. If the model has been properly formed with respect to its moment resistance, the extemal shear will automatically be properly appor- lioned between the components. Torsion on a building is resisted mainly by shear in the vertical components, by the horizontal components of axial force in any diagonal bracing members. and by the shezrand warping torque resistance of elevator, stair, and service shatts. If the individual bents. and vertical components with assigned torque constants, are correctly simulated and located in the model, and their horizontal shear connec= tions are correctly modeled. their contribution to the torsional resistance of the structure will be correctly represented also. A structure's resistance to bending and torsion can be significantly: influenced also by the vertical shearing action between connected orthogonal bents or walls I is important therefore that this is properly included in the model by ensuring the: vertical connections between orthogonal components. The preceding discussion of a high-rise structure's behavior has emphasized the importance of the role of the vertical shear interaction between the main vertical components in developing the structure's lateral load resistance. An additional mode of interaction between the vertical components, a horizontal force interac- tion, can also play a significant role in stiffening the structure, and this also should be recognized when forming the model. Horizontal force interaction occurs when a horizontally deflected system of vertical components with dissimilar lateral de- flection characteristics, for example, a wall and a frame, is connected horizontally. In constraining the different vertical components to deflect similarly. the connect- ing links oF slabs are subjected to horizontal interactive forces that redistribute the horizontal loading between the vertical components. For this reason, ina tall wall- frame structure the wall tends to restrain the frame near the base while the frame Festrains the wall near the top. Similarly, horizomal force interaction occurs when a structure consisting of dissimilar vertical components twists. In constraining the different vertical components to displace about a center of rotation and to twist identically at each level, the connecting slabs are subjected to horizontal forces that redistrioute the torque between the vertical components and increase the torque resistance of the structure, Having assessed a proposed structure's dominant modes of behavior, the for- mation of an appropriate model requires next a knowledge of the available mod- eling elements and their methods of connection. 5.4 MODELING FOR APPROXIMATE ANALYSES Approximate analyses are often made at the preliminary design stage to estimate quickly a proposed structure's stiffness and hence its feasibility. They are also used << 10 estimate the allocation of external louding between the bents to allow for more detailed individual bent analyses. The requirements of simplicity and rapidity for a preliminary analysis usually call for large approximations in forming the model. An approximate analysis may be a numerical analysis of a very simplified. discrete member model or, for certain types of structure, the analysis may consist of a closed solution to the characteristic differential equation of an equivalent continuum structure. Some approximations. used in these two types of model are now described. The accuracy of an approx imate solution depends on how closely the approximations made in forming the model represent the real structure 5.4.1. Approximate Representation of Bents Bents consisting of shear walls or of moment-resisting frames can be modeled approximately provided that the flexural and shear characteristics of the original assembly are reproduced in the model. An axially concentric tall shear wall (Fig. 5.1a), consisting of relatively uni- form regions, can be modeled by a column located on the centroidal axis of the wall (Fig. 5.1b). The column segments are assigned to have the inertias and shear: areas of the corresponding regions of the wall. If the centroidal axis of the wall is not concentric, as in Fig. 5.22, the analogous columns on the respective wall axes should be connected by horizontal rigid arms (Fig. 5.2). When using a column to model a wall, the wall stresses are evaluated by applying the resulting column moment and shear to the appropriate sectional properties of the wall. A multibay rigid frame (Fig. 53a) can be modeled very closely with regard to its lateral behavior by a single-bay rigid frame (Fig. 5.3b). The criteria for eq alence are that the racking shear rigidity (GA) as defined by the column and beam Fig. 5.1 (a) Axially concentric: shear wall: (b) equivalent columa, ta) (b)a) (b) Fig. $.2 ta) Axially eccentric shear wall: (b) equivalent column. flexural inertias, the sum of the column inertias, J, and the overall flexural inertia, jg, a8 defired by the column sectional areas, are at each level the same in the equivalent single-bay frame as they are in the multibay frame. These properties and their equivalence are discussed in Chapter 7. Rigid-frame and braced-frame bens (Figs. 5.3a and 5.42) whether single or mullibay, can be represented in a very approximate way by single-column models (Fig. 5.4b). In these, the shear area of the analogous column is assigned to provide the same shear rigidity GA as the racking shear rigidity (GA) of the bent. Formulas for evaluating the racking shear rigidities (GA) for braced frames are given in Chapter 6. The flexural inertia of the equivalent column is assigned to have the same value as the inertia of the Story 4 EH, Ty | Igy, (OMY, Thy Tye 0), | Zz = tay (b) Fig. $.3 (a) Multibay rigid frame; (b) equivalent single-bay frame a Sore Taye (A), gs’ (OA), (a) ( Fig. 5.4. (a) Multibay braced frame; (b) equivalent column, column areas about their common centroid in the braced or the rigid frame. In this approximation, the single curvature flexure of the columns in the braced and rigid frames, which usually has only a minor influence on the frames’ overall behavior, is neglected in the column model. If a shear wall has beams connecting to it in-plane. causing it to interact Verti- cally, as well as horizontally, with another shear wall or with other parts of the structure (Fig, 5,5a) the wall can be represented by an analogous “‘wide colunin,'” This is a column placed at the wall’s centroidal axis and assigned to have the walls inertia andl axial area, and having rigid arms that join the column to the connecting beams at each framing level (Fig. 5.5b). In this way the rotations and vertical displacements at the edges of the wall are transferred to the connecting beams. Shear wall 1 Shear woll 2 Rigid frame Colum Calum Rigid Frame Tye Aggy Ay Tae gps Ay RSA aati esperes or fa) (>) Fig. 5.5. (a) Shear walls and frame joined by beams; (b) equivalent wide-column model,a aaa a as ne Nonplanar assemblies of shear walls that form elevator Cores (Fig. 5.64 and b) ‘in structures that translate but do not twist under lateral loading, can be simulated by a single column located at the shear cemter of the section and assigned to have the principal second moments of area of the core section (Fig. 5.7a). If the struc- ture twists as well as translates. and the core has an effectively closed, box-like Section, as in Fig. 5.6b. the single column should be additionally assigned the torsion constant J of the core (Fig. 5.7b). If the structure twists and translates, and the core walls form an 1. U, as in Fig. 5.64, or mote complex open-section shape. warping torsional effects may be im- Portant, in which case it is possible to use a wo-column model (Fig. 5.7e) to gi an approximate representation of all the bending and torsional properties. Details of such a model are given in Chapter 13. 5.4.2 Approximate Modeling of Slabs. In-Piane Effects. In structures that do not depend on the transverse bending resistance of slabs as part of their lateral load resisting system. the slabs are taken to serve only as rigid diaphragms that distribute the horizontal loading to the vertical z Shear center ants Core Tye Tye Op &) (b) Fig. 5.6 (@) Open section nonplanar shear wall assembly: (b) closed section shear wall assembly, ee ON APPR CANAL ORe =e! 1 Shear center ‘i ee ee “sr Colum foly St ise ce ey) Fig. 5.7. (a) Equivatent flexural column; (b) equivalent flexural-torsional column; (c) ‘equivalent two-column Mexural-torsional-warping mode! elements and that hold the building plan in shape as the structure translates and twists. The slab then serves to constrain the horizontal displacements of the vertical components at each floor to be related to the horizontal two displacements and rotation of the slab, In a three-dimensional analysis of a structure (Fig. 3.8a) the in-plane rigidity of the slab can be represented at each floor by a horizontal frame of rigid beams joining the vertical elements (Fig. 5.8b) or, if the computer program includes a “rigid-floor™ option for simulating 4 rigid in-plane slab. its use is simpler and more accurate. Transverse Bending Effects. Flat plate structures. and structures with shear walls coupled by slabs, employ the transverse bending stiffness of slabs as pant of the lateral load-resisting system, similar to the girders of a rigid frame, as well as using the in-plane rigidity of the slabs to hold the plan shape of the building. In modeling the structure, the bending action of a slab between in-line columns or walls can be represented by a connecting beam of equivalent flexural stiffness (Fig. 5.9). This model will result in the correct horizontal deflections, and forces in the vertical members, but it gives only the concentrated moments and shears applied to the slabs, The inertia of equivalent connecting beams to represent the siab bend- ing action is discussed in Chapter 7 and Appendix 1‘Sher cent Min teae ‘hear eenter wd ’ Sies| 4 a sr Teo eolumes tn comb ination 1 aes ym ty (b) (2) Fig. 5.7. continued. Brava Brac Shear + Hortzontal=plene rigtd frame representing floor slab Coluans [Link] in representing S shear walls, ZL Colunss rooresenting Yond: braced frases (b) Fig. 5.8. (a) Plan asymmetric structure: (h) representation of slab diaphragm action 76 Connect ing beans. ‘equivalent to slab ending atitfrexs Fig. 5.9 Equivalent beam representation of slab bending action, 5.4.3 Modeling for Continuum Analyses So far, all the considered approximations have been for discrete member models, that is incorporating individual vertical and horizontal members, for solution by a stiffiness matrix analysis, For certain structures with relatively uniform properties over the height, altemative continuum analogy models may be formed that can be analyzed by a closed solution of the characteristic differential equation. In a con= tinuum model, the horizontal slabs and beams connecting the vertical elements are assumed to be smeared as 2 continuous connecting medium—a continuum—having equivalent distributed stiffness properties. Although continuum methods are lim- ited in their facility to represent variations of a structure over its height, they can give very rapid approximate solutions and are valuable in providing & general n+ derstanding of a structure's behavior. Two examples of the types of structure that can be solved using continuum techniques are a coupled wall and a wall-frame structure (Figs. 5.10a and 5.11a). In the coupled wall, the connecting beams are represented by a continuum with equivalent bending and shear properties (Fig. 5.10b). In a wall-frame structure, the connecting links between the wall and the frame are represented by a horizontally incompressible medium, while the beams. in the frame are smeared into the general shear property of the equivalent shear column (Fig. 5.11b). Continuum with equivalent flexural Connecting and shear stiffness Shear beams walls @@) «o) 10 (a) Coupled shear walls: (b) equivalent continuum model.Connecting Rigid Equivalent Equivalent Tinks flexural column colvan Continous = linking media (a) (o) ig. S11 (a) Wall-frame structure; (b) equivalent continuum model, §.§ MODELING FOR ACCURATE ANALYSIS Its necessary for the intermediate and final stages of design to obtain a reasonably accurate estimate of the structure deflections and member forces. With the wide availability of structural analysis programs and powerful computers it is now pos- sible to solve very large and complex structural models. Some of the more gross approximations used fora preliminary analysis. such as representing braced frames and rigid frames by single columns, are too approximate for a detailed analysis, and they da not yield the detailed forces necessary for sizing and reinforcing the individual members. The structural model foran accurate analysis should represent ina more detailed way all the major active components of the prototype structure. The principal ones are the columns, walls, and cores, and their connecting slabs and beams, ‘The major structural analysis programs typically offer a variety of finite ele- ments for structural modeling. As an absolute minimum for accurately representing high-rise structures. [Link]-dimensional program with beam elements and quad- rilateral membrane elements (Fig. 5.12a and b) will suffice. Beam elements are used to represent beams and columns and, by making their inertias negligibly small or by releasing their end rotations, they can also be used to represent truss mem- ‘bers. Membrane elements, which are used for shear walls and wall assemblies, should preferably include an incompatible mode option to better allow forthe char- acteristic in-plane bending of shear walls. Tf truss elements (Fig. 5.12c), quadrilateral plate elements, (Fig. 5.12d), and combined membrane-plate elements are also available, they can be used to advan= tage in representing, respectively, truss members, slabs in bending, and shear walls subjected to cut of plane bending. Some typical high-rise structural components and assemblies. and their repre- sentation by finite elements, will now be discussed (b) a «e) (a Fig. §.12 (a) Beam element; ¢b) quadrilateral membrane element; (c) truss element: (¢) quadrilateral plate bending element. 5.5.1 Plane Frames: A plane rigid frame, which is probably the simplest assembly to be modeled, has both its column and beam members represented by beam elements (Fig. 5.13). Shear deformations of the members are normally neglected except for beams with span-to-depth ratio of less than about 5. The results of the analysis include the vertical and horizontal displacements, and the vertical plane rotations of the nodes, Beas, elesents. Fig. 5.13 Rigid frame using beam elements,ee ee ee Truss Bean elements: elements 7 Bean elenents (outer ends rotation’ re! Fig. 5.14. Braced frame using truss and beam elements. together with the members’ axial force. shear force, and bending moments. In 4 braced frame (Fig. 5,14) the braces are represented by truss elements or small- inertia beam elements, the columns by beam elements, and the beams by beam clements with their end rotations released. The results for the truss elements give axial forces only, 5.5.2 Plane Shear Wallis Similar to the modeling of walls for an approximate analysis. a tall slender shear wall that is not connected by beams to other parts of the structure (Figs. 5.1a and $.2a) can te modeled for an accurate analysis by a stack of beam elements (Figs. 5.1b and 5.2b) located on the centroidal axis of the wall, and assigned to have the principal inertia and corresponding shear areas of the wall. Shear walls connected by beams to other pans of the structure (Fig. 5.5a) can be similarly represented by vertical stacks of beam elements located on the centroidal axes of the walls with rigid horizontal beam elements attached at the framing levels to represent the effect of the walls” width (Fig. 5.5b). In the case of a beam-connected wall, axial forces will be induced in the wall, so it is necessary to assign to the analogous column an axial area as well as an inertia and a shear area. Walls that are not slender. or that have openings. cannot be well represented by simple equivalent columns and are better represented by an assembly of plane- stress membrane elements (Fig. 5.15). Because the segments of a shear wall and the membrane elements that are used to model it are subjected to in-plane bending. incompatible mode elements that are formed to include this deformation invariably give more accurate results, as well as allowing the use of rectangular elements of Much greater height-to-width proportions with acceptably accurate results. The results for a plane-stress element typically include the horizontal and vertical dis- Shed or membrane planar elements Beam elenents Links Rignd bears @) co) Fig. 5.15 (a) Shear wall: membrane element model; (b) shear walt: analogous frame model, placements of the nodes. and the vertical and horizontal direct stresses and shear stresses at either the comers or the mid-sides of the element. If the available structural analysis computer program does not include plane= stress elements, a shear wall can be modeled alternatively using an analogous frame, such as in Fig. 5.15b, which can be assembled entirely from beam ele ments. The stresses resulting from such a model are usually within 1 or 2% of those from a membrane element model analysis. Details of an analogous frame are given in Chapter 9. ‘Nonrectangular walls can be modeled using quadrilateral elements, and, if more detailed stresses are: required in a particular region of the wall, a finer mesh can be used in that area, with quadrilateral elements being used to make the transition (Fig. 5.16). For greater accuracy, quadrilateral elements should be proportioned to be as close as possible to equal-sided parallelograms. ‘When modeled by membrane elements, shear walls with in-plane connecting beams require special consideration. Membrane elements do not have a degree of freedom to. represent an in-plane rotation of their comers; therefore, a beam ele~ ment connected to a node of a membrane element is effectively connected only by a hinge. A remedy for this deficiency is to add a fictitious, flexurally rigid, aux- iliary beam 10 the edge wall element, in one of the ways shown in Fig. 5.17. The adjacent ends of the auxiliary beam and the external beam are both constrained to rotate with the wall-edge node. Consequently, the rotation of the wall, as defined by the relative transverse displacements of the ends of the auxiliary beam, and a moment, are transferred to the external beam.ENA Coarse mesh sation Finer mesh rH Fig. 5.16 Nonrectangular shear wall with transition, represented by quadrilateral ele- mems. Sux vary beam Connecting bean ry beam _— Ml Connecting beat Fig. 5.17 Connection of beams to. mem- brane elemeat shear wail, 5.5.3 Three-Dimensional Frame and Wall Structures The high-rise rigid frame structure has moment-resisting joints, and its columns and beams are modeled by three-dimensional beam elements (Fig. 5.18). These elements deform axially, in shear and bending in two transverse directions. and in twist. Generally. therefore, they have to be assigned an axial area, two Shear areas, two flexural inertias. and a torsion constant. Often, however, shear deformations of the columns and beams, and axial deformations of the beams. are assumed RR MODELING FOR ACCURATE ANALYSIS: Three dimensional bear elements Fig. 5.18 Three-dimensional rigid-frame model using beum elements. negligible, These are usually allowed for by omitting the assignment of a shear area and by assigning either a fictitiously large axial area. or constraims between the axial displacements of the member ends. In addition, the torsional stiffness of practically proportioned beams and columnsis usually negligible, which is allowed for by omitting the assignment of a torsion constant. The usual results of signifi- cance are, therefore, the translations and rotations of the nodes. the shear forces, bending moments and axial force in the columns, und the shear forces and mo- ‘ments in the beams. Three-dimensional shear wall assemblies often form the most important major lateral load-resisting components in a high-rise building. They occur variously in multibranch open sectional shapes (Fig. 5.19a), in effectively closed sections (Fig, 5.19b), and in beam-connected sections (Fig. 5.19c). Whether of closed or opens section form, the principal actions of the individual walls in an assembly are in- plane shear and flextire, and the principal interaction between the walls of an as- sembly is vertical shear along the joints. Consequently. plane stress membrane elements are highly suitable for modeling three-dimensional shear wall compo- nents (Fig. 5.20a and b). Story-height wall-width elements give an acceptably accurate representation for mast purposes. Plane stress elements alone are not adequate for modeling three-dimensional wall systems because they lack the transverse stiffness necessary at orthogonal wall connections to allow a stiffmess matrix analysis of the problem. Nor. when used. alone, can plane stress membrane elements provide the out-of-plane rigidity re- quired to maintain the sectional shape of the core. as it is held in reality by the inewade] for beam-connected shear cribly: (b) partially closed section shear tb) \ 2000000000) @) Fig. $.20 (a) Membrane element and auxiliary beam model; (b) 1 plane stress walls,ee en ae plane rigidity of the floor slabs. The remedy for these deficiencies ts to add at each nodal level a horizontal frame of fictitious, rigid auxiliary beams (Fig. 5.20a). If any of the walls are connected in-plane to each other, or to other parts of the structure. by beams, the auxiliary beams adjacent to the wall edges can be made vertically rigid also, 10 cause the transfer of moment (Fig. 5.20b) as described in Section 5.5.2. ‘Another action, which would automatically be accounted for if shell elements were used for the model, but not in the case of plane stress elements, is the tor- sional stiffness corresponding to twisting of the walls. Although this is usually relatively insignificant, in open-section wall assemblies it can be important and should be incorporated. It is introduced by adding to the model a fictitious column located on any one of the vertical sets of nodes (Fig. 5.20) and assigning it torsion constant with a value equal to the sum of the individual walls" torsion constants. as discussed in Chapter 13. The axial area and inertia of the column are assigned to be zero. An alternative way of representing beams connecting shear walls in the same plane is to represent them by story-height membrane elements with a vertical shearing stiffness equal to the vertical-displacement stiffness of the represented beam, as shown in Fig. 5.21. In such a model, auxiliary beams are still required to form a horizontally rigid frame around each level of the sembly, but the beams adjacent to the openings do not have to be vertically rigis Membrane elenents representing connecting beams Menbrane elements representing walls Fig. 5.21 Beam-connected wall assemblies: membrane clements representing beams, 5.5.4 P-Delta Effects Second onder P-Delta effects of gravity loading can be included in a single first- order computer analysis of the structure by adding to the first-order model a ficti- tious column with a negative stiffness. ‘The translational P-Delta effects in a nontwisting structure can be incorporated in the two-dimensional model by adding a shear column, connected to the model by rigid lints at the framing levels (Fig. 5.22a). The column is assigned a negative BR MODELING FOR ACCURATE ANALYSIS = GT Actual Autally rigye ua straetire its senveture rode mode sae poate ‘Negatyy out me coluan fa} (b) Fig. §.22 (a) P-Delta negative shear column model; (b) P-Delta negative inertia column model shear area to simulate the lateral softening of the structure duc to gravity loading, ‘The column is assigned to be rigid in flexure. Alternatively, the same result can be achieved by using a flexural column with its rotation restrained at the framing levels (Fig. 5.22b) and its inertia assigned a negative value. The column is spec ified to be rigid in shear. The resulting deflections and member forces in the model then include the P-Delta effects of gravity loading. Details of the technique are given Chapter 16. ‘When making a full three-dimensional analysis of an asymmetri¢ structure, the P-Delta effects of twisting, as well as of translating parallel to the building's major axes, can also be represented in the model by a fictitious negative stiffness column. ‘The column is located in each story at the centroid of the resultant gravity loading acting through the story, and is assigned to have either negative shear areas, or negative inertias, as described before, corresponding to the directions of the build» ing’s two major axes. The column is additionally assigned a negative torsion con~ stant to allow for the twisting P-Delta effects. This technique also is discussed in detail in Chapter 16, 5.5.5 The Assembled Model By combining the previously described techniques, a complete three-dimensional model can be formed for any high-rise structure consisting of a combination of frames, walls, and cores with beam and slab connections. If the bending resistance of the slabs contributes to the lateral load resistance of the structure, it is usual to model the slabs by beams of equivalent flexural stiffness connecting the vertical components. Although an even more accurate model could be formed by representing each slab as an assembly of plate elements, such a detailed representation would vastly increase the size of the problem.BB MODELING FOR ANALYSIS In the complete detailed model. therefore. beam elements are used to represent beams and columns, and story-height plane-stress membrane elements arc used to represent shear walls and cores. At all floor levels an auxiliary beam is added to the top of each membrane element. The auxiliary beams, and the real beams, are assigned extremely high axial areas and horizontal bending inertias in order to simulate the rigid diaphragm effect of the slab. Auxiliary beams are also used at each floor level to interconnect frames. walls and cores, as well as any isolated columns. Where a real beam connects in plane with a wall. the auxiliary beam on: the connected wall element is assigned to be rigid in the vertical. as well as the: horizontal. plane so as to transfer moment between the wall and the external beam, For each open section shear wall assembly, a vertical column assigned to have the walls" torsion constant is added to the assembly. ‘The requirement for providing auxiliary beams. joining the columns, walls. and cores to form a rigid horizontal diaphragm at each floor. and to connect shear walls to beams in their planes, has been avoided in at least one tall building structure analysis program [5.1]. 5.6 REDUCTION TECHNIQUES When the detailed model of a high-rise structure is so large and complex that its, analysis presents a formidable task of bookkeeping and computation, it may be preferable to try to simplify the model. provided the accuracy of the results is not seriously compromised. The following techniques are among those used to sim= plify the model. Some of the techniques do not diminish at all the accuracy of the analysis, while others, although losing a little in accuracy, are still good enough for a final design analysis, The reductions are therefore applicable to both detailed and to simplified models for anlaysis. 5.6.1 Symmetry and Antisymmetry A structure that is symmetric in plan about the axis of horizontal loading (Fig. 5.23a) can be analyzed as a half-structure, to one side of the line of symmetry, subjected to half the loads (Fig. 5.23b). The ends of the members cut by the line ‘of symmetry must be constrained to represent the omitted half of the structure. ‘That is, they must be constrained against rotation and horizontal displacement in the plane perpendicular to the direction of loading, and against rotation about a vertical axis, while simultaneously being free to displace vertically and to translate in the direction of the loading. The results for the deflections and forces for the analyzed half-structure will apply symmetrically to the corresponding nodes and members in the omitted half-structure. ‘A structure that is symmetric in plan about a horizontal axis perpendicular to the axis of horizontal loading (Fig. 5.24a) behaves antisymmetrically about the ” axis of symmetry, In this case only half of the structure, to one side of the axis of, symmetry, and subjected to loads of half value, needs to be analyzed (Fig. 5.24b). hats of symmetry Axis of syametry for structure end loading y-rotation (0) fa) = 3 2 € 5 2 Z i z 2 E 5 a90 brie antt-symnetrtea| 2 Anis of antt-symnetrical ~— behavior — behavior oe z vertical displacement (b) (@ 7 g z 6 REDUGTION TEGHWIQUES = 9T ‘The ends of the cut members are constrained on the line of symmetry to represent their connection to the omitted antisymmetrically behaving other half of the struc- ture. That is, they are constrained against vertical displacement, but are free 10 rotate in the vertical plane parallel to the direction of loading. The values of the results for the analyzed half-structure apply antisymmetrically to the omitted half- structure. ‘Thus, if a structure is doubly symmetric on plan and subjected to honzontal loading along one of its axes of symmetry. it can be analyzed by considering just one-quarter of the structure, with appropriate constraints applied to the ends of members cut on the lines of symmetry. to represent the symmetrical anc antisym- metrical aspects of behavior 5.6.2 Two-Dimensional Models of Nontwisting Structures The assumption that the floor slabs are rigid in plane. which permits the horizontal displacements of all vertical elements at a floor level to be defined in terms of the slab's horizontal translation and rotation, allows the possibility of representing a three-dimensional structure by a two-dimensional model. An explanation of this can be developed by first considering techniques for the planar represcniation of nontwisting structures, and then extending them to twisting structures. Symmetrical Structure Consisting of Parallel Bents. A structure that is symmetric on plan and symmetrically loaded does not twist. Adding to this the assumption of the slab’s in-plane rigidity means that the horizontal displacements of all the vertical components at a floor level are identical. Now considering the symmetrical structure in Fig. 5.25a, and allowing for symmetry by analyzing only one-half of the structure. the identity of displacements at the floor levels can be established in a planar model by assembling the bents in the same plane, in any order and at an arbitrary spacing. as in Fig. 5.25b, and providing a horizontal constraint between the bents at each level. The constraint can be formed in two alternative ways. If the analysis program has a dependent node option. sets of niades. one in cach bent. at the same level, can be assigned to have the same horizontal displacements, If a dependent node option is not available, pairs of nodes at the same level in adjacent bemts may be joined by axially rigid pin-ended links, as in Fig. 5.25b. The haif-structure model is then subjected at the floor levels to loads of half the value of the total ioad per level. As far as the validity of the assumptions allow, the resulting moments, shears. and vertical axial forces in the model will correctly represent those in the structure. ‘The shear in the slabs between bents must be found by considering the differences between the shears in successive stories of each bent, and the relative plan location of the bents. The axial forces in the beams and links of the model are not mean- ingful because both the application of the loading and the horizontal connections in the planar model do not properly represent their on-plan locations in the real structure,92 MODELING FOR ANALYSIS. Anis of symmetry [cea Aselly rignd Tinks A 5 De é > i > Holt pe Yoseing ~ L| ~ H > rr (o) Fig. 5.25 (a) Symmetric structure with parallel bents; (b) equivalent two-dimensional model, Symmetrical Structure with Connected Orthogonal Bents. Structures that consist of an orthogonal system of connected bents, which are symmetrically located about the axis of horizontal loading, as in Fig. 5.26a, can be modeled for analysis by an extension of the planar modeling technique described above. Considering half the structure, and assuming that, perpendicular to their planes, the bents have negligible stiffness, the structure’s shear resistance in the direction of loading is provided by bents AB and CD, as they displace horizontally in their planes parallel to the direction of loading (Fig. 5.26a). Bents AE and BF, perpen- dicular to the loading, do not displace horizontally in their planes, but interact vertically with bents AB and CD along their vertical lines of connection A. B, C, and D. This vertical imeraction causes the perpendicular bents to act as to the parallel bent “‘webs,"" as part of the structure's overall flexural a In the equivalent half-structure planar model, half the parallel bents and the perpendicular half-bets are assembled in plane, with the parallel bents in one 20° $3520" 7264 10° ff 26 eee tetatt Toad Bants perpendicular to wind Bents parallel to wind tb) 1g ents; (b) Fig. 5.26 (a) Symmetric structure with orthogoral interact 9394 MODELING FOR ANALYSIS group and the perpendicular half-bents in another (Fig. 5.26b). A column at the intersection of orthogonal bents appears twice in the planar madel, once in a par- allel bent and once ir a perpendicular bent. In each bent the column is assigned an inertia appropriate to its bending in the plane of that bent. So that the axial area of an intersection line column is not represented twice. it is arbitrarily assigned entirely to the column in the parallel bent with a zero area assigned to that in the perpendicular frame. The nodes in the model are numbered so that those on the vertical lines of intersection, which are represented twice. are assigned two differ- ent numbers, as in Fig, $.26b. The identical horizontal displacements of the parallel bents are established in the model as before. either by using the dependem node facility or by including fictitious axially rigid links, as between B and C in Fig. 5.26b ‘The compatibility of vertical displacements between the paralle! and perpendic- ular bents may also be achieved in alternative ways. If a dependent node option is available, vertical compatibility can be established by constraining the connection nodes that are duplicated in the parallel and horizontal bents to have the same vertical displacements. The zero horizontal in-plane displacement of the perpen- dicular bents is arranged by constraining horizontally at least one vertical line of nodes in each of those bents. If a dependent node option is not available, there are two alternative ways of using fictitious members to establish the connection in the planar model. The first is to dimension the model horizontally so that the vertical intersection lines on cach perpendicular frame, as for example lines A and lines C in Fig. 5.26b, are: located immediately adjacent, say as close as 1/200 of the adjacent span, to the duplicate intersection lines of the connected *“parallel"’ frames. Each pair of du- plicated connection nodes is then joined by @ very stiff horizontal beam with a horizontal and rotational release at one end, as, for example. nodes 32 and 38 in Fig. 5.26b, The alternative is to dimension the model horizontally so that the vertical connection lines on the perpendicular frames are, in effect, coincident with those on the parallel frames, as, for example, lines B and lines D in Fig. 5.26b, and to dimension them vertically so that the connection nodes on the perpendicular frame are displaced upward slightly, say 1/100 story height, from the correspond ing nodes on the parallel frame. Each pair of duplicated connection nodes. as, for example, nodes 46 and 55 in Fig. 5.26b, is then joined by a vertical axially rigid link. In either of these ways, the fictitious links establish vertical compatibility, while avoiding horizontal interaction and vertical plane rotational interaction be- tween the orthogonal bents. ‘The technique can be used for structures whose bents consist of walls, or frames, or combinations of both. 5.6.3 Two-Dimensional Models of Structures That Translate and Twist ‘The common assumption for analysis, that the floor slabs are rigid in their planes, implies that for an arbitrary origin and a pair of axes parallel to the orthogonally oriented bents of a laterally loaded structure (Fig, 5.27) the resulting displaced 5.6 REDUCTION TECHNIQUES © 95 ed in x direction to fon position rated about ary origin 0 1 position x Fig. §.27 Displacements of bending and twisting structure. location of any floor slab can be defined in terms of the rotation of the slab about the origin, and two displacements parallel to the axes. Further, for the horizontal equilibrium of any slab, the extemal X- and ¥-direction forces on the slab and their combined moment about the vertical axis through the origin must be in equilibrium with, respectively, the X- and ¥-direction resultants of the reactions from the bents and their resultant moment about the origin. ‘Assuming that the structure consists of a plan-asymmetric system of orthogonal bents that are stiff in their planes but have zero transverse and torsional stiffnesses (Fig. 3.28a), a two-dimensional model can be formed to satisfy the above condi- tions of displacement and equilibrium, as follows. First, select an arbitrary origin 0 (Fig. 5.28a) that is located to the left of and below the lower left-hand comer of the structural plan, Bents AB and CD are parallel to, and at distances x, and x, from the ¥ axis, while the onhogonal bents AC and BD are parallel to, and at y, and y) from the X axi Next, form the two-dimensional model by assembling all the bents in the same plane with the X-direction bents in one group and the ¥:direction bents in the other, 4 (a) Fig. 5.28 (a) Plan of nonsymmetnic structure.Xedtrection beats Ydirectton bents © indicates arbitrary space between bents 15% story height 3) 28 (b) Equivalent planar model, Fig. 5.8 REDUCTION TECHNIQUES 87 fr, Fig. 5.28 (ch Equivalent loading on model ay shown in Fig, 5.28. To make the viewed faces of the bents consistent with the location of the origin as specified above. the bents are displayed in the model (Fig. 28b) as viewed in Fig. 5.282 looking negatively along the X and Y axes, re- spectively (ice.. A to the left of B in bent AB. and C to the left of A in bent CA) This is to ensure that a horizontal plane rigid body rotation of a slab about the origin 0. in Fig. 5.28a, corresponds ta all the bents moving in the same direction in the planar model (Fig. 5.28b). For example, a counterclockwise rotation of the slab about 0 in Fig. 5.28a corresponds to a rightward displacement of the bents in the model of Fig. 5.28b Because the bents are shown separately from each other, the columns on lines of intersection of orthogonal bents will appear twice in the model, as, for example, column A appearing in each of bents AB and CA, The flexural inertias and axial areas of the duplicated columns are assigned in the way described previously for intersecting bent structures. Establish on the model, for the left-hand edge of each bent and on the same vertical line as the edge, a set of “‘governing"’ nodes, one node for each floor level. Each governing node is located above its associated floor level by a height ‘equal to the distance on-plan of the bent from the X or Y axis to which it is parallel For example, governing node L41, for the top floor of bent AB, is on the vertical line A ata height x; above the top floor, while governing node 101, forthe third- to-top floor of bent DB, is on line D at a height y5 above the third-to-top floor (Fig. 5.28b). In Fig. 5.28b, the governing nodes are shown, for clarity, offset to the left from the left-hand edges of their associated bents, but they are assigned horizomal co- ordinates to locate them in the model on the same vertical line. Now connect each governing node to its corresponding floar-level node by an effectively rigid vertical arm, with a rotational release at the floor-level node. All the nodes of the structure are then numbered in sequence, starting from left to right across the base of the model. and then level by level upward, including the gov- eming nodes, as shown in Fig, 5.28b. Consider now, for example, the top levels of bents AB and CD in the model98 MODELING FOR ANALYSIS By constraining governing nodes 141 and 145 to displace horizontally together, using the dependent node option, a horizontal translation without rotation of gov- eming node 141, and hence of 145, will cause through their connecting arms a anslation in the ¥ direction of the whole top floor. Similarly, in bents CA and DB, constraining governing nodes 150 and 155 to translate identically means that a horizontal translation without rotation of governing node 150. and hence of 155, will cause a translation in the X direction of the top floor. Further, by constraining nodes I41, 145, 150, and 155 to rotate together means that a rotation without translation of node 141. and hence of 145, 150, and 155, will cause, through their connecting arms, the top floors of the bents in the planar model to translate with the same relative displacements as they would in rotating in plan as a rigid body about the origin @ in Fig. 5.27. Specifying similar translational and rotational con- straints between the governing nodes for each of the other floor levels will cause the horizontal displacements of the planar model to properly represent in-plane displacements of each level of each bent. due to the translations and rotations of the structure, Considering again the top levels of bents AB and CD in the planar model, their horizontal reactions will be transmitted to governing nodes 141 and [45 as hori- zontal forces and vertical plane moments, having the same magnitudes, respec- tively, as the ¥-direction reactions, and the horizontal plane moments of those: Teactions about the origin, of the top levels of bents AB and CD in the plan view (Fig, 5.28a). Similarly, the horizontal reactions of bents CA and DB in the planar model will be transmitted t nodes 150 and 155 as horizontal forces and vertical plane moments having the same magnitudes as the X-direction reactions, and the horizontal plane moments of those reactions about the origin, as the top levels of bents CA and DB in the plan view (Fig. 5.28a). Because nodes 141 and 145 are constrained to displace identically in the ¥ direction, the sum of the ¥-direction reactions P,, can be assumed to act at node 141, Similarly, the sam of the X-direction reactions P,, can be assumed 10 act at node 150. Since nodes 141, 145, 150, and 155 are constrained to rotate together, the sum of the moments from all the X- and ¥-direction bents can be assumed to ‘occur at node 141. By this reasoning, the resulting horizontal reactions at govern ing nodes 141 and 150, and the resulting vertical plane moment of the reactions at node 141, are the same as the resultant ¥- and X-direction reactions, and their resultant horizontal flane moment about the origin, in Fig. 5.28a. When orthogonal bents in a structure intersect. as they do in Fig. 5.28a, the vertical interaction along their vertical lines of intersection is an important factor in the structure's behavior and must be represented in the model. For this, addi- tional constraints have to be applied in the planar model to establish vertical com- patibility between the orthogonal bents. In the model (Fig. 53.28b) these constraints are on the vertical lines of intersection A, B, C, and D. The constraints are applied using the dependent node option by assigning each pair of duplicated connection nodes, for example, 16 and 28 at A, 18 and 32 at B, 20 and 25 at C, and 23 and 30 at D, to have the same vertical displacements. Having formed the planar model, it remains only to transform the loading on $6 REDUCTION TECHNIQUES = 99 the structure into equivalent loads for application to the model. Referting to Fig 5.28a, the load in the ¥ direction at level i, P,. acts at a distance .f, fom the origin 0. This may be transformed into a force P,, acting at the origin and a torque Py (Fig. 5.28c). Similarly. the load P,, in the X direction, at a distance y,, from the origin. can be transformed into a force P,, at the origin and a torque =P, yy. ‘These equivalent actions may be applied 10 the model (Fig. 5.28b) as P,, to one of the governing nodes for level / of the ¥lirection beats. P,, to ane of the gov- eming nodes for level / of the X-direction bents. and a torque Py.X,, — Py Xu 10 one of the governing nodes for level j of all the bents. For example, at the top. nth level. P,, is applied to node 141, P.,, is applied to node 150. and a counter clockwise torque M, equal 10 Pyyiy — Pav Yoo i8 applied to node 141. A similar transformation of the loads at each other level to equivalent loads and a torque about the origin, and their application to the corresponding governing nodes in the planar model, will make the mode! ready for analysis. Note that loads that act in the A-to-B and A-t0-C directions of the bents on the plan of the structure a applied in the A-to-B and A-to-C directions to the governing nodes of the plunar model. A horizontal plane counterclockwise torque on the plan of the structure is applied as a vertical plane counterclockwise torque on the planar mode! ‘A two-dimensional stiffness method analysis of the planar model subjected to the transformed loads will yield results for defiections and member forces identical to those from a full three-dimensional analysis of the structure, provided that in the latter analysis the assumptions of the slabs’ in-plane rigidity and the bents’ zeco Lansverse and torsional stiffness arc also adopted. If g structure includes a core consisting of an assembly of shear walls, this can also be included in the planar model by treating each individual wall of the core as a bent, representing it by @ stack of plane-stress finite elements, and assigning to ita set of governing nodes, rigid arms, and constraints, as though it were just another bent. A final necessary comment concems the flexural stiffnesses 10 be assigned to the connecting arms to cause them (o behave as rigid, It is recommended that each should be assigned an inertia such that, if the arm were considered as a vertical cantilever fixed at its governing node, its lateral stiffness at the lower end would ‘be of an order 1000 times greater than the estimated lateral stiffness of the bent at the level where the arm connects. If the arm stiffnesses were assigned to be not stiff enough, they would bend and not enforce proper translations on the bent, whereas, if they were excessively stiff they could cause numerical instability in the analysis. ‘An explanation of this modeling technique is given in Ref. [5.2]. 5.6.4 Lumping “'Lumping’* means the combination of several of a structure's similar, and simi- larly behaving, components or assemblies of components into an equivalent single component or assembly in order to reduce the size of the model for analysis, The resulting forces in the equivalent component or assembly are subseque strib- uted to give the forces in the original units,100 MODELING FOR ANALYSIS [ants of Three frones Teo wells taymnetry Members Ip. One equiva equivalent frame walt Zi menbers 3g. Jay (b) Fig. 5.29. (a) Symmetric structure with repetitive beats: (b) equivalent lumped model. Lateral Lumping. Consider as an example the symmetrical and symmetrically loaded (and therefore nontwisting) structure in Fig. 5.29a, which consists of two identical shear walls and three identical rigid frames. The walls can be lumped laterally into a single wall, with twice the inertia of an individual wall, and the frames lumped into a single frame with member properties three times those of an individual frame. The lumped wall and frame can then be assembled as a planar model (Fig. 5.29b) and analyzed relatively simply. The resulting forces in the wall and frame of the lumped structure are divided by two and three, respectively. to give the forces in the individual walls and frames. This simple lateral lumping technique may be applied only to structures that do not twist, because the forces in the bents of a nontwisting structure are independent of their lateral location. Vertical Lumping. More usual examples of lumping occur in tall multistory coupled-wall or rigid-frame structures in which the story heights and beam sizes are repetitive, as in Figs, 5.30a and $,31a. The detailed models can be simplified by vertically combining groups of three or five beams into single beams, at the middle beam location, and assigning to them the lumped properties of inertia and represented by membrane Boams represented by membrane elements Load: H per Noor tthe tet tees (b) 101102 MODELING FOR ANALYSIS. Peddtdeddae whl tel, (a (by Fig. 5.31 (a) Rigid frame with repetitive beams: (b) equivalenl lumped beam model. shear area (Figs. 5.30b and 5.31b). It is advisable to leave the bottom one or two: beams, and the top one or two beams, of the structure in their original locations to better represent the localized effects at the base and the top. In the case of lumping beams that connect shear walls, as in Fig. 5.30a, the sectional properties of the membrane elements, or the analogous wide columns, representing the walls would be the same in the lumped model (Fig. 5.30) as in the nonlumpec model, because of the predominantly single-curvature behavior of the walls. In a rigid frame, however (Fig. 5.31a), the predominantly story-height double-curvature bending of the columns would require their inertias to be in- creased in the lumped model with its increased story heights, to make the lateral racking stiffinesses of the two models identical. The axial areas of the columns in the two models would, however, be the same. The lateral loads are also lumped and applied at the lumped beam levels. Details of this technique are given in Chap- ter7. When coupied walls are being represented by membrane finite elements. a vari= ation of the lumping technique is to represent sets of m successive connecting beams, as well as the shear walls by n-story-height membrane elements (Fig. 5.30c}. The wall elements are assigned the same sectional nsions as the walls, while the elements representing the beams are assigned a thickness to represent the distributed vertical flexural and shear stiffnesses of the connecting beams. De~ tails of this technique are also given in Chapter 7. The results for the member forces of a lumped model analysis must be inter~ preted to obtain the forces in the members of the original structure. The resulting moment and shear in the original middle beam of a lumped set of 1 beams are one- nth of the resulting values for the lumped beam. The forces in the other beams of the original sttucture must be estimated by interpolation between the values ob- tained for the middle beams above and below. The distribution of horizontal shear between the vertical members. at any level in the original structure will be in the ‘Same ratio as between the corresponding members in the lumped model structure, $0 REOUCTION TECHNIQUES © 103 while the sum of shears will be equal to the external shear at that level. The mo- ment at any level in a shear wall of the original structure will be given by the moment at that level of the wall in the lumped structure, while moments in the columns of a rigid frame will be given approximately by the product of the column shear, determined as above, and the original half-story height. 5.6.5 Wide-Column Deep-Beam Analogies it has been explained earlier how horizontally loaded shear walls connected by beams, as in Fig. 5.32a, can be modeled by equivalent wide columns that consist of a column on the centroidal axis of the wall, with rigid arms at the beam levels (0 represent the effects of the walls’ width (Fig. 5.32b). Some frame analysis pro- grams include a rigid-end member option that includes the wide-column effects and therefore allows the beam to be considered as a single member between the column axes, Ifthe available program does not have such an option, the rigid-end ‘beam may be simplified in the model to a full-span uniform beam with an increased inertia to allow for the wide-column effects (Fig. 5.32c). An expression for the increase in effective inertia, which is given in Chapter 10, is dependent on the assumption of the wall cross sections rotating in-plane identically at the same level. This is generally valid for coupled shear walls and for rigid frames with a pattem of regularly spaced equally sized columns such as occur in framed-tube structures. In rigid-frame systems with deep beams (Fig. 5.33a), the stiffening effect of the beam depth on the columns can be represented by rigid vertical arms (Fig. 5,336). This also can be accommodated in an analysis by a rigid-end member option. If the analysis program does not have a rigid-end member facility, however, the rigid-end column can be replaced in the model by a uniform full-height column between the beam axes (Fig. 5.33c) with modified stiffness properties to allow for the deep beam effect. The inertia of the full-height column will be increased to allow for the rigid-end effect by a factor that depends on whether the vertical Rigid arms Equivalent uniform beams a) ) te) Fig. 5.32 (a) Coupled shear walls; (b) equivalent wide-column model: (c) equivalent u form beam model,104 MODELING FOR ANALYSIS, “aert 4 | = Rigid Eau votent - arms unsere columns ', ZN 7 a (a) tb) tc) Fig. 5.33 (a) Columns joined by deep beams: (b} equivalent deep beam model; (¢) equiv= alent uniform columa model. Rigi arms. Equivalent uniform fl beers Eaurvalent: uni form, columns i) &) te) Fig. 5.34. (2) Wide-column, deep beam frame: (b) wide-column, deep: beam model: (€) equivalent uniform member model. members are deflecting primarily in single curvature, as would shear walls, or in, story-height double curvature, as would slender columns. . A frame combining wide columns and deep beams, such as a reinforced con: crete frame tube (Fig. 5.34a), can be represented either by an analogous wide- column deep-bear frame (Fig. 5.34b) or more simply by a frame of equivalent full length beams end columns with appropriately increased stiffnesses (Fig. 5.34¢). SUMMARY In modeling a structure for analysis itis usual to represent only the main structural members and to assume that the effects of nonstructural members are small and conservative, Adcitional assumptions are made with regard to the linear behavior REFERENCES — 105 of the material, the in-plane rigidity of the floor slabs, and the neglect of certain member stiffnesses and deformations, in order to further simplify the model for analysis. The extent to which a model will be simplified is related to the stage of analysis: 4 simple mode! will be used for an approximate preliminary analysis, and a rela- tively detailed one for a more accurate final analysis. In approximate modeling, whole bents, which may be rigid frames, braced frames, shear walls, or cores, may be reduced to equivalent single-column members, for a computer stiffness matrix analysis. Or sets of connecting beams or links between major vertical com- ponents may be represented by an equivalent continuous medium to allow a closed solution of the governing differential equation. In more accurate modeling. the columns and beams of frames will be Tepre- sented individually by beam finite elements, while shear walls and cores will be represented by assemblies of membrane finite elements. In cases where the trans- verse bending of slabs is important, they will be represented by equivalent beams, For an accurate solution, a computer analysis using a general strictural analysis program is usually accepted as the best method. Cenain reductions of a detailed model are possible while still producing an acceptably accurate solution. These reductions include halving the model to allow for symmetrical or antisymmetrical behavior, or representing the structures by a planar medel and conducting a two-dimensional analysis, or lumping similar frames together in a nontwisting structure, or lumping vertically adjacent beams ina frame or connected wall structure. The ability to model high-rise structures successfully for analysis requires an Understanding of their behavior under load, while a good grasp of the techniques of modeling serves in return as an aid in generally assessing a tall building’s be- havior, as well as assisting in the selection and development of stractural forms for tall buildings. REFERENCES S.1 ETABS, Three Dimensional Analysis of Building Systems. Computers and Strsctures Inc., Berkeley, California. [989 $.2 Stafford Smith. B, and Cruvellier, M. “Planar Modelling Techniques for Asymmetric: Building Structures.”* Proc, inst. Civil Engineers Part 2, 89, March 1990. \-14.ME CHAPTER 6 Braced Frames Bracing is a highly efficient and economical method of resisting horizontal forces in a frame structure. A braced bent consists of the usual columns and girders, whose primary purpose is to support the gravity leading. and diagonal bracing members that ae connected so that the total set of members forms a vertical can- tilever truss to resist the horizontal loading. The braces and girders act as the web) members of the truss, while the columns act as the chords. Bracing is efficient: because the diagonals work in axial stress and therefore call for minimum member: sizes in providing stiffness and strength against horizontal shear. Historically, bracing has been used to stabjlize laterally the majonty of the, world’s tallest building structures, from the earliest examples at the end of the. nineteemth century to the present time. The Statue of Liberty. constructed in New. York in 1883, was one of the first major braced structures. In the following three: decades large numbers of braced stee!-frame tall buildings were erected in Chicago, and New York, The 57-story, 792-fi-high, braced steel Woolworth Tower, com= pleted in 1913, established a height record. which it held until the 77-story, 1046- fi-high Chrysler Building and the 102-story, 1250-ft-high Empire State Building (Fig. 6.1) were completed in 1930 and 1931, respectively. One- or two-story-height bracing. as used generally in the earlier high-rise steel structures, is an effective and still widely used arrangement, Recently, however, a much larger scale form of bracing, traversing many stories and bays, has also been used to considerable structural and architectural advantage in medium- and high-rise [Link], thereby extending significantly the repertoire of bracing cons cepts. 6.1 TYPES OF BRACING Diagonal bracing is inherently obstructive to the architectural plan and can pose problems in the organization of internal space and traffic as well as in locating window and door openings. For this reason it is usvally concentrated in vertical panels or bents that are located 10 cause a minimum of obstruction while satisfying the structural -equirements of resisting the shear and torque on the building. In many locations the type of bracing has to be selected primarily on the basis of allowing the necessary openings through the bay. often at the expense af efficiency in resisting the lateral forces. 1 TYPESOF BRACING 107 Street level Fig. 6.1 Empire State Building: typical braced bent. In low- or moderate-rise buildings that are not particularly slender, it is usually possible for the engineer to arrange the bracing in the structure without the archi= lect having to consider planning the building. In a slender, moderate-rise building or a truly high-rise building, the location of the lateral load-resisting bents is more important and, indeed. might be all important to the viability of the struc (ure. In such cases the architect and the structural engineer should liaise in the carly stages of design. ‘The most efficient, but also the most obstructive, types of bracing are those that form a fully triangulated vertical truss. These include the single-diagonal, double- diagonal, and K-braced types (Fig. 6.2a-e). The full-diagonal types of braced bent wre usually located where passage is not required, such as beside and between elevator, service, and stair shafts, which are unlikely 10 be relocated in the lifetime of the building. Other types of braced bent that allow window aind door openings. but whose108 te) {a} (nd (a) cf) te) ™ tn) a (a g eS S = 62 BEHAVIOR OF BRACING 109 arrangements cause bending in the girder, are shown in Fig. 6.2(-1. Some other types, which introduce bending in both the columns and the girders. are shown in Fig. 6.2m. n. and p. Generally. the types of braced bent that respond to lateral loading by bending of the girders, or of the girders and columns, are laterally less stiff and, therefore, less efficient, weight for weight. than the fully triangulated s88€8. Which respond with axial member forces only. 6.2 BEHAVIOR OF BRACING Because lateral loading on a building is reversible, braces will be subjected in tum o both tension and compression: consequently. they are usually designed for the more stringent case af compression, For this reason, bracing systems with shorter braces, for example the K-types. may be preferred to the full-diagonal types. As an exception to designing braces for compression. the braces in the double-diag- onal system are sometimes assumed to buckle in compression, and each diagonal is designed to carry in tension the full shear in the panel A significant advantage of the fully triangulated bracing types (Fig. 6.20-e) is that the girder moments and shears are independent of the lateral loading on the structure, Consequently, the floor framing. which. in this case, is designed for gravity loading only, can be repetitive throughout the height of the structure with ‘obvious economy in the design and construction. In bracing systems in which the diagonals connect to the girder at a significant distance from the girder ends, for example, those in Fig. 6.2c. d, e. and h, the girder can be designed more economically as continuous over the cannection, thus helping to offset the cost of the bracing. A further advantage of this type of bracing, system is that the braces, in having one or both ends connected to the beam, which is relatively flexible vertically, do not attract a significant load as the columns shorten under gravity loading. Eccentric bracing systems (i... systems in which the braces are not concentric with the main joints) may be used to design a ductile structure for an eanhquake- resistant steel-framed building. The bracing acts in its usual elastic manner when contvolling drift against wind or minor earthquakes. In the event of an overload during a major earthquake, the short link in the beam between the brace connection and the column in Fig. 6.2f, g, k, and 1, and the link in the beam between brace connections in Fig. 6.2h, serves as a ““fuse’’ by deforming plastically in shear to sive a ductile response of the structure. Such braced systems combine high elastic stiffness and a large inelastic energy dissipation capacity that can be sustained over many cycles. ‘The roles of the “*web’” members in resisting shear on a bent can be understood by following the path of the horizontal shear down the bent from story to story. Referring to Fig. 6.3 and considering four typical types of bracing subjected to the total external shear, that is, neglecting the lesser effects of the horizontal forces applied locally at the floor levels, the vertical transmission of horizontal shear can be traced. In Fig, 6.3a the diagonal in each story is in compression. causing the beams to be in axial tension; therefore, the shortening of the diagonals and exten-110 GRACED FRAMES: sit ah Ss a 8 ‘ o fe) + A A ¢ 0 —— «ed (@) Fig. 6.3. Path of horizontal shear through web members. (a) Single-diagonal bracing: {b) double-diagonal bracing: (c) K-bracing; (d) story-height knee bracing sion of the beams give rise to the shear deformation of the bent. In Fig. 6.3b. the forces in the braces connecting to cach beam end are in equilibrium horizomally. with the beam carrying an insignificant axial load. In Fig. 6.3c half of each beam is in compression and the other half in tension, whereas in Fig. 6.3¢ the end parts of the beam are in compression and tension with the whole beam subjected to” double curvature bending. With a reverse in the direction of the horizontal load on the structure the actions and deformations in each member of the bracing will also be reversed, The roles, if any. of the web members in picking up compressive force as the: structure shortens vertically under gravity loading can be traced similarly. As the columns in Fig. 6.4 and b shorten, the diagonals are subjected to compression. which can be developed because of the tying action of the beams. In Fig. 6.4c the: ends of the beams where diagonals are not connected are not stiffly restrained by the columns’ bending rigidity: therefore the beams cannot provide the horizontal restraint thal the diagonals need to develop a force. Consequently, the diagonals will not attract significant gravity load forces. Similarly. in Fig. 6.44 the vertical restraint from the flexural stiffness of the beam is not large; therefore, as in the previous case, the diagonals experience only negligible gravity load forces. If the type of bracing system allows the diagonals to attract compressive loading due to gravity loading on the structure, the diagonals should be either designed to carry the compressive forces or, to avoid backlash in the lateral load behavior of the structure due to the braces having buckled, they must be detailed short and pre= stressed in tension during erection. 89 WEHAVIOR OF BRACED MENTS TNT \ 3 <— N <— <— (a) 2) Fig. 6.4 Path of gravity touding down bent, (a) Single-diagonal. single-direction Bracing hy double-diagonal bracing: (c) single-diagonal, alternate-ditection bracing: (d) K-trracthy 6.3 BEHAVIOR OF BRACED BENTS ‘A braced bent behaves under horizontal loading as a vertieal cantilever truss, The Columns act’as the chords in carrying the external load moment, with tension in the windward column and compression in the leeward column. The diagonals and girders serve as the web members in carrying the horizontal shear, with the diag: ‘nals in axial tension or compression depending on their direction of inclination, The girders act axially and, in some cases. in bending also “The effect of the chords’ axial deformations om the lateral defiection of the frame is to tend to cause a “flexural” configuration of the structure, that is, with con cavity downwind and a maximum slope at the top (Fig. 6.5a). The effect of the web member deformations, however, is to tend to cause a “*shear"’ configuration of the structure (i.e., with concavity upwind. a maximum slope at the base, and a nero slope at the top; Fig. 6.5b). The resulting deflected shape (Fig. 6.5¢) is @ combination of the effects of the flexural and shear curves with a resultant config: tration depending on their relative magnitudes, as determined mainly by the type of bracing. In bents that are braced in a single bay, horizontal loading causes a maximum tension at the base of the windward column of the braced bay, The more slender the bay, the larger the tensile force. Depending on the tributary area of slab sup- poned by the column, the tension will be partly or wholly suppressed by the dead load of the structure. For height-to-width ratios of braced bays greater than about 10, however, the probability arises of uplift forces that are too large to handle, In12 PPC rt Pe et (0 @ Fig. 6.5 (a) Flexural deflection; (b) shear deflection; (c) combined 64 METHODS OF ANALYSIS = 113 bedhead ddd Fig. 6.6 Bracing in different bays of » bent multibay bents this problem can be avoided by placing successive story bracing in different bays of the bent, as in Fig. 6.6. In this arrangement the column axial forces caused by horizontal loading will be significantly smaller. In providing for architectural requirements it is sometime necessary to use dif ferent types of bracing in different bays of the same bent. or in bays of different parallel bents. This docs not present a particular problem, except that care should be taken to ensure that the lateral stiffesses of the individual braced bays are comparable. Combinations of full-diagonal or K-type braced panels, both of which are usually very stiff in shear. with knuckle-type braced panels, which are usually much less stiff, may prove unsatisfactory, because the stiff panels will attract an unacceptably large proportion of the lateral load. In determining the individual pane! stiffness, the total height behavior of the braced panel should be considered. ‘This means that the lateral flexural flexibility due to axial deformations of the columns, as well as the lateral shear flexibility due to deformations of the braces and girders, should be taken into account In some situations, because of setbacks or transition levels, it is not possible to locate the braces in a single vertical plane throughout the entire height of the struc- ture. In these cases the shear can be transferred from the braced bents above the setback or transition to those below by the horizontal-plane rigidity of the floor slab or by horizontal bracing in the plane of the floor. 6.4 METHODS OF ANALYSIS 6.4.1. Member Force Analysis In the majority of modem design offices all but the simplest of braced high-rise stnuctures are now analyzed by computer using a frame analysis program, To re- mind the reader of other possibilities, however, simple hand methods of analysis114 BRACED FRAMES: that may be used for statically determinate, or certain low-redundaney. braced structures will be reviewed. An analysis of the forces in a statically determinate triangulated braced bent can be made using the method of sections. For example, in the single- braced panel of Fig. 6.7, subjected to an external shear Q, in story ( and external moments M, and Md,_, at floor levels i and i — 1, respectively. and assuming the frame to be pin-jointed so that the members carry only axial forces, the force in the brace can be found by considering the horizontal equilibrium of the free body above section XX, thus, Fac cos 6 = @, (6.1) hence, - 2 Fre = oa (6.2) The foree Fpp in the column BD is found by considering moment equilibrium ‘of the upper free body about C. thus Fapk = My (6.3) hence Fen = fe (6.4) while the force Fc in column AC is obtained similarly from the moment equilib rium of the upper free body about B, to give Fig. 6.7. Single diagonal braced pane! 64 METHODS OF ANALYSIS = 115. Floor level + Story Floor level (3-1) Fac = (6.5) ‘This procedure can be repeated for the members in each story of the bent. ‘The member forces in more complex types of braced bents can also be obtained by taking horizontal sections. For example. in the story-height knee-braced bent of Fig. 6.8, it could be assumed that the shear in story é is shared equally between the braces. Then, from horizontal equilibrium of the upper free body, a = 6. Pec” 3 cos 6 (6.8) and, from moment equilibrium of the upper free bady about D, (Fac + Fec sin @)L = M,_; (6.7) from which Fac = 1 = Fec sin 8 (6.8) As the frame responds to horizontal shear, the girder in this type of bracing system is subjected to bending throughout its length and to axial forces Q,/2 in the lengths AE and FB. The bending is caused by the vertical components of the forces in the braces, while the axial forces are caused by the horizontal compo- nents. 6.4.2. Drift Analysis In considering the deflected shape of a braced frame it is important to appreciate the relative influence of the flexural and shear made contributions. due to the col-116 BRACEDFRAWES: umn axial deformations and to the diagonal and girder deformations, respectively. {n typically proportioned low-rise braced structures. the shear mode displacements. are the most significant and. incidentally, will largely determine the lateral stiffness | of the structure. In medium- to high-rise structures, however, the higher axial. forces and deformations in the columns. and the accumulation of their effects over @ greater height. cause the flexural component of displacement ta became domi= nant. In a panel with single diagonal bracing and a height-to-width ratio of 8. the: total drift may be typically 60-70% attributable to the flexural component, with the remainder dic to the shear component. In knee-braced bents. in which lateral loading subjects the girders—and in some arrangements the girders and columns— to bending. as well as the braces to axial deformation, the proportion of the total Grift attributable to the shear component would be significantly greater. The story drift. that is. the incremem of tateral deflection in a story height, which is often the limiting drift criterion and which in a braced bent is a maximum at or close to the top of the structure, is more strongly influenced by the flexural Component of deflection. This is because the inclination of the structure caused by the flexural component accumulates up the structure. while the story shear com- ponent diminishes toward the top. Consequently. in a single-diagonal braced frame, Such as the one previously cited. the flexural component may contribute as mucl a5 95% of the top-story drift. One virtue of a hand analysis for drift is that it easily allows the drift contrh butions of the individual frame members to be seen, thereby providing guidance as to which members should be increased in size 10 most effectively reduce al excessive total drift or story drift, Virtual Work Drift Analysis. In this method a force analysis of the structure subjected to the design horizontal loading is first made in order to determine the axial force P; in each member j, as well as the bending moment M,, at sections along those members subjected to bending (Fig. 6,9a). A second force analysis f then made with the structure subjected to only a unit imaginary or “dummy”? horizontal load at the level NW whose drift is required (Fig. 6.96) to give the axial force Px. and moment 7. at section X in the bending members. The resulting horizontal deflection at NV is then given by = Epa( 2) +5 [| (69), in which L). 4,, and J, are the length, sectional area, and moment of inertia for each member j, and £ is the clastic modulus. The first summation in (6.9) refers to all members subjected to axial loading. while the second refers to only those members subjected to bending. If the drift is required at another level, n, of the structure, another dummy unit load analysis will have to be made. but the unit load applied only at level nt, ‘The resulting values f,, and 7,,, will be substituted in Eq. (6.9) to give the drift, 64 METHODS OF ANALYSIS 117, —- a evel — L NI late Typical member 3 — L [SSS > a o> (a (b) Fig. 6.9 (a) Member forces duc to design horizontal loading; (b) member forces due 10 unit dummy loading. The virtual work method is cxact and can easily be systematized by tabulation, An adequate assessment of the deflected configuration, the total drift, and the story drifts can be obtained by plotting the deflection diagram from the deflections at just three or four equally spaced points up the height of the structure, requiring one design load force analysis plus three or four dummy” unit load analyses, Combined Moment-Area and Shear Formula Approximate Drift Analysis. An approximate calculation of the drift can be made by using the moment-area method to obtain the flexural component (i.e., the component resulting from col- umn axial deformations) and by applying a shear deflection formula to calculate the shear component. The method is appropriate for braced bents in which the flexural mode stiffness is entirely attributable to the axial areas of the columns: these include the majority of bracing types. [t has the advantage that a detailed member force analysis of the frame is not necessary: only the external moment and the total shear force at cach level are required Flexural Component. ‘The procedure for obtaining the flexural component of drift is to first calculate forthe structure (Fig. 6. 10a) the extemal moment diagram (Fig. 6,106), Then, 10 compute for the different vertical regions of the bent, the second moments of arca f of the column sectional areas about their common cen: roid. For example, the value for the lower region af the braced bent in Fig. 6, 10x isne ‘H diagram diagram tT M wT “ Centroid of iby are of N diagram (b) Level (a) PoE tet teat tee ee g * 2 2 E = a = < s & 2 3 a 2 = G4 METHODS OF ANALYSIS =—-119. Be if 1=24($) -% (6.10) ‘The moment diagram and the values of J are used to construct an M/E/ diagram, as in Fig. 6.100. ‘The story drift in story /, 4,, due to the flexure of the structure, is then obtained fron bin = Oy (6.11) in which A, is the height of story é. and 0, is the inclination of story é. which is equal to the area under the M/E/ curve between the base of the structure and the mid-height of story i. The total drift at floor n, due to flexure, is then given by the sum of the story drifts from the first to the sth stories Aur by (6,12) Shear Component. The shear component of the story drift in story /, 8. is a function of the external shear and the properties of the braces and girder in that Mory. The shear component of the total drift at floor level , 4... is equal to the sum of the story shear components of drift from the first to the nth stories, that is Age Bebe: (6.13) Formulas for the shear component of the story drift, 5,., are given for various types of braced bent in Table 6.1 Having obtained the flexural and shear components of drift, the total drift at evel n is given by By = Ba + Ag (6.14) 6.4.3 Worked Example for Calculating Drift by Approximate Methods A I5-story single-diagonally braced frame (Fig. 6.11) consists of three 5-story regions. It is required to determine the drift at floors 5, 10, and 15 (i.c., where Moor 1 is at the rop of story n) fora uniform wind load of 10 kips per story. Assume the elastic modulus E = 4.2 x 10° kip / ft? The flexural and shear components of drift will be determined separately. as follows.120 BRACEDFRAMES Braced Bents: Shear Deflection per Story DIMENS OHS: aH ee Of d's) fe Ag oe SINGLE DIAGONAL L USI DIAGONAL | stoi neicuT iy KNEE-BRACE Q ts the story shear Ay 1s the sectional ares of a dvagonel Ay end I. are, resnectively, the sectronal ares and inertia of the woper girder Es the elastic wadulus Flexural Component. Using Table 6.2 to record the steps of the computation: 1. Compute the moment of inestia of the column sectional areas about their common centroid for cach of the three height regions and record the values in column 3. In the frame under consideration the column areas are equal, therefore their common centroid is mid-way between the columns Ly Ae 1=2%4(§) oS As an example. for the lowest region, stories 1-5. where A, = 35 in. 04 METHOOS OF ANALYSIS = 121 ois jevel 18 A. area of column= 10 sn? 10 i P Ay area of dtagonal = 5 in ares of girders 30 in? oft t 15 stories #1 19 —t : we 2 wo Pe § n. [ gl _5 Fig. 611 Example frame. 2. Compute the value of the extemal moment Mf at cach mid-story level and enter the values in column 4, For example. in story 12 M = 10(5 + 15 + 25) +5 x 35 = 625 kip ft 3. Determine for each story the value of AM/El, retaining E as a symbol, and enter the result in column $. These are the changes in inclination in each story # due to flexure. 84,. For example. in story 5, AM /EI = 604, = 10 5525 /48.6E = 1136.8/E 4. Determine for each story j the accumulation of 64,. from story | up to und including story i. @,, and record it in column 6. For example, the accumulation of 64); up to story 5 is (2165.6 + 1877.6 + 1610.1 + 1363.2 + 1136.8)/E = 8153.3/E Such accumulated values give the inclination of cach story / due to flexure, @,,.122° BRACEO FRAMES: TABLE 6,2 Evaluation of Flexural Components of Drift Story Frame — Extemal Story Story Height Inenia Momeni Inclination Drift h 4 M, 86, 44 by Story (Ri) A) (rads /EY (ads /E) (RE) i Bg 25 13,0 14942.8 149428 14 10 igo 125 89.9 14926.8 149248 Boo Be 325° 233.8 4834.9 148349 2 W oBe 625 449.6 4601.1 146041 if 129 02S 734 MISTS AEST 10 oars $48.6 1344.1 IS4idi 862791 0.205 9 0 78 ‘To4d 128655 128655 & 0 278 Ho16.t 121011 121081 7 10 278 1304.0 110855 110855 6 10 278 1627.7 9781.0 97810 S 10 48.6 $525 1136.8 8153.3 81533 270319 0.064 4 10 48.6 © 6625 1363.2 7016.5. 70165 3 1048.6 7825 A610.) 5653.3 56533 2 10) 48.6 9128 1877.6 © 4043.2 40432 1 Wo 48.6 10825 2165.6 = 2165.6 21656 3. Record the product of h, and @,,in column 7. 8, is the drift in story i. 5. due to flexure. For example, the drift in story $ due to flexure is 6 10 x 8153.3/E = 81533/E ft 6. At each level where the value of the lateral drift is required, evaluate the accumulation of the story drifts, 4), from story 1 up to the considered nth floor, to give the drift 4; due to flexure. Enter these in column 8. For example. at floor 5: Sse = (21656 + 40432 + 56533 + 70165 + 81533)/E = 270319/4.2 x 10° = 0.064 ft Shear Components. Using Table 6.3 to record the steps of the computation: 1. Compute the value of the extemal shear Q, acting in each story # and enter in column 2. 2. Compute for each story # the story drift due to shear, 6, by substituting the value of the story shear and member properties into the appropriate formula from Table 6.1. Record the resulting values of 5), in column 3. O4 METHODS OF ANALYSIS 123 TABLE 6.3 Evaluation of Shear Components of Drift ‘Shear Stoty Drift Drift @ by bn Story (kips) «fy ay Is 3 0.0011 0.126 a 1s 0.0032 13 28 0.0054 2 38 0.0075 " 4s 0.0097 10 35 0.0065 0.099 9 65 0.0077 8 5 0.0089, 7 35 0.0101 6 95 0.0113 5 105 0.0091 0.054 4 ns 0.0100 3 125 9.0109 2 135 0.0117 1 145 0.0125 ee le For example, the shear deflection formula for the single-diagonally braced éx- ample frame is and using this to compute the drift in story 8 due to shear 5, 15 22.36% x 144 20 x 14d “4.2 «108 == 20° x 10 30 = 0.0089 ft 3. Sum the story drifts due to shear up to and including stories 5, 10, and 15 o obtain the total shear drift at floor levels 5. 10, and 15, and record the values in column 4. For example, the drift due to shear at floor 5 4s. = 0.0125 + 0.0117 + 0.0109 + 0.0100 + 0.0091 = 0.054 f Total Drift. The total drift at any floor level is the sum of the flexural and shear drifts at that level; for example, the total drift at the Wp of the 15-story frame in question is124 BRACED FRAMES: Ais = Aise + Ais. = 0.380 + 0.126 = 0.506 ft ‘A computer stiffness matrix analysis of the same structure gave the result Ays = 0,477 fi; hence. in this case the approximate hand method was +6.1% in error, This error was probably due to the assumption implicit in the method of calculating the flexural component of drift, that the axial forces in the two columns of any particular story of a single-bay frame are equal in value. In the single-diagonally braced frame considered, the column axial forces in each story do not have exactly: the same value. One is always smaller than assumed in the calculation. because of, the vertical component of the force in the bracing member; hence the deflection calculated by the approximate method is larger Figure 6. 12a shows the relative contributions of the columns’. diagonals’, and girders’ deformations to the drift of the example structure. It is evident that al- though the diagonals have the largest influence on the drift in the lowest region, the column axial deformations tend to dominate the drift further up the structure, thus causing an overall flexural mode of behavior of the structure, Figure 6,12b shows the relative contributions of the columns, diagonals, and Birders to the story drifts. In the upper part of the structure. the axial deformations: of the columns dominate the story drifis even more than they do the total drift. 6.5 USE OF LARGE-SCALE BRACING Traditionally, and indeed currently. the typical arrangement of bracing in tall building structures is in story-height, bay-width modules. In this form it is usually. possible (© conceal the bracing within the walls or facade of a building to leave little evidence of its being a braced structure. ‘Over the last two decades the high efficiency of bracing in resisting lateral load ing has been further exploited by using it on a larger modular scale, both within the building and extemally across the faces. In the latter form the massive diagor nals have sometimes been emphasized as an architectural feature of the facade. ‘A simple and elegant example of the use of massive K-braced (russes in resist ing wind loading is in the 35-story Mercantile Tower in St. Louis, Missouri (Fig. 6.13). Four vertical trusses, each consisting of three-story height K-braced panels, are aligned diagonally in plan across the cut-off corners of the building. Each pair of vertical trusses at the ends of the building is joined by a rigid frame. The trusses are also connected to a single-bay rigid frame on each of the wide faces to form a stiff vertical U-section assembly at each end of the building, These provide resis« lance to wind in both the transverse and longitudinal directions of the building. The 27-story Alcan Building in San Francisco (Fig. 6.14) uses six-story height panels of double-diagonal bracing between the main full-height columns on each ‘of the building's four faces. At each mid-panel crossover point the braces connect ‘to intermediate columns that rise from the first floor, transition girder level. In this ‘arrangement the braces serve several roles: =-> due to girder deformations 1eAa, s0ayy Deflection per story (in) Deflection (4n) (») Fig. 6.12 (a) Components of total drift. (by components of story drift @)Fig. 6:13 Mercanite Tower, St. Louis, Misious, LS Fig. 6.14 Alcan Building, San Francisco, 126. 0.9 USE OF LARGE-GOALE BRACING = 127. to carry the lateral shear on the building: to mobilize the intermediate columns axially so that they participate with the main columns in resisting the lateral load moment: 3. to shift gravity loading from the intermediate columns to the main calumns and thus reduce the load on the transfer girder. The 100-story John Hancock Building in Chicago is'a braced tube (Fig. 4.14), In this hybrid form of structure the four rigid frame faces of the building are stiff. ened by overall diagonal bracing. The rigid frames form a vertical tube-type can- tilever in which the frames parallel to the wind act as the webs of the cantilever, While the frames normal to the wind act as the flanges. The role of the bracing is again multi-purpose in: 1. resisting the horizontal shear; reducing the shear lag in the flange column axial forces and hence making the whole cross-section of the building structure stiffer against horizontal load bending: . helping to equalize the gravity load stresses in the columns. An important consequence of the reduced shear lag in the lange frames of the braced-tube structure is that the demand on the rigid-frame action is reduced so ‘much that the columns can be spaced further apart, and the spandrel beams ean be shallower than in unbraced tube structures. thereby allowing larger window open- ings. The 914-ft-all Citicorp Building in New York City has a frame structure (Fig. 6.15), which, although completely concealed by cladding, depends heavily on di agonal members. The square plan tower is supported by a full-height central core and four nine-story braced legs that are located under the middle of the tower faces. Each braced leg supports a two-story transfer truss from the top of which a “‘ma- Jor” mast column extends in line with the leg to the top of the tower. **Minai columns are located at the comers and quarter points of the tower faces. The col- umn system is K-braced by cight-story-high major diagonals that form chevron- like eight-story tiers supported by the mast columns. Gravity loads are shared be- ‘ween the core and the outer frames. In the frames the load is transferred from the minor columns to the mast column by the diagonals at cight-story imervals, Wind shear is collected by the core over eight-story-height regions and transferred to the braced outer frames at the base of each tier. At the base of the tower the entire shear is transferred back to the core and hence to the ground. Wind moment is carried mainly by the mast columns and legs in the faces normal to the wind, and partly by the core. The unique structure of the Citicorp Building was develaped to- satisfy a requirement for the building to overhang an existing church on the site Since the diagonals carry a significant par. of the gravity loading, the structure may be classified as either a space truss or a braced frame.128 BRACED FRAMES: Lh YOST SS NNT ae A = Pop ey <—/ 7 SJ FSB jet eet tere SJ aa SJ > SJ = Z| =I =I Pl st ke Sl SJ eh al 7 =I aN CN eee eI " - €2 st SS Fig. 6.15, ‘omp Building. New York City SUMMARY A braced frame is an efficient structural form for resisting horizontal Joading, It acts as @ vertical truss, with the columns as chords and the braces and girders as web members. The most efficient type of bracing, using full diagonals, is also the most obstructive to door and window openings. Other arrangements are available that are more amenable to allowing openings but that, weight for weight, are less stiff horizontally. The bracing arrangement is usually dietated by the requirements for openings. An advantage of some types of briced framing is that horizontal loading does Rot contribute significantly to the girder forces: consequently, the girders can be uniform aver the height of the structure with economy in design and construction. REFERENCES © 129 Some forms. in which the braces connect part way ulong the girder, allow the girder to be designed for gravity loading as continuous aver the brace connections, again with resulting economy. Braced bents deficet with a combination of flexural and shear components; the flexural component results from the column axial deformations, and the shear com: ponent from the brace and girder deformations. Lowrise structures deflect in a predominantly shear mode while high-rise braced bents deftect in a predominantly flexural mode Braced-frame member forces may usually be analyzed by the method of joints or by the method of sections. To allow a statically determinate analysis. it is ally assumed either that the shear is shared equally between the tension and compression braces, or that the compression brace has buckled and the tension brace carries all the shear. Deflections may be analyzed by hand, cither exactly, using the virtual work method, or approximately. using a combination of the moment area method and shear deflection formula. An advantage of the virtual work method is that it indi- cates which members contribute most significantly to the deflection, therefore pro- viding guidance as to which members should be adjusted to control the deflection. Although bracing bas been used typically in story-height bay-width modules, recent development for very tall buildings has been to incorporate it in larger scale, ‘multistory multibay arrangements. The effect of these has been to cause a more integral behavior of the column-girder system in resisting both gravity and hori- zontal loading, cresting highly ) Fig. 7.3. (a) Live load patter for maximum positive moment in AB and CD, and maxi- mum negative moment at A: (b) live load pattern for maximum negative moment at B 72 DETERMINATION OF MEMBER FORCES CAUSED BY GRAVITY LOADING 199 ment. girders in rigid frames are designed for the end-of-span resultant hogging moments, which may be of lesser value, Consequently. girders in a rigid frame may be smaller than in the corresponding braced frame. Such reductions in size allow economy through the lower cost of the girders and possible reductions in story heights. These benefits may be offset. however. by the higher cost of the more complex rigid connections, 7.2 APPROXIMATE DETERMINATION OF MEMBER FORCES CAUSED BY GRAVITY LOADING A rigid frame is a highly redundant structure; consequently, an accurate analysis can be made only after the member sizes are assigned. Initially. therefore, member sizes are decided on the basis of approximate forces estimated either hy conserv- ative formulas or by simplified methods of analysis that are independent of member Properties. Two approaches for estimating girder forces due to gravity loading are given here. 7.2.1 Girder Forces—Code Recommended Values In rigid frames with two or more spans in which the longer of any Iwo adjacent spans does not exceed the shorter by more than 20%, and where the uniformly distributed design live load docs not exceed three times the dead Joad, the girder Moment and shears may be estimated from Table 7.1. This summarizes the rec- ommendations given in the Uniform Building Code (7.1). In other cases a conven Vignal moment distribution or two-cycle moment distribution analysis should be made for a tine of girders at a floor level. 7.2.2 Two-Cycle Moment Distribution [7.2] This is @ concise form of moment distribution for estimating girder moments in a continuous multibay span. It is more accurate than the formulas in Table 7.1, especially for cases of unequal spans and unequal loading in different spans. The following is assumed for the analysis: |. A counterclockwise restraining moment on the end of a girder is positive and a clockwise moment is negative. 2. The ends of the columns at the floors above and below the considered girder are fixed 3. In the absence of known member sizes, distribution factors at each joint are taken equal to 1 /n, where 1 is the number of members framing inio the joint in the plane of the frame. Two-Cycle Moment Distribution—Worked Example. The method is dem- onstrated by a worked example. In Fig. 7.4.0 foursspan girder AE. from a rigid:134 AIGIO-FRAME STRUCTURES TABLE 7.1 Gravity Load Forces in Girders Location on Ginder Value of Moment* Sagging End spans: discontinuous end moment unrestrained End spans: discontinuous end integral ‘with support Interior spans Hogeing At exterior face of first interior suppon: moment fortwo spans At exterior face Of first interior suppor: for more than two spans. Al other faces of interior supports wht At face of all supports where, at each end of each span £ column stiffnesses/ 12 heam stiffness > 8 At interior face of exterior suppon for wl member built integeally with spandre! er) beam or girder At interior face of exterior suppont for wi? member built integrally with column 16 Shear Tn end members at face of first interior hist support 2 AL face of ali other suppor wh 2 “wis lead per unit length of distributed loud. fis the clear span for sagging moment ar shear. und the average of adjacent clear spans for hogging moment Liwe Toad Deed load 20 72 DETERMINATION OF MEMMER FORCES CAUSED BY GRAVITY LOADING — 135 a b Uniforaly distrsbuted Voading w/unit length Concentrated Toad W gt eae pti d thd day 8 be Myo hab? /y2 Myrwlt fie Wad)? Myo mal nz Fig. 7.5 Formulas for fixed-end moments, fa. (for attya) Men wh? /24 Lue frame bent is shown with its loading. The fixed-end moments in each span are calculated for dead loading and total loading using the formulas given in Fig. 7.5 ‘The moments are summarized in Table 7.2. ‘The purpose of the moment distribution is to estimate for each support the max: imum girder moments that can occur as.a result of dead loading and pattem live loading. A different load combination must be considered for the maximum mo- ment at each support, and a distribution made for each combination, The five distributions are presented separately in Table 7.3. and in a coms bined form in Table 7.4. Distributions « in Table 7.3 are for the exterior sup- ports A and E. For the maximum hogging moment at A, total loading is ap- plied to span AB with dead loading only on BC. The fixed-end moments are written in rows | and 2. In this distribution only the resulting moment at A is of interest. For the first cycle, joim B is balanced with a correct 1g moment of ~(-867 + 315)/4 = —U/4 assigned to Mg, where U is the unbalanced mo- TABLE 7.2. Fixed-End Moments for Two-Cycle Moment Distribution Worked Example Dead Load Dead + Live Load Span Loading Moment ¢kNm) Moment (kNm) AB Concentrated 200 600. Uniform distribution 107 267 ‘Total 307 867 BC Concentrated 233 544 Uniform distribution 82 184 Total 315 728 cD Concentrated 193 585 Uniform distribution 101 238 Total 296 813 DE Concentrated 0 0 Uniform distribution % 187 Tot! 18 187 ee196° AIGID-FRAME STRUCTURES TABLE 7.3. Two-Cycle Moment Distribution 72 DETERMINATION OF MEMBEM FOACIS CAUSED BY GRAVITY LOADING 197° AULE 7.3. (Continwed) a, Maximum Moments ar A and E dl Mecsimueny Moment ar D A B D ¢c E Distribution May Max Mae Myc Mog Dhinibution Men Mey Moc Mg Megs Factors 3s 1/4 1/4 t/a 14 fi % w/t 1/4 i/s 1/4 3 ‘DLL. FEM* 315 ~296 DL FEM —315 2, TL, FEM" TL FEM 813 813187 =187 3, Ckerpaver Canyover -e = 4, addition Addition 875 218 3. Distribution Distribution lot 164 6. Maximum Maximum =Ti 382 moments moments Hh. dead loading: T.L.. votal loading: FEM, fixcd-end moments. b. Maximum Moment at 8 A B c: (row 5), implicitly adding the same moment to the two column ends at A. This = he Completes the second cycle of the distribution. The resulting maximum moment Diaripation, “Mae Man lee Mee Meo at A is then given by the addition of rows 4 and 5, 936 — 312 = 624. The distri- Factors 1/3 ya /4 is ifs : ¥ bution for the maximum moment at £ follows a similar procedure |. DL. FEM 296, Distribution 6 in Table 7.3 is for the maximum moment at B. The most severe 2 [Link] 867 ~~ TH nt loading pattern for this is with total loading on spans AB and BC and dead. lead 3. Carryover its St ‘only on CD. The operations are similar to those in Distribution a, except that the: +. Addition first cycle involves balancing the two adjacent joints A and C while recording only 5. Distribution their carryover moments to B. In the second cycle. B is balanced by adding 6 Maximum (1012 + 782}/4 = 58 to each side of B. The addition of rows 4 and 5 then moments Rives the maximum hogging moments at B. Distributions c and d/, for the moments WM joints C and D, follow pattems similar to Distribution b, © Maximum Moment ar C ‘The complete set of operations can be combined as in Table 7.4 by initially z = D Fecording at each joint the fixed-end moments for both dead and total loading, =e ——: ——— ‘Then the joint, or joints, adjacent to the one under consideration are balanced for Distribution Max Mac Mes Meo Moc Moe Factors 1/4 1/8 1/4 fs 1/4 17a 1, DL. FEM 2. TL. FEM 3. Carryover 4, Addition 5. Distribution 6, Maximum 812 874 moments ment. This is not recorded, but half of it, (—U/4)/2, is carried over to May. ‘This is recorded in row 3 and then added’to the fixed-end moment and the res recorded in row 4. ‘The second cycle involves the release and balance of joint A. The unbalut FIZ 10 May moment of 936 is balanced by adding ~U/3 = ~936/3 = A c D istribution = May Mca Mer, Myc Mog Vectors: 1/3 se 1/4 1/4 fa 1/4 1/4 DL. FEM’, 307 - 3075315 315.296 TL. FEM" 867 867728 8 813 Carryover 69S as SxS 53g Addition 536 =1012 782 =781 90S —875 218 | Pivinbution — —312 38__ 38 =3)_ =) 164164 62d -954 840 BID 84 =7i 382 abbreviations, see the foataote i Table 7-3,138 AIGIO-FRAME STRUCTURES. the appropriatz combination of loading, and carryover moments assigned to the considered joint and recorded. The joint is then balanced to complete the distri- bution for that suppor. Maximum Mid-Span Moments. The most severe loading condition fora max- imum mid-span sagging moment is when the considered span and alternate other spans carry total loading. A concise method of obtaining these values may be included in the combined two-cycle distribution, as shown in Table 7.5. Adopting the convention that sagging moments at mid-span are positive. a mid-span total loading moment is calculated for the fixed-end condition of each span and entered in the mid-span column of row 2. These mid-span moments must now be corrected to allow for rotation of the joints. This is achieved by multiplying the carryover moment. row 3, at the left-hand end of the span by (1 + 0.5 D.F.)/2, and the carryover moment at the right-hand end by —(1 + 0.5 D.F.)/2. where D.F. is the appropriate distribution factor. and recording the results in the middle column, For example, :he carryover to the mid-span of AB from A = [(1 + 0.5/33/2] % 69 = 40 and from B = ~[(1 + 0.5/4)/2] x (—145) = 82. These correction moments are then added to the fixed-end mid-span moment to give the maximum mid-span sagging moment, that is. 733 + 40 + 82 = 855. dD <7 699 2 35 786 81a 874 1/4 MS - Dx “812 7.2.3 Column Forces The gravity load axial force in a column is estimated from the accumulated trib- utary dead and live floor loading above that level, with reductions in live loading a8 permitted by the local Code of Practice. The gravity load maximum column moment is estimated by taking the maximum difference of the end moments in the connected girders and allocating it equally between the column ends just above and below the joint. To this should be added any unbalanced moment due to e¢~ centricity of the girder connections from the centroid of the column, also allocated ‘equally between the column ends above and below the joint. 364 30 30 424 Moc 1/4 31s 728 54. 840 = 954 £ = : z q 5 2 5 82 5 7.3. APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF MEMBER FORCES CAUSED BY HORIZONTAL LOADING 133 to Table 7-3. 7.3.1 Allocation of Leading between Bents A first step in the approximate analysis of a rigid frame is to estimate the allocation of the extemal horizontal force to each bent. For this it is usual to assume that the floor slabs are rigid in plane and, therefore, constrain the horizontal displacements of all the vertical bents at a floor level to be related by the horizontal translations, and rotation of the floor slab. 207 867 624 FEM® Symmetric Plan Structures Subjected to Symmetric Loading. A sym- metric structure subjected to symmetric loading (Fig. 7.6a) translates but docs not Iwist. From the assumption of slab rigidity, the bents translate identically. The Di moments TABLE 7.5 Two-Cycle M : i é 6 Maximum L 139140 RIGIDFRAME STRUCTURES L eer {__. Lt tit | —t eben munber CG) ») oO —(e) +~@) Center of Shear rigidre, Arbitrary — origin (b) Fig. 7.6. (a) Symmetric-plan rigid frame: (b) asymmetric-plan rigid frame. total external shear at a level will be distributed between the bents in proportion. to their shear rigidities (GA) at that level. An explanation of the shear rigidity Parameter (GA) is given in a later section but, for now, it may be obtained for level / in a bert simply by using (TAY in which h, is the height of story i, G = E(J,/L) for all the girders of span L across floor j of the bent, and C = £(4, //h,) for all the columns in story / of the bent, E is the modulus of elasticity, and J, and 4, are the moments of inertia of the columns and girders, respectively. 73 ANALYSIS OF MEMBER FOMCES CAUSED BY HORIZONTAL LOADING 144, Asymmetric Plan Structures. ‘The effect of lateral loading on a structure hay= {hg an asymmetric plan is 10 cause a horizontal plane torque in addition to trans: verse shear. Therefore, the structure will twist a5 well as translate, Referring to the asymmetric structure in Fig. 7,6b, and defining the location of the center of shear rigidity of the set of parallel bents in story i, relative to an arbitrary origin 0, as given by 2(GaA)}s, Ge © | E(Gay, a An estimate of the shear Q, carried by bent j at level / is given by QNGA), Qe[(GA)e] (7.3) & Sea), * Tene), in which for level i, Q, is the total shear. (GA), is the shear rigidity of bent j in Moty i, ¢; is the eccentricity of Q; from the center of shear rigidity in story i; is the distance of bent j from the center of shear rigidity. and the (wo summations fefer to the full set of bents parallel to the direction of loading. The signs of ¢ and e are the same when they are on the same side af the center of rigidity, 7.3.2 Member Force Analysis by Portal Method ‘The portal method [7.3] allows an approximate hand analysis for rigid framex Without having to specify member sizes and, therefore, it is very useful for a pre~ liminary analysis. The method is most appropriate to rigid frames that deflect pre- dominantly by racking. It is suitable. therefore, for structures of moderate slen- demess and height, and is commonly recommended as useful for structures of up. \e 25 stories in height with a height-to-width ratio not greater than 4:1 {7.4}, lis fame is derived from the analogy between a set of single-bay portal frames and Single story of a multibay rigid frame (Fig. 7.7a and b). When each of the separate portals carries a share of the horizontal shear, tension occurs in the windward columns and compression in the leeward columns. If these are superposed to sim- ulate the multibay frame, the axial forces of the interior columns are eliminated, leaving axial forces only in the extreme windward and leeward columns, ‘The reduction of the highly redundant multistory frame to allow a simple anal- ysis is achieved by making the following assumptions: |. Horizontal loading on the frame causes double curvature bending of all the columns and girders, with points of contraflexure at the mid-height of eol- umns and mid-span of girders (Fig, 7.1), 2. The horizontal shear at mid-story levels is shared between the columns in Proportion to the width of aisle each coltmn supports.142 FiGiD-FRAME STRUCTURES Zero ania force in-anternal columns (b> Fig. 7.7 (a) Separate portals analogy for portal method: (b) separate portals superposed. The method may be used to analyze the whale frame, or just a portion of the frame at a selected level. The analysis of the whole frame considers in turn the equilibrium of separate frame modules, each module consisting of a joint with its column and beam segments extending to the nearest points of contraflexure. The sequence of analyzing the modules is trom lefl to right, starting at the top and working down to the base ‘The procedure for a whole frame analysis is as follows 1, Draw a line diagram of the frame and indicate on it the horizontal shear at each mic-story level (Fig. 7.8). In each story allocate the shear to the columns in proportion to the aisie widths they support, indicating the values on the diagram. 3. Starting with the top-left module (Fig. 7.9a), compute the maximum mo- ment jusi below the joint from the product of the column shear and the half= story height. 4. Find the girder-end moment just to the right of the joint from the equilibrium of the column and girder momenis at the joint. The moment at the other end Of the girder is of the same magnitude but corresponds to the opposite cur- vature. 5. Evaluate the girder shear by dividing the girder end-moment by half the span 6. Consider next the equilibrium of the second joint (Fig. 7.9b), repeating steps. 3 to 5 to find the maximum moment in the second column, and the moment and shear in the second girder from the left. This is repected for each successive module working across to the right. and is then continued in the level below. starting again from the left, ‘The values of shear 7.3 ANALYSIS OF MEMMER FORCES CAUSED BY MORIZONTAL LOADING 143, Wend Externs' Tout tha A a 9 ea 4 19 35.2 sg ro a2.0 a 8 80,8 6.3 ’ ng atts 7.8 Example: Ponal method of analysis. and moment are recorded and a bending moment diagram drawn on the diagram of the structure as the analysis progresses (Fig. 7.8). The bending moments are recorded on the girders above the left-hand end and below the right-hand end. and similarly on the columns as viewed from the right. The shears are written perpen dicular to the columns and beams at the mid-heights and mid-spans, respectively. The bending moment diagram is drawn here on the tension side of the member. If member forces are required only at a particular level in the structure, the horizontal row of modules at that level, consisting of the girders and half-columns above and below, can be analyzed separately by the above procedure without hay- ing to start the analysis at the top (Fig. 7.9¢ and d) The consideration of vertical equilibrium of a joint module should give the increment of axial load picked up by a column at that level. However, the assumed144 RIGID-FRAME STRUCTURES: Girder shear 1.75 175m 1750 F 3utSe 3.258 = 3.25m {e} ta) Fig. 7.9 Equilibrium of modules: portal method. distribution of shear between the columns results in a zero increment for all except the two exterior columns. The axial force in the exterior columns in any story is equal, therefore, to the moment of the external loading about the mid-height level of that story, divided by the distance between the columns. The portal method tends to overestimate the axial force in the exterior columns and is incorrect in estimating zero axial force for the interior columns. However. when these forces are added to the gravity load axial forces, the effect of the discrepancies on the resultant axial force is generally negligible. ‘The simplicity of the portal method and the advantage that it allows a direct analysis of member forces at intermediate levels make it the most useful of the approximate methods for rigid-frame analysis. If, however, the frame is taller and more slender, so that overall bending of the structure by axial deformations of the columns becorres significant, it may be more appropriate to analyze it by the ean- tilever method. Portal Method—Worked Example. 1 is required to determine the member forces im the 20-story frame of Fig. 7.8. The story height is typically 3.5 m, to 7.3 ANALYSIS OF MEMBER FORCES CAUSED BY HORIZONTAL LOADING 145) give a total height of 70 m. The bents are spaced at 7.0 m. The intensity of the wind loading is 1.5 kN /m! throughout the height. Wind load per floor: At typical levels 1.5 x 7,0 x 3.5 = 36.8 kN At the roof level 1.5 7.0 x 1.75 = 18.4 KN Sheur in the top story = 18.4 kN Distributing this shear between the top-story columns in proportion to the widths of aisle supported: For column A: 18.4 x 3.25/20 = 2.99 KN For column B: 18.4(3.25 + 3.75}/20 = 6.44 kN The shear in columns C and D and in the columns of the stories below are allocated similarly. The values are recorded on Fig. 7.8. Starting with the top-left module A20 (Fig. 7.9a) and considering its free-body equilibrium: Moment at top of column column shear > half-story height 2.99 x 1.75 = 5.23 kNm From moment equilibrium of the joint. the moment at left end of the first girder -5.23 kNm Shear in girder = girder-end momenv/half girder length = 5.23/3.25 = 1.61 kN, Because of the mid-length point of contraflexure, the moment at the right end of the girder has the same value as at the left end. Similarly, the column moments at the top and bottom of a story are equal. The sign convention for numerical values of the bending moment is that an anticlockwise moment applied by a joint to the end of a member is taken as positive The values of the moments and shears are recorded on Fig. 7.8. Continuing with the next module to the right, B20, in Fig, 7.9b: Moment at top of column = column shear x half-story height = 6.44 x 1.75 = 11.27 kNm From moment equilibrium of joint, moment at end of second girder = (11.27 = 5.28) = -6.04 kNm Then shear in second girder = girder moment/half-girder length = 604/375 = 1.61 KN146 [Link] STRUCTURES 79. ANALYSIS OF MEMBER FORCES CAUSED BY HORIZONTAL LOADING 147. 2.. The axial s i 2. The axial stress in a column is proportional to its distance from the eentroid The above procedure is repeated for successive modules to the right, and then of the column areas. continued on the floor below, starting again fram left. For the direct analysis of forces at an intermediate level. consider floor level 8 (Fig, 7.8) Starting with the left module AB (Fig. 7.9c): ‘The procedure for the analysis is as fallows: 1. Draw a line diagram of the frame and record on it the extemal moment Af at each mid-story level (Fig. 7.10). Find the centroid of the column areas and compute the second moment of the column areas about the centroid using Moment in column above joint = 68.8 x 1.75 = 120.4 kNm i} Moment in column below joint = 74.8 x 1.75 = 130.9 kNm From moment equilibrium of joint. moment at end of first girder b= Dae (74) where c, is the distance of column j from the centroid. In a case where the column areas , are not known, they are to be tnken as unity. Caleulate the column axial forces F, in each story using = -(120.4 + 130.9) = =251.3 kNm ‘Then shear in first girder = 251.3/3.25 = 77.3 kN Continuing with the next-right module B8 (Fig. 7.9d) (75) Moment in column above joint = 148.1 x 1.75 = 259.2 kNm Record these on the diagram of the structure. Moment in column below joint = 161.0 x 1.75 = 281.8 kNm Wend Resutzing Toad external é ¢ #! From moment equilibrium of the joint, the moment at the end of the seco ty nanent girder ig te = -(259.2 + 281.8 — 251.3) = -289.7 kNm 2.2 ‘Then the shear in the second gitder = 289.7/3.75 = 77.3 kN et The above procedure is repeated for successive modules to the right, as in Fig, fea ne 7.8. Ma 7.3.3 Approximate Analysis by Cantilever Method [7.5] The cantilever method is based on the concept that a tall rigid frame subjected ‘horizontal loading deflects as a flexural cantilever (Fig. 7.2). The validity of this oncept increases for taller, more slender frames, and for frames with higher girder stiffness. The method is recommended [7.4] as suitable for the analysis of struc» tures of up to 35 stories high with height-to-width ratios of up 10 5: 1. It is similar to the portal method in considering the equilibrium of joint modules in sequence. It differs, however, in starting by assuming values for the axial forces, rather than the shears, in the columns, It is less versatile than the portal method in_ not allowing a cirect analysis of intermediate stories. ‘The assumptions for the cantilever method are as follows: 20 stories @ 3, 1. Horizontal loading on the frame causes double curvature bending of all the columns and girders with points of contraflexute at the mid-heighis of cob ums and mid-spans of gi Aural force yn colunn indicated in Otherwise member Forces indicated a } Method Fig. 7.10 Example: cantilever method af analysis148 AIGIOFRAME STRUCTURES. 175m 325m cs) (b) Fig. 7-11 Equilibrium of modules: cantilever method. 3. Staning with the top-left module (Fig. 7.1 1a) find the vertical shear in the girder ftom the vertical equilibrium of the module. 4. Compute the girder-end moments from the product of the girder shear and its half-span 5. Compute the moment in the column just below the joint from the equilibrium of the girder and column moments at the joint 6. Evaluate the column shear by dividing the column-top moment by half the story he ght 7. Considering the next-right module (Fig. 7.1 1b) find the shear and moment in the second girder and column by repeating steps 3 to 6. This is repeated for each module in tum, moving ‘@ the right across the top level, and then continuing from left to right in the level below. The values of shear and moment are recorded on the diagram of the structure (Fig. 7.10). The convention for indicating forces in the members is the same a: with the column axial forces written in boxes. Fig. 7.8, Cantilever Method—Worked Example. Analysis of the same 20-stary, 70-m-high frame considered in the portal analysis. Referring to Fig. 7.10. external moments due to wind are At mid-height of story 20 = 18.4% 1.75 = 32.2 kNm 18.4 x 5.25 + 36.8 x 1.75 161.0 kNm At mid-height of story 19 Continue to calculate the extemal moment for each story down to the base and record the Values on Fig. 7.10. Assuming a unit sectional area for each column: Location of centroid of areas = | x (6.5 + 140+ 20)/4 = 10.13 m from left 7.3 ANALYSIS OF MEMBER FORGES CAUSED BY HORIZONTAL LOADING — 148 The second moment of area J x (1019? + 3.63 + 3.87 + 9.877) 228.2 m* 4 Column axial forces: Top story first column = McA/1 = 32.2 x 10.13 x 1/228.2 -43 KN tension second column = McA /J = 32.2 « 3.63 = 1/228.2 = 0.51 KN tension Continue to find the axial forces in all the columns down to the base. The values sare recorded (in boxes) on Fig. 7.10. Staring with the top-left module, A20 (Fig. 7.114): From vertical equilibrium of module. shear in first girder 1.43 kN ‘Moment at left end of girder = shear x half length of girder = =(1.43 x 3,25) = —4.65 kNm From moment equilibrium of joint, moment at top of column = 4.65 kNm Shear in column = moment at top/half story height = 4.65/1.75 = 2.66 KN The moments at opposite ends of the girders and columns are of the same value, ‘The moments and shears and a bending moment sketch are reconied. as for the portal method. ‘Considering the next-right module, B20, Fig. 7.1 1b From vertical equilibrium of module, shear in second girder = 1.43 + 0.51 = 1.94 kN Moment in left end of second girder = shear half length of girder = =(1.94 x 3,75) = -7.28 KNm From moment equilibrium of joint, moment at top of column150° AIGID-FRAME STRUCTURES: = =(-4.65 — 7.28) = 11.93 kNm Shear in column = moment at column tap/half story height = 11.93/1,75 = 6.82 KN This procedure is repeated for successive modules to the right, then on the level below, working again from left to right 7.3.4 Approximate Analysis of Rigid Frames with Setbacks A rigid frame bent with setbacks, as shown in Fig, 7.12a, can be analyzed ap- proximately by applying the cantilever method to the upper and lower parts as though they were two separate frames (Fig. 7.12b) An analysis is made first of the upper part down to and including those pans of the setback girder that form the upper frame. A moment distribution is then carried out for the setback girder supported on the lower columns and subjected to the calculated vertical forces from the columns of the upper structure. Because the: setback girder is so much stiffer in bending than the columns. it may be assumed for this part of the analysis that the girder rests on simple supports, The moment distribution y‘elds the girder moments and shears and, hence. the vertical forces that the girder applies to the supporting columns; these forces are assumed 10 carry all the way to the foundation. ‘The lower structure, including the setback girder, may then be analyzed by the cantilever method applying. in addition to its story increments of wind load, @ concentrated horizontal load at the setback level equal to the total horizontal force: above that level. The column axial forces calculated from the moment of the €x~ ternal horizortal loading are added to those determined from the setback beam distribution to start the cantilever analysis for the lower part The total moments and shears in the setback girder due to wind forces are the superposed results of the three analyses: the cantilever analysis of the upper part. the cantileveranalysis of the lower part, and the moment distribution of the girder, If the complete setback structure has a low height-to-width ratio. it would be more appropriate to use the portal method of analysis. As described above. the two parts of the structure would be analyzed separately with the total shear from the upper structure applied as a concentrated load at the setback level for the anal~ ysis of the lower structure. The forces in the setback girder would be obtained by. superposing the girder results from the two portal analyses, and the results of a moment distribution using vertical forces from the upper columns as for the can- tilever method. 7.4 APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS FOR DRIFT When the i sizes of the frame members have been selected, an approximate check on the horizontal drift of the structure can be made, The drift in.a nonslender rigid frame is mainly caused by racking (Fig. 7.1), The racking may be considered 74 APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS FOR DRIFT — 181 tebbegee Transfer gtrder tdetete aherrrereenererca Yertrcal forces from upper structur Transfer girder EWortz. ferses from upper structure tei dddes Vertical forces from ES 3 (b) Fig. 7.12 (a) Rigid frame with setback; (b) setback structure separated for analysis. ! thee 45 comprising two components: the first is due to rotation of the joints, as allowed by the double bending of the girders (Fig. 7.13a and b), while the second is caused by double bending of the columns (Fig, 7.136). If a rigid frame is slender. a contribution to drift caused by the overall bending of the frame, resulting from axial deformations of the columns, may be significant (Fig. 7.2). If the frame hax152 RIGIDFRANE STRUCTURES Floor 4 Story 9 (e) Fig. 7.13 (a) Joint rotation due to girder flexure: (b) story drift due to girder flexure: (c) story drift due to column flexure a height:width ratio less than 4:1, the contribution of overall bending to the total drifi at the top of the structure is usually less than 10% of that due to racking The following method of calculation for drift allows the separate determination of the components attributable to beam bending. column bending, and overall can tilever action 7.4.1 Components of Drift [7.6] It is assumed for the drift analysis that points of contraflexure occur in the frame at the mid-story level of the columns and at the mid-span of the girders. This is reasonable assumption for high-rise rigid frames for all stories except near the top and bottom, Story Drift due to Girder Flexure. Consider a story-height segment af a frame at floor level j consisting of a line of girders and half-story-height columns above 74 APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS FOR DRIFT 183 find below cach joint (Fig. 7.134). To isolate the effect of girder bending, assume the columns are Nexurally: rigid, The average rotation of the joints can be expressed approximately as total moment carried by the joi = ‘otal rotational stiffness of the joints (738) The total moment = on + Diane (77) and the total rotational = ne () (7.8) Li, From Eqs. (7.6) to (7.8) a, = Blut Oieh on wed (4) A similar expression may be obtained for the average joint rotation in the floor (/ ~ 1) below, but with subscripts (i + 1) replaced by /, and i by (i = 1). Referring to Fig. 7.13b, the drift in story é due to the joint rotations is b= 21+) (7.10) that is Gitar + Oh | Ob + Oe ihi.s mE D @) mex (#) Assuming that the girders in floors — | and i are the same. the story heights are the same, and the average of @,,, and Q;_, is equal to @, (7.11) (7.12)154 [Link] StAUCTURES Story Drift due to Column Flexure, Referring to Fig. 7.13c. in which the drift due to bending of the columns the drift of the structure in story / is isolated by assuming the girders are rigid, = (7.13) from which 5, ee (7.14) a(t ize % (4) Story Drift due to Overall Bending. Although the component of total drift due to overall bending may be small relative to that caused by racking. the bending inclination increases cumulatively throughout the height. Consequently’. in the up- er stories. where the story shear drift tends to be less than in the lower region, the bending drift may become a significant part of the story drift. An estimate of the bending drft can be made by assuming the structure behaves as a flexural cantilever with a moment of inertia equal to the second moment of the column. areas about their common centroid. that is J) = © (Ac*), (Fig. 7.14a and b). If the. moment diagram (Fig. 7.14c) is used to construct an M/EY diagram [in which 1 = £ (Ac*)] (Fig. 7.144), the area of the diagram 4) between the base and the mid-height of story i gives the average slope of story i due 10 bending action, that is Oy = Ai (7.15) ‘Then the bendirg component of drift in story 7 is given by by = hyBy = hy (7.16) Story Orift and Total Drift. The resulting drift in a single story i is the sum of the components, 8, = by + 8, + by (7.17) or Oa 12E 2 (1/h), + hy (7.18) Denoting E (4,/L), by G,, and E (J, /f), by C). this may be rewritten I Bet 2) + Ay (7.19) ‘ id-herght. of shaded) “Hi ( { story | Area A Value of 7p) = i z 3 Centroid of (4) ( () 1-14 (a) Frame: stricture; (b) distribution of inertia /: (cy distribution of exter: M: (dy M/EI diagram. (a) 155156 IGIDFRAME STAUCTURES. ‘The assumption of a mid-story-height point of contraflexure is not valid forthe first story of a rigid frame because of the fully fixed or hinged conditions at the ‘base of the columns. Therefore. special expressions should be used for the first story drift attributable to column and girder bending [7.7]. If the columns have rigid base connections, the first story drift may be estimated by (7.20) ( (7.21) ‘The total drift at the ath floor of a building may then be found from 4, = 28, (7,22) A check on the story drift should be made for the top story and for intermediate stories where member size reductions occur. If. on the basis of the initially sized frame. the calculated drifts are well within the allowable values, these spot checks will probably be adequate. 7.4.2 Correction of Excessive Drift The typical proportioning of member sizes in tall rigid frames is such that girder fiexure is the major cause of drift, with column flexure a close second. Therefore. incteasing the girder stiffness is usually the most effective and economical way of comecting excessive drift. If the girder in any single bay is substantially smaller than the others at that level, it should be increased first. An estimate of the modified girder sizes required at level 7 to correct the drift in that story can be obtained by neglecting the contribution duc to overall bending and rewriting Eq. (7.18) in the form Oh, Zp /b), = 7 (7.23) 12e| (#) - RED Lh, in which 4, is assigned the value of the allowable story drift. If the frame is un- usually proportioned so that column flexure contributes a major part of the drift. 7A APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS FOR ORIFT 187. Eq. (7,23) may be rewritten to allow an estimate of the required column sizes by interchanging © (/,/L), and £ (1./h),. ‘A relatively simple check on whether girders or columns should be adjusted first has been proposed as follows [7.8]. Compute for each joint across the floor levels above and below the story whose drift is critical, the value of a parameter ¥ where dif onl pot/as (7.24) in which E/,/L refers to the girders connecting into the joint, Ifa sean of the resulting values of y- indicates that 1, ¥ >> 0.5, adjust the girder sizes: 2. ¢ << 0.5, adjust the column sizes; 3. ~ = 0.5, adjust both column and girder sizes. This test should preferably be accompanied by an inspection of the drift com> ponents of Eq. (7.18) 10 ascertain whether the allowable story drift is exceeded by any one component alone, as might occur in a grossly undersized initial design, If it is exceeded by any one component, whether as a result of undersized columns or of undersized beams. that component must be remedied first. 7.4.3 Effective Shear Rigidity (GA) This parameter expresses the racking stiffness of a frame on a story-height average basis. It is a useful parameter when considering the allocation of loading between rigid frame bents, and the horizontal interaction of frames with walls. The com- posite symbol (GA) is used because it corresponds with the shear rigidity of an analogous shear cantilever of sectional area A and modulus of rigidity G. A story- height segment of such a cantilever may be compared (Fig. 7.15a) with » comes sponding portion of a rigid frame (Fig. 7.15b) Fig. 7.18 (a) Story-height segment of analogous shear wall; (b) single story of rigid frame:158 RIGID-FRAME STRUCTURES. ‘When the cantilever segment is subjected to a shear Q, its deflection is given by Qh 2 ra (7.25) from which the shear rigidity is given by aft 2 2 (aig (7.26) where cause unit clination of the shear structure. For the corresponding portion af frame. using Eq. (7.19) and neglecting drift caused by overall bending (Gay = & then. (Ga) = (7.28), IF the value of (GA), at level ¢ of a frame is known, the horizontal displacement in story is given by (S), (729) 7.5 FLAT PLATE STRUCTURE—ANALOGOUS RIGID FRAME Flat plate stuctures, in which the columns are cast integrally with the floor stabs, behave under horizontal loading similarly to rigid frames. The lateral deflections of the structure are a result of simple double curvature bending of the columns, and a more complex three-dimensional form of double bending in the slab. If the ‘columns are on a regular orthogonal grid (Fig. 7.16). the respanse of the structure can be studied by considering each bay-width replaced by an equivalent rigid frame ‘bem, The slab is replaced for the analysis by an equivalent with the same double bending stiffness, The hand methods of estimating drift. outlined in See- Hions 7.4.1 to 7.4.3. or a computer analysis, can then be applied. ‘The flexural stiffness of the equivalent beam depends mainly on the width-to- {ength spacing of the columns an an the dimension of the column in the direetion he angle of inclination. That is. (GA) is the shear force necessary to. (7.279) 7.5 FLAT PLATE STRUCTURE—ANALOGOUS RIGID FRAME 159. Fig. 7.16 Flat plate structure of drift, In Fig. 7.17. these parameters are used 10 present the effective width of the equivalent beam [7.9]. that is. the width of the uniform-section beam havinig the same double curvature flexural stiffness as the slab. with the same depth, span, and modulus of clasticity ax the slab. This equivalent beam may be used only in the lateral loading analysis of flat plate structures. It is not appropriate for gravity ‘or combined loading analy: Figure 7.17 shows the equivalent beam stiffness to be very sensitive to the width of the column in the direction of drift. This is because of the ““wide-column”” effect that is demonstrated even more markedly by coupled shear walls (ef. Chapter 10), When the slats width-to-span ratio b/a exceeds 1.5, the effective width becomes Virtually constant because the slab boundary regions parallel to the direction of drift deform negligibly and therefore contribute little to the stiffness, The apparent reduction in effective width shown by Fig. 7.17 as &/a increases is caused by Plotting the effective width as a fraction of the transverse span. The curves in Fig. 7.17 Were oblained for square section columns: however. they are equally appli- cable to rectangular section columns since additional analyses [7.9] have shown that variations in the column transverse dimension from one-half to two times the ‘ongitudinal dimension cause less than a 2% change in effective widih, 7.5.1 Worked Example A flat plate multistory structure consists of a regular rectangular grid of ealumns spaced at 8.0 m by 6.0 m_ctrs, The columns are 0.6 m square and the slab is 0.2m thick, For horizontal loading acting parallel to the 8 m dimension, determine the moment of inertia of an equivalent beam to replace the stab. Referring to Fig. 7.17 a=80m 6=60m w= 0.6m u_ 06 - b 60 a 80s >) oa aie160 -AIGID-FRAME STRUCTURES ee Loadans => » 0.75 0.80 Value of b’/y oes g 0.05 0.10 05,20 Value of ua Fig. 7.17 Effective width of equivalent beam Referring to the graph, the above values give —=06! 570 Effective slab width b’ = 0.61 x 6.0 = 3.66 m. Therefore. momem of inentia of. equivalent bears 66 x 0.2" 12 f= = 0.0024 m* This value would normally be reduced in the analy: reduction in stiffness due to ‘cracking as the slab bends. by 50% to allow for the 77 REDUCTION OF RIGIO FRAMES FOR ANALYSIS 161 7.6 COMPUTER ANALYSIS OF RIGID FRAMES Although the previously described hand methods of determining deflections and forces in rigid frames have served engincers well for the design of rigid frames, and are still useful for preliminary analysis and checking. they have now been superseded for most practical purposes by computer analysis. A computer analysis is more accurate, and better able to analyze complex structures. A wide variety of commercial structural analysis programs. invariably based on the stiffness matrix method, are available Forming the model of the rigid frame for computer analysis has been described in Chapter 5. Briefly. it consists of an assembly of beam-type elements to represent both the beams and columns of the frame. The columns are as ned their principal inertias and sectional areas, The beams are assigned their horizontal axis inertia While their sectional areas are assigned to be effectively rigid. Torsional stiffnesses of the columns and beams are usually small and, therefore, neglected. Shear de- formations of columns and beams are also usually neglected unless the member has a length-to-depth ratio of less than about 5. in which case a shear area is assigned. If the frame is of reinforced concrete, reduced inertias are assigned to the mem= bers to allow for cracking: 50% of their gross inertia ta the beams and 80% of their gross inertia to the columns. Some analysis programs include the option of considering the slabs to be rigid -plane. and some the option of including P-Delia effects. If a rigid slab option is not available, the effect can be simulated by interconnecting all vertical elements by a horizontal frame at each floor, adding fictitious beams where necessary, and assigning the beams to be effectively rigid axially and in flexure in the horizontal plane. Slabs are usually assumed to have a negligible transverse rigidity unless a flat plate or flat slab action is intended, in which case the slab is represented as a connecting grid of equivalent stiffness beams. 7.7 REDUCTION OF RIGID FRAMES FOR ANALYSIS frame 10 a simpler equivalent frame is a useful way of simplifying its analysis when it is not essential to obtain the exact member forces, The two techniques described below can be used separately, or in combination, 10 sive large-scale reductions in the size of the computational problem. 7.7.1 Lumped Girder Frame ‘A repetitive floor system offers scope for the lumping of girders in successive floors o form a model with fewer stories. The lumped girder frame allows an accurate estimate of the drift and a good estimate of the member forces. The girders are usually lumped in threes or. if the frame is very tall, in fives, In the example of Fig. 7.18, three sets of three girders are lumped into single girders that converts162 -FIGID-FRAME STRUCTURES | Is orrsers Three (2 b) Fig. 7.18 (a) Prototype rigid frame: (b) equivalent lumped girder frame. the 13-story frame into a 7-story equivalent frame. The first floor and swof girders ‘must not be included in the lumping because the frame behavior near the top and. the base differ significantly from that in middle regions. In Fig. 7.18 the second floor and next-to-roof girders are also left as in the original to give an even closer Fepresentation of the boundary conditions, The requirement of a substitute frame is that, for horizontal loading, joint trans- lations should be the same as those of the original structure. For translations caused, by girder flexure. Eq. (7.12) shows this requirement to be satisfied by assigning the inertia of each equivalent girder to be equal to the sum of the lumped n-ginder inertias in the original frame. that is, w= hy (7.30), To determine the propenties of the colurmns in a lumped girder equivalent frame, reference is made to Eq. (7.14). Equating the component of drift caused by double Curvature column bending in a story of height mh in the equivalent frame to the Corresponding drift over m stories in the original frame oi Ss. 1 Qlnky ok IE 21, /h), IE Li,./nh (7.31), from which the equivalent column inertias are 7-7 REDUCTION OF RIGID FRAMES FOR ANALYSIS 163 (7.32) For example, in the structure shown in Fig. 7.18a, the vertical stack of three etual-height columns /,g. dy. and 4... would be replaced in the equivalent lumped girder model (Fig. 7.18b) by a three-story-height equivalem column having an inertia (7.33) Tf within each region to be lumped the inertia of a column in successive single stories is constant. the inertia of the equivalent column of height 3 would be nine times that of the original single-story-height columns, while the inertia of the equivalent column in an intermediate region (Fig. 7.18b), whose length is 2h, would be four times that of the original single-story-height columns The columns” sectional areas, which control the cantilever component of de- flection, must have the same second moment about their common centroid in the lumped and original structures. Consequently, the areas of the equivalent columns remain the same as those in the original frame. The horizontal loading on the equivalent frame is applied as equivalent concentrated loads at the lumped ginder levels. taking the half new-story-height regions above and below the lumped gir= ders as tributary areas. When the lumped girder frame has been analyzed. the results must be trans- formed back to the original frame. The moments in the original girders at the lumped girder levels should be taken as 1/n of the resulting moment in the cor- responding lumped girders. The moments in the original ginders between the lumped girder levels should then be estimated by vertical interpolation. Girder shears are estimated by dividing the end moments by the half-span lengths. For original column shears in a particular story. the actual external shear at the mid-height of the story should be distributed between the columns in the same ratio as that between the resulting shears at that level in the equivalent frame. The moments at the top and bottom of a column should be taken as the product of the column shear and the original half-story height. 7.7.2 Single-Bay Substitute Frame [7.10] The reduction of 2 multibay rigid frame to a single-bay equivalent frame provides 44 model that closely simulates the response of the structure to horizontal loading is useful. therefore. in estimating deflections for stability analyses and for dy- namic analyses of frames whose member forves are not required. It can also be used in a two-stage member force analysis of w large multibent, multibay {rame,164 RiGiO-FRAME STRUCTURES: for which a first-stage overall analysis is made of the structure represented by an assembly of equivalent single-bay bents. The resulting shears in the bents are used {0 obtain the individual bent loadings, which are then used in second-stage anal- yses of the individual multibay bents to obtain their member forces (cf. Chapter 5, Section 5.1), Figure 7.18a and b shows a multibay rigid frame and its single-bay analogy. ‘Member sizes are assigned to the single-bay frame to cause it to deflect horizon- {ally in the same manner as the prototype. First assume an arbitrary width /. for the single-bay frame. Then. equating the component of drift in story é of the pro- fotype, caused by double bending of the girders. to that in the single-bay frame: structure, and using Eq. (7.12) a 7.34 RED (A /L) 2E(1,./1), 34 ‘Therefore, the girder in floor i of the single-bay frame is assigned an inertia ee feeds ord | [| ; centroid of iris areas (a) (b) Fig. 7-19 (a) Multibay rigid frame; (b) equivalent single-bay frame. SUMMARY 165, (Ne), = VELL), (7.38) Considering similarly the component of drift due to double bending of the col- uimns. and applying Eq. (7.14) Onn Oh} ey iyolt OL e 73 IE (E,7h), ~ T3EC2h 7h va therefore. the moment of inertia of the equivalent single-bay célumn is (te), = 4 (4), (7.37) Finally. equating the components of drift resulting trom cantilever action in the Prototype and the single-bay frames. and using Eg, (7.16) Mu = 3 hy | Area ( = (7.38) then -) = Dee, (7.39) therefore, the equivalent columns must be assigned sectional areas 2 : (Ae), = 3 DAC), (7.40) p Although the single-bay frame results for horizontal deflections will be fairly abrultale, the resulting member forces for the single-bay frame are not transform able back to the multibay frame. SUMMARY The flexural continuity between the members ofa rigid frame enables the structure (o resist horizental loading as well as to assist in carrying gravity loading, The timated for the design of the frame. Gravity loading causes regions of sagging moment near the Mmid-span of the Birdets and of hogging moment beside the columns. Pattern live loading must be166 AIGID-FRAME STRUCTURES used to estimate the worst effects of gravity loading. The girder maximum mo- ments may be evaluated approximately from formulas or more accurately from: conventional or shortened forms of moment distribution. Horizontal loading causes racking of the frame due to double bending of the columns and girders, resulting in an overall shear mode of deformation of the structure, The portal and cantilever methods of analysis provide an estimate of the horizontal loading member forces that, when combined with the gravity loading member forces, allow a preliminary design of the frame members. The portal and_ cantilever methods may be used also for the analysis of rigid frames with sctbacks, The lateral displacement of rigid frames subjected to horizontal loading is due to three modes of member deformation: girder flexure. column flexure, and axial, deformation of the columns, The horizontal displacements in each story attribute able to these three components can be calculated separately and summed to give the total story drift, The sum of the story drifts from the base upward gives ti horizontal displacement at any level. If the total drift, or the drift within any story, exceeds the allowable values, an inspection of the components of drift will indi which members should be increased in size to most effectively contro! the drift. A Mlat-plate structure responds to leading in-a manner similar to a rigid fra but with the transversely varying vertical flexure of the floor slab replacing single-plane ventical flexure of the rigid frame girder. A horizontal deflection anal ysis of a regular flat-plate structure can be made by considering the slabs replaced by equivalent girders, and treating it as a rigid frame. When a rigid frame inclustes many repetitive stories it may be reduced for: horizontal loading analysis by lumping the girders in three, or five. successive floors to give an equivalent simpler structure. The properties of the girders and columns must be transformed initially in formulating the equivalent structure, andl the resulting forces subsequently transformed back to give the forees in the meme! bers of the original structure. A multibay rigid frame may be reduced to an equi alent single-bay frame for a horizontal loading analysis. This model is useful for Tepresenting the horizontal response of the bent and for determining its hor deflections. The two reduction methods may be used, either separately or in bination, to simplify extremely large rigid frame structures for analy sis, REFERENCES TA Uniform Building Code 1988. Ireenational Conference of Building Officials. White tier. California 90601 ‘ 7.2. Continuity in Concrete Building Frames. Portland Cement Association, Skokic. He linois 60076 13 7.4 Wind Bracing it Steet Buildings. Final Repon of Sub-Committee No, 31 on Steel of the Structural Division. Trans. ASCE 105, 1940, 1713-1739. 73 Wilson. 4: C. “Wind Bracing with Knee-Braces or Gusset Platey."” Engineer. Reg September 1908, 227-274. 16 m4 78 19 2.10 REFERENCES 167 Goldberg. J. E. “Approximate Methods in Stress and Stability Analysiy of Tall Building Frames."° Proc. JABSE, ASCE Rexional Conference on Tall Buildings, Bangkok. January 1974, 177-194 Goldberg. J. E. “Analysis of Two-Column Symmetrical Bents and. Vierendect ‘Trusses Having Parallel and Equal Chords,” J, Am. Conc. Inst. 19(3), November 1947, 225-234 Cheong-Siat-Moy, F. “Stiffness Design of Unbriced Stee! Frames. neer, Journal, Ist Quarter. 1976, pp. 8 10, Wong, Y. C. and Coull. A. Effective Slab Stiffness ‘in Flat Plate Structures."* Prow Insta. Civ, Engincers Pan 3. 69, September 1980, 721-735. Goldberg. J. E. Structural Design of Tall Steet Buildings. Councit on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. Monograph. Vol. SB. 1979. p. 53. * AISC EngiMS CHAPTER 8 Infilled-Frame Structures The infilled frame consists of a steel or reinforced concrete colurmn-and-girder frame with infil’s of brickwork or concrete blockwork (Fig. 8.1). In addition to functioning as partitions, exterior walls. and walls around stair, elevator, and ser- ‘vice shafts, the infills may also serve structurally to brace the frame against hori- zontal loading. In nonearthquake regions where the wind forces are not severe, the masonry infilled concrete frame is one of the most common structural forms for high-rise construction. The frame is designed for gravity loading only and, in the: absence of an accepted design method, the infills are presumed to contribute suf ficiently to the lateral strength of the structure for it to withstand the horizontal loading. The simplicity of construction, and the highly developed expertise in building that type of structure have made the infilled frame one of the most rapidl and economical structural forms for tall buildings. In countries with stringently applied Codes of Practice the absence of a well-_ recognized method of design for infilled frames has severely restricted their use for bracing. It has been more usual in such countries, when designing an infilled- frame structure, to arrange for the frame to carry the total vertical and horizontal loading and to include the [Link] the assumption that, with precautions taken to avoid load being transferred to them, the infills do not participate as part of the: primary structure. It is evident from the frequently observed diagonal cracking of: such infill walls that the approach is not always valid. The walls do sometimes. attract significant bracing loads and. in so doing. modify the structure's mode of, behavior and the forces in the frame. In such cases it would have been better to design the walls for the lateral loads. and the frame to allow for its modified mode of behavior. In this chapter a design method is presented to allow the use of infilled frames as bracing, It is based on theoretical and experimental studies of interactive wall frame behavior. Rather than being a method for the direct design of the frame members and the wall, it is intended for use more as a method of checking and_ adjusting an infilled frame that has already been designed to satisfy other criteria, ‘The frame is sized initially to be adequate for gravity loading, while the thickness of the infill wall is probably decided on the basis of the acoustic, fire, and climatic requirements. To brace a structure, the arrangement of infill walls within the three-dimen sional frame must satisfy the same requirements as for the layout of bracing in a 168 8) BEHAVIOR OF INFILLED FRAMES = 169 Steel or reinforced concrete frane fi Brickwork or eonerete Blackwork inf) 11s Fig. $.1 Structural frame infilled with masonry steel structure. Within any story the infills must be statically capable of resisting horizontal shear in two orthogonal directions, as well as resisting a horizontal torque, To achieve this there must be at least three infills that may not be all parallel or all concurrent. They must, of course, also be able to satisfy the strength and stiffness requirements. Certain reservations arise in the use of infilled frames for bracing a structure, For example, it is possible that as part of a renovation project, partition walls are removed with the result that the structure becomes inadequately braced. Precau~ tions against this, either by including a generously excessive number of bracing walls. or by somchow permanently identifying the vital bracing walls, should be considered as part of the design. A reservation against their use where earthquake resistance is a factor is that the walls might be shaken out of their frames trans- versely and, consequently. be of little use as bracing in their own planes. On the basis of substantial field evidence this fear is well justified. Their use in earthquake regions, therefore, should be with the additional provision that the walls are rein- forced and anchored into the surrounding frame with sufficient strength to with- stand their own transverse inertial forces. 8.1 BEHAVIOR OF INFILLED FRAMES: ‘The use of a masonry infill to brace a frame combines some of the desirable struc- tural characteristics of each. while overcoming some of their deficiencies. The high in-plane rigidity of the masonry wall significantly stiffens the otherwise relatively flexible frame, while the ductile frame contains the brittle masonry. after cracking, up to loads and displacements much larger than it could achieve without the frame, ‘The result is, therefore, a relatively stiff and tough bracing system. The wall braces the frame partly by its in-plane shear resistance and partly by its behavior as a diagonal bracing strut in the frame, Figure 8.2a illustrates these170 Shear deformation }— Equivalent diagonal strut Windward columns in tension ef anfi lls Frane bearing fon infill 1 QEHAVIOR OF INFILLED FRAMES = 174 modes of behavior, When the frame is subjected to horizontal loading, it deforms With double-curvature bending of the columns and ginders. The translation of the Upper Part of the column in each story and the shortening of the leading diagonal 6f the frame cause the column to lean against the wall as well as to compress the Wall along its diagonal. Ics roughly analogous to-a diagonally braced frame (Fig, 8.2b). Three potential modes of failure of the wall arise as a result of its interaction With the frame. and these are illustrated in Fig. 8.3a. The first is a shear failure ‘stepping down through the joints of the masonry. and precipitated by the horizontal shear stresses in the bed joints. The second is a diagonal cracking of the wall through the masonry along a line, oF lines. parallel 10 the leading diagonal, and Length of bearing Dieganal cracking Shear cracking —> Shear cracking: Tensile crack ing Shear cracking (b) Fig. 8.3 (a) Modes of infill failure; () modes of frame failure.172 INPILLED-FRAME STRUCTURES caused by tensile stresses perpendicular to the leading diagonal. The “‘perpendic- ular" tensile stresses are caused by the divergence of the compressive stress tra jectories on opposite sides of the leading diagonal as they approach the middle: region of the infill. The diagonal cracking is initiated at and spreads from the! middle of the infill, where the tensile stresses are a maximum, tending to stop near! the compression comers, where the tension is suppressed, In the third mode of failure, a comer of the infill at one of the ends of the diagonal strut may be crushed | against the frame due to the high compressive stresses in the comer. The nature of the forces in the frame can be understood by referring to analogous braced frame (Fig, 8.2b). The windward column is in tension and the} leeward colurn is in compression, Since the infill bears on the frame not as concentrated force exactly at the comers, but over short lengths of the beam am column adjacent to each compression comer, the frame members are subjec also to transverse shear and a small amount of bending. Consequently. the frat members of their connections are liable 10 fail by axial force or shear. and esj cially by tension at the base of the windward column (Fig. 8.36}. 8.2 FORCES IN THE INFILL AND FRAME ‘A concept of the behavior of infilled frames has been developed from a combis nation of results of tests [8,-8.8], very approximate analyses [8.9], and mo sophisticated finite element analyses [8.10]. An understanding of infilled-f behavior is far from complete and further research needs 10 be done. especial with full-scale tests. Consequently, opinions about the approach to the design infilled frames differ, especially as to. whether it should be elastically or plastically based. The method presented here draws from a combination of test observati and the results of analyses. It may be classified as an elastic approach except the criterion used to predict the infill crushing, for which a plastic type of failuy of the masonry infill is assumed. 8.2.1 Stresses in the Infill Relating to Shear Faifure. Shear failure of the infill is related to combination of shear and normal stresses induced at points in the infill when tl frame bears on it as the structure is subjected 10 the external lateral shear. extensive series of plane-stress membrane finite-element analyses [8.11] has sho that the critical values of this combination of stresses occur at the center of infill and that they can be expressed empirically by 439 u (O0.8A/L — 0.2)9 a (8.1 Shear stress Ty Vertical compressive stress 9, (82 where @ is the horizontal shear load applied by the frame to the infill of length Lx height 4, and thickness ¢. 82 FORCES IN THE INFILL AND FRAME = 173 Relating to Diagonal Tensile Failure. Similarly. diagonal cracking of the infill is related 10 the maximum value of diagonal tensile stress in the infill, This also occurs at the center of the infill and, based on the results of the analyses, may be expressed empirically as Diagonal tensile stress (8.3) These stresses are governed mainly by the proportions of the infill. They, are little influenced by the stiffness properties of the frame because they occur at the center of the infill. away from the region of contact with the frame. Relating to Compressive Failure of the Corners. Tests on model infilled frames have shown that the length of bearing of each story-height column against its adjacent infil is governed by the flexural stiffness of the column relative to. the inplane bearing stiffness of the infill. The stiffer the column, the longer the length of bearing and the lower the compressive stresses at the interface, Tests to failure have borne out the deduction that the stiffer the column, the higher the strength of the infill against compressive failure. They have also shown that crushing failure of the infill occurs over a length approximately equal to the length of bearing of the column against the infill (Fig, 8.3a). As a-crude approximation, an analogy may be drawn with the theary fara beam ‘on an elastic foundation [8.12], from which it has been proposed that [8.9] the length of column bearing a may be estimated by (8.4) where: 4EIh (833) in which ,, is the elastic modulus of the masonry and ET the flexural rigidity of the column ‘The parameter \ expresses the bearing stiffness of the infill relative to the flex: ural rigidity of the column: the stiffer the column, the smaller the value of \ and the longer the length of bearing. If it is assumed that when the comer of the infill crushes, the masonry bearing against the column within the length a is at the masonry ultimate compressive then the corresponding ultimate horizontal shear Q on the infill is given Qi = fiat (8.6) or174 |NFILLED FRAME STRUCTURES: Qe = fit * (8.7) is Considering 10w the allowable horizontal shear Q, on the infill, and assuming a value for E/E, of 30 in the case of a steel frame and 3 in the case of a reinforced concrete frame, the allowable horizontal shear on a steel framed infill correspond- ing to a compressive failure is given by 0. = 5.24, Vie (8.8) and for a reinforced concrete framed infill OQ. = 2.9f,, Viie (8.9) in which f,,. is the masonry allowable compressive stress. These semiempirical formutas indicate the significant parameters that influence the horizontal siear strength of an infill when it is govemed by a compressive failure of one of its comers. The masonry compressive strength and the wall thick- ness have the most direct influence on the infill strength, while the column inertia and infill height exert control in proportion to their fourth roots. The infill strengths. indicated by Eqn, (8.8) and (8.9) are very approximate, Experimental evidence has shown them to overestimate the real values: therefore, they will be modified before being used in the design procedure. 8.2.2 Forces in the Frame Experiments on horizontally loaded mode! Hed frames, and finite-element stress analyses. have shown that the axial forces in the beams and columns of an infilled frame can be estimated reasonably well by a simple analysis of the analogous braced frame (Fig. 8.2b), assuming hinges at all joints. A conservative estimate: of the shear in te columns is given by the honzontal component of the force im the diagonal strut and, similarly, an estimate of the shear in the beams is given by the vertical component of that force. The analyses have indicated that the bending moments in the columns and beams caused by the perpendicular thrust from the infill are small relative to the moments that would occur in a similarly loaded rigid frame without irfills. A conservative nominal moment of Q ~ ér/20 is suggested ais a maximum value. 8.3 DEVELOPMENT OF THE DESIGN PROCEDURE ‘The main factors to be provided for in the design method are as follows: 1. In the weakest of its three modes of failure (i.¢.. shear, diagonal tensile. and compressive) the infill must be capable of withstanding the stresses in- duced by the frame bearing on it under the action of the extemal shear. 8.9 DEVELOPMENT OF THE DESIGN PROCEDURE 175 2. The frame must be able to transmit to the infill the extemal shear imposed On it, a8 Well as be strong enough to withstand the reactions it receives from the infill, The following discussion concerns the development of a design procedure that attempts to satisfy the above eriteria. It is assumed, conservatively, on the basis that the lateral stiffness of the infill is much greater than that of the frame. that the infill carries the total applied shear. 8.3.1 Design of the Infill Shear Failure. Shear failure, which occurs along the masonry bed joints, is assumed to be initiated at the point in the infill where the ratio of horizontal shear stress to available shear strength is a maximum. As noted before, theoretical analyses have indicated, and tests have verified, that this occurs at the center of the infill, The shear strength of masonry has commonly been represented in Codes of Practice (8.13. 8.14, 8.15] by a static friction type of equation L. = fin + pO, (8.10) together with a limiting maximum value. The bond shear strength f, is similar in action to an adhesive shear strength while uo, is a frictional component of resistance, in which g is a coeffivient of intemal friction and 9, is the vertical compressive stress across the horizontal joint. The allowable value of f, depends on factored values of f,, and j, to allow for the type of masonry and a factor of safety. Equating the shear stress at the wall center [Eq. (8.1)] 10 the allowable masonry shear stress (Eq. (8.10)], and substituting Eqn. (8.2) for the vertical stress.¢,, gives in + Be (OM g2) (8.11) 1.439, i Then, at any level of the structure, the allowable horizontal shear force based on the shear failure criterion is Silat oa o( - 0. (8.12) ) L Considering also the maximum allowable masonry shear stress 1.43 Q, Ey Ama (8.13) from which176 INFILLED-FRAME STRUCTURES QF OTL (8.14) ax 15 the specified maximum allowable shear stress. Diagonal Tensile Failure. The diagonal tensile strength of masonry is some~ what uncertain in value. Tests [8.11] have shown, however. that it can be esti- mated conservatively as approximately equal to one-tenth of the mortar compres sive strength. Codes of Practice give an allowable flexural tensile stress in masonry equal to approximately one-fortieth of the compressive strength of the weakest allowable mortar. Assuming a typical factor of safety of 4 for brickwork. i reasonable to take the allowable diagonal tensile stress in masonry as equal to its allowable flexural tensile stress, that is Leah (8.15) Then, equating the maximum diagonal tensile stress (Eq. (8.3)] 10 the permissible: diagonal tensile stress [Eq. (8. 15)) (8.16) from which the allowable horizontat shear Q,,. based on the diagonal tensile failure! criterion, is given by Qy = 1.7Lif, (8.17) Comparing the allowable horizontal shear based on the maximum allowable shear stress criterion (Eq. (8.14)] with that based on diagonal tensile failure (Eq. (8.17) by substituting values for unreinforced brick masonry from the Uniform Building Code {8.13}, the latter always results in a higher allowable horizontal shear and, therefore, is less critical. Consequently, Eq. (8.17) may be dropped as a design consideration. Comparing also the allowable horizontal force based on the friction-formt allowable shear stress [Eq. (8.12)], with that based on the maximum allowable: shear stress (Eg. (8.14)], and substituting in the equations values of f,.. a. and femaxe implicit in the Uniform Building Code, the friction-formula expression al= "ways gives lower values of allowable horizontal force for practically proportioned, frames and is therefore the more critical condition. Consequently, the maximum allowable shear stress condition (Eq. (8.14)] can also be dropped. Therefore Eq: (8.12) for the shear failure remains as one of the design criteria for a satisfactory infill, Compressive Failure. Equation (8.7) demonstrates how the relative stiffness of the column and infill influence the magnitude of the shear load required to cause: (83 DEVELOPMENT OF THE DESIGN PROCEDURE wT compressive failure of the infill, This Influence oecurs because of the effect that the column stiffness has on its length of bearing against the infill Tests to failure of model masonry infilled frames [8.16] have shown that com- pressive failure shear loads may be represented more accurately by = 1.12(M4) OY; he cos? 6 (8.18) in which @ is the angle of the infill diagonal to the horizontal (Fig. 8.2b). Substituting for \ from Eq. (8.5) yields ae) : = 1.12 (Se) Fldht cos? 8 (8.19) Then, assuming for £/E,, a value of 30 in the case of a steel frame. and 3 for a teinforced concrete frame. and using the allowable compressive stress f,,. Eq, (8.19) gives the allowable shear on a masonry infilled steel frame approximately as O. = 3.2f, cos? Vine (8.20) and that on a reinforced concrete infilled frame approximately as Q, = 1.9f,, cos? 6 Vike (8.21) Equations (8.20) and (8.21), which are more conservative than the theoretically deduced Eqs. (8.8) and (8.9). will be used in the design procedure. 8.3.2 Design of the Frame Because an infilled frame behaves under horizontal loading in approximately the same way as the analogous diagonally braced truss, the members can be designed directly on the basis of the dead, live, and wind loading. Columns, The design axial forces in the columns will be the worst combinations Of the forces from gravity and wind loading acting on the analogous braced frame, In addition, on the basis of the results of the stress analyses, columns should be assigned to have a bending moment with a conservative value of @ + h/20. The shear force in the ends of a column should be assumed equal to the horizontal component of the infill force at that level, that is @. Beams. The axial force in a beam may also be obtained from the analysis of the analogous frame. Theoretically. this will be & tensile or compressive force equal to the external shear at that level; however, this will be a conservative value be~ cause in reality the force will be shared with the floor slab. If a beam has an infill above and below, it will be restrained against bending in178 WFILLED-FRAME STRUCTURES the vertical plane. If, however, a beam docs not have an infill above, or it does not have one below. the vertical thrust from the infill will cause a bending moment in the beam. As for the columns, this bending moment may be taken conservatively lo be equal to Q - 4/20. The shear force in the ends of a beam may be taken to be equal to the vertical component of the infill diagonal force. that is @ - A/L. In designing for beam moments and shears caused by an infill above. when there is no inll below, these moments and shears must be added to those from gravity loading on the beam, Connections. These should be designed to carry the axial and shear forces in the connected members. Since moment resistance of the joints has been found to make only a small difference in the overall behavior of the structure. it is not necessary for the beam-to-column connections to be designed for moment, 8.3.3 Horizontal Deflection In contrast to the shear configuration of a laterally loaded rigid frame without infills, an infilled frame defiects in a flexural shape. This difference in deflected shape occurs because the infill greatly reduces the shear mode deformations. At- tempts have been made to estimate the diagonal stiffness of the infill for the pur pose of including it in a deflection analysis of the analogous truss. It has been proposed by some to take a stiffness based on an equivalent width of strut equal to a fraction of the diagonal length of the infill, while others have modified this concept to assess the equivalent width as a function of the column stiffness. Un- fortunately, the correlation between predicted and observed experimental deflec- tions has been poor, probably because of unpredictable factors such as differences in the tightness of fit of the infill in the frame, or the possible adherence of the infill to the frame at low toad levels, In braced and infilled bents, the more slender the structure, the relatively greater the influence of the column axial stiffess on the horizontal top deflection com- pared with that of the diagonal bracing stiffness. In view of this, together with the uncertainties zbout the diagonal stiffness of the infill, it is proposed here that the deflection should be calculated as for the analogous diagonally braced frame, tak= ing the area of the equivalent diagonal struts as the product of one-tenth of the infills’ diagonal length and their thickness. Assuming an elastic modulus of 7 x 10° N/mm, (1 x 10° 1b/in.*) for the equivalent diagonal strut, an analysis of the analogous braced frame will yield a conservative, that is excessive, estimate of the deflection. 8.4 SUMMARY OF THE DESIGN METHOD ‘On the basis of the previous discussion, procedures for checking the strengths of the frame and infills of an infill-braced structure, as well as the drift, can be for- mulated 8.4 SUMMARY OFTHE DESIGN METHOD = 179) In the case of a tall infill-braced building structure, the initial design of the frame would probably be on the basis of the gravity loading, and the design of the infills on the basis of their acoustic and fire requirements. The number and diree- tion of infills in each story must be arranged so they at least equal, and preferably exceed significantly, the minimum requirements for static stability of the structure, ‘The loads carried by the individual bents should then be assessed so that the most heavily loaded bents can be checked for the strength of their infills and frames, The recommended design procedure for an individual bent would be as follows. 8.4.1 Provisions 1. The axis of the frame member sections should lie within the middle third of the thickness of the infill to ensure the effective interaction of the frame and infill The height-to-length 3. . Care should be taken during construction to ensure a tight fit of the infill in the frame. 4. The slendemess ratio of the wall should conform with the relevant Masonty Code, assuming an effective height equal to the height of the infill. 5. Openings should not be allawed in the infill except at the edges, within the middle third of the length of the sides. The maximum dimension of such ‘openings must not exceed one-tenth of the height or length of the infill, whichever is the lesser value. ‘of the wall should be within the range of 0.3 to 6.4.2 Design of the infill ‘Two modes of infill failure may cause collapse of the structure, The first is a shear failure. stepping down diagonally through the bed joints of the masonry. und the second is by spalling and crushing of the masonry in the comers of the infill. The lesser of the two strengths should be taken as the critical value, Shear Failure, The shear strength of the structure based on the shear failure of the infill should be estimated from: ll a 1.43 ~ »[0.8(h/L) — 0.2] Q, (8.12) in which f. and y are the allowable values of the bond shear stress and the coe ficient of intemal friction, respectively, as given in the relevant Code formula for the allowable shear stress in masonry [see Eq. (8.10). Compressive Failure, If the infill is bounded by a steel frame. the shear strength of the structure relating to a compressive failure of the infill should be ‘estimated from180° INFILLED- FRAME STRUCTURES Q, = 3f, 808" 8 Vine (8.22) and. if it is bounded by a reinforced concrete frame. from 2f, cos? @ Vine Q. (8.23) 8.4.3 Design of the Frame Axial Forces. The gravity load forces in the columns should be calculated from the tributary areas. applying reduction factors to the live load forces as appropriate, Axial forces in the columns and beams resulting from the horizontal loading should be estimated by a simple static analysis of the analogous braced frame. considering each infill as a diagonal strut. Bending Moments and Shear Forces Columns, In addition to the axial forces determined as above, columns should be able to withstand a design bending moment of Q - h/20 and a shear af Q, Seams. The beams and their connections should be designed to carry an upward shear force of Q + 4/L, less the shear force due to dead load. and a downward: shear force of @ - /L. plus the shear force due to dead and live load 4 Where an upper beam of an infilled panel is not restrained by an infill above,. it should be designed to carry a negative (i.e., ““hogeing’’) moment of Q + h/20,, less the moment due to dead load. Where a lower beam of an infilled panel is nob restrained by an infill below, it should be designed to carry « mid-span positive moment af Q - 4/20. in addition to the moment caused by vertical dead and live 8.4.4 Deflections A conservative estimate of the horizontal deflection of an infilled frame would given by the calculated deflection of the equivalent pin-jointed braced frame, age suming each infill to be replaced by a diagonal strut with a cross-sectional equal to the product of one-tenth of its diagonal length and its thickness, and takit an elastic modulus equal to 7 x 10° N/mm? (1 x 10° Ib/in2). Methods for: calculating the lateral deflection of a braced frame are given in Section 6.4.2. 8.5 WORKED EXAMPLE—INFILLED FRAME A reinforced concrete, rigid-frame structure consists of a system of parallel three bay bents, as shown in Fig. 8.4, at 20 ft cemers. The outer bays of each bent are infilled by 8-in.-thick walls of 10,000 Ib/in.? clay brickwork. It is required to assess the adequacy of the walls’ strength 10 serve as bracing. fora horizontal wind pressure of 30 1b/{t?, 88 WORKED EXAMPLE—INFILLED FRAME © 1181 Cotunns 18 [Link], tye. ine pressure a0 wife thidteydd [pao 240" ie" 18 18" Berts at 20t spacing Tet lts, Bin thick, 10,000 Ib/in? clay masonry Fig. 8.4 Example infilled frame, Properties of the Frame 18x 18, Inertia of columns ne = 8748 in” Reduced by 20% for cracking / = 6998 in* For slope 8 of infill diagonal cos @ = 0,906 Properties of Masonry infill, Taking. for example, values of 10,000 Ib/in clay masonry properties given implicitly in the UBC [8.13] Soy = 3300 Ib /in,? n= 02 Sine = O.3( Fin) = 0.3(10,000)'* Allowable compressive stress Allowable coefficient of friction Allowable bond shear strength 172 = 30 Ib/in? Wind Shear at Base of Structure Q; = 20 « 12 % 11.33 30 = 81576 Ib = 81.6 kip182 INFILLED-FRAME STRUCTURES Structure Shear Strength—Iniill Shear Failure. Using Eqn. (8.12): strength for two infills 2 x 30 x 240 x 8 1.43 = 0.2[0.8 x (112/240) - 0. = 82.561 Ib = 82.6 kip Structure Shear Sirength—Iniill Compressive Failure. Using Eqn. (8.23): strength for two infills Q, =2 x2 x 3300 x 0.906" x V6998 x 112 x 8° = 1,333,542 = 1533.5 kip Conclusion, The iniill is just adequate to carry the external shear on the basis of the shear failure criterion (strength = 82.6 kip compared with load of 81.6), and more than adequate on the basis of the compressive failure criterion (strength = 1933.5 kip). In addition to these calculations for the strength of the infill, the members of the frame should be checked to see that they are adequate to carry the forces descrited in Section 8.4.3. This is not included here. however, because the procedure would be the same as for the members of a low-rise structure, as well as being particular to the local Code-recommended method. SUMMARY An infilled frame consists of a steel or reinforced concrete frame of columns and, deams containing panels of brickwork or concrete blockwork. When an infill frame is subjected to horizontal loading, the infills behave as diagonal struts ‘brace the structure and restrain its lateral deflection. ‘A method of design is developed that considers three possible modes of failure: of the infill: shear along the bedding planes of the masonry, diagonal cracki through the masonry, and crushing of a comer of the infill against a column. estimated strengths of the three modes arc based on a combination of experiment evidence and the results of theoretical stress analyses. The forces in the frame are estimated by a simple static analysis of the anal gous braced frame, considering the infills to be diagonal bracing struts, Failure of the columns at the base of the structure, by tension on the windward side and by shear on the leeward side, are of particular concer. It is proposed that a conservative estimate of the lateral deflection of an infitled frame would be made by calculating the deflection of the analogous braced frame, assuming the equivalent diagonal strut to have an effective width equal to one tenth of the diagonal length of the infill, REFERENCES = 183. REFERENCES 8.1 Polyakov, S. V. Masonry in Infilled Framed Buildings, 1956, G. L. Cairns. (trans.), B.R.S. (U.K.) Publication, 1963, 8.2 Thomas. F. G. “The Strength of Brickwork.”* Struct. Engineer (U.K.), February 1953, 35-46. 8.3 Benjamin, J. R. and Williams, H, A. “The Behavior of One-Story Brick Shear Walls.” Proc. A.S.C.E. 84, ST4, 1958, 1723-1-1723-30, 84 Esteva, L. "Behavior under Alternating Loads of Masonry Diaphragms Framed by Reinforced Concrete Members.”” Int, Semp. on the Effects of Repeated Loading ef Materials and Structures, Vol. V. RILEM. Mexico City, September 15=17. 1966. 8.3. Stafford Smith, B. “Model Tests Results of Vertical and Horizontal Loading of In- filled Frames."" J. A.C.1. August 1968, 618-624. 8.6 Meli, R. and Salgardo. G. Comportamiento de muros de mamposteria sujeros a cargo Jateral (in Spanish). National University of Mexico. September 1969. 8.7 Mainstone, R. J. and Weeks, G. A. “Influence of a Bounding Frame on the Racking Stiffness and Strengths of Brick Walls."” Proc. 2nd. Int. Brick Masonry Conference, Stoke-on-Trent, April 1970. pp. 165-171 8.8 Fiorato, A. E.. Sozen. M. A.. and Gamble. W. L. investigation of the Interaction of Reinforced Concrete Frames with Masonry Filler Walls, Technical Report to the Deparment of Defense. University of Illinois, November 1970. 8.9 Stafford Smith, B. °*The Composite Behaviour of Infilled Frames."* Proc, Symp. on Tail Buildings. University of Southampton, 1966. pp. 481-492, 8.10 Riddington, J. R. and Stafford Smith, B. “*Analysis of Infilled Frames: Subject (0 Racking with Design Recommendations."’ The Struct. Engineer (U.K.). June 1977, 263-268. 8.11 Riddington, J. R. “Composite Behaviour of Walls Incracting with Flexural Mem- bers."" Ph.D. Thesis, University of Southampton, 1974, 8.12 Hetenyi. M. Beams on Etastic Foundations, Vol. XVI. University of Michigan Stud- ies, Scientific Series, 1946. 8.13 Uniform Building Code, International Conference of Building Olficials. Whittier. California. 1976. 8.14 Code of Practice for Use of Masonry. BS 5628. Pan | Structural Use of Unreinforced Masonry, British Standards Institution, 1978, 8.15 Masonry Design for Buifdings. National Standard of Canada, CAN3-S304-MB4, Ca- nadian Standards Association, 1984 8.16 Mainstone, R. J. “Supplementary Note on the Stiffness and Strengths of Infilled Frames.”* Current Paper CP 13/74. Building Research Establishment. U.K.. Feb: ruary 1974Mm CHAPTER 9 Shear Wall Structures A shear wall siructure is considered to be one whose resistance to horizontal load- ing is provided entirely by shear walls. The walls may be part of a service core or a stairwell, or they may serve as partitions between accommodations (Fig. 9.1}. They are usually cominuous down to the base 0 which they are rigidly attached to form vertical cantilevers. Their high inplane stiffness and strength makes them well suited for bracing buildings of up to about 35 stories. while simultancously carrying gravity loading. It is usual to locate the walls on plan so that they attract an amount of gravity dead loading sutficient to suppress the maximum tensile bending stresses in the wall caused by lateral loading. In this situation. only min= imum wall reinforcement ts required. The term ~shear wall” is in some ways a misnomer because the walls deform predominantly in flexure. Shear walls may be planar. but are often of L-. T-. I+. er U-shaped section to better suit the planning and to increase their flexural stiffness. This chapter is concerned with the behaviar of single walls and ‘‘linked-wall systems. that is. walls that are connected by floor slabs or beams with negligible bending resistance, so that only horizontal interactive forces are transmitted, Walls connected by bending members, termed “‘coupled walls,"* are considered sepa= rately in Chapter 10 9.1 BEHAVIOR OF SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES A tall shear wall building typically comprises an assembly of shear walls whose lengths and thicknesses may change. or which may be discontinued, at stages Up’ the height. The effects of such variations can be a complex redistribution of the moments and shears between the walls, with associated horizontal interactive forces in the connecling girders and slabs. AS an aid to understanding the behavior of shear wall structures, it is useful to categorize them as proportionate or nonpro= portionate systems. A proportionate system is one in which the ratios of the flexural rigidities of the walls remain constant throughout their height, as in Fig. 9.2a, For example. a set of walls whose lengths do not change throughout their height, but whose change ing wall thicknesses are the same at any level, is proportionate, Proportionate systems of walls do not incur any redistribution of shears or moments at the change 184 01 BEHAVIOR OF SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES — 185 ™ BABOAT YSIS Sess AAARANAAISATSS Fig. 9.1 Shear wall structure. Connect tag Region A Region B Region © thay The, ie not equet Yor Ten Tec ) (b) Fig. 9.2. (a) Proportionate shear walls) (b) nanproportionate shear walls186 SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES levels. The statical determinacy of proportionate systems allows their analysis to be made by considerations of equilibrium, with the external moment and shear on nontwisting structures distributed between the walls simply in proportion to their flexural rigidities, A nonpreportionate system is one in which the ratios of the walls” flexural rigidities are not constant up the height (Fig, 9.2b). At levels where the rigidities change. redistributions of the wall shears and moments occur. with corresponding: horizontal interactions in the connecting members and the possibility of very high local shears in the walls. Nonpropontionate structures are statically indeterminate and therefore much more difficult to. visualize in behavior, and to analyze. In this chapter. hand methods of analysis are described for proportionate non twisting and twisting structures, A hand method of analysis is presented for nen- proportionate, nontwisting structuresalso. However, it is generally more expedient for nanproportionate. nontwisting structures. and essential for nonproportionate twisting structures, to be analyzed by computer. 9.2 ANALYSIS OF PROPORTIONATE WALL SYSTEMS The problem of analyzing a proportionate wall system is relatively uncomplicated because of its statical determinacy. It will be considered in two subcategories of structure—those that do not twist and those that (wist, 9.2.1 Proportionate Nontwisting Structures A structure that is symmetrical on plan about the axis of loading, as in Fig. 9.3, will not twist. At any level i. the total external shear Q,. and the total extemal moment M,, will be distributed between the walls in the ratio of their flexural rigidities, The resulting shear and moment in a wall j at a level i can be expressed as Q = sre (1) Fig. 9.3 Symmetric shear wall structure, 92 ANALYSIS OF PROPORTIONATE WALL SYSTEMS = 187 and (9.2) where (£7), is the flexural rigidity of wall j at level i and £(E7), represents the summation of the flexural rigidities of all the walls at level i. In such a proportionate nontwisting structure, there is no redistribution of shear ‘or moment at the change levels, and no redistributive interactive forces between the walls 9.2.2 Proportionate Twisting Structures A structure that is net symmetric on plan about the axis of loading will generally twist as well as translate. In a proportionate shear wall structure that twists under the action of horizontal loading (Fig. 9.4) the resulting horizontal displacement of any floor is a combination of a translation and a rotation of the floor about a center ‘of twist, which, in a proportionate structure, is located at the “centroid” of the flexural rigidities of the walls. Referring to the asymmetric crosy-wall structure in Fig, 9.5, and assuming that the stiffness of a planar wall transverse to its plane is: negligible, the X-location of the center of twist from an arbitrary origin iy Eek), = (EN), iy in whieh (E/), and (Elr), are, respectively, the sum of the flexural rigidities and the sum of the first moments of the flexural rigidities about the origin, for all the walls parallel to the ¥ axis at level i. Structure twisting about C — Se Ratation Translation ntrord ef rigidities Fig. 9.4. Displacements of asymmetric structure188 SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES ' | fanter of ewist x Fig. 9.8. Asymmetric simmcture with walls parallel to loading. In a proportionate structure, the center of twist and the shear center axis of the: structure coincide. Consequently, the effect of horizontal loading on the structure isto produce at level ja resultant shear Q,. and a resultamt horizontal torque, whiel is equal to the product of the resultant shear Q, und its eccentricity ¢ from the sh cemter, that is Qe. The resultant shear in any wall j at level / is a combination of its share of the external shear and the shear due to resisting its share of the external torque at that level. which may be expressed as (£1) (Ble), Ge Gi san, * °* Stee (9.4) in which ¢; is the distance of wall j from the shear center. Noting that the moment in a wall can be obtained by imtegrating the shear ( = J Odz), integrating Eq. 9.4 leads to an expression for the moment in wall jt level i, (EN), (Ele), STEN, + Me Seis), (9,5), ‘The first terms on the right-hand sides of Eqs. 9.4 and 9.5 are the shear and) moment, respectively, associated with bending (ranslation of the structure, while the second terms are associated with bending of the walls as the structure twists, In Eqs. 9.4 and 9.5, «, is taken as positive when on the sume side of the center of twist as the eccentricity ©. Consequently, walls on the same side of the center 0:2, ANALYSIN OF PROPORTIONATE WALL SYSTEMS — 189 Of twist ay the resultant loading will have their shears and moments increased by the twisting behavior. while those on the opposite side will have their shears and moments reduced. If a proportionate structure also includes walls perpendicular to the direction of extemal loading, that js, aligned in the X direction, as in Fig, 9.6. the Y location of the center of twist can be defined by __ Xl), YS T(E, (9.6) in which the flexural rigidities refer to only the ‘perpendicular’ wi As the structure twists under the action of horizontal loading. the total set of orthogonally oriented walls will rotate about the axis of twist. The effect of the “perpendicular walls will be to stiffen the structure in tor- sion. to reduce the twist, and, in doing so. to influence the contributions to the “parallel” walls’ shears and moments that result from the structure's twisting. ‘The denominator of the second terms in Eqs. (9.4) and (9.5), for the shears and moments in the “parallel” walls, must then be modified to B( Ele’) + E(EId?), in which Elc* is the second moment of the “parallel” walls’ flexural rigidities about the center of twist while Eld? refers correspondingly to the ‘perpendicular’ walls. Shears and moments will result in the “perpendicular’* walls only from twisting Of the structure. ‘The shear at level i in a “perpendicular” wall r will be (Eid), To (97 Teme) +E (ee*)], l and the moment will be "Perpendicular' walls Center of twist 'Paraliel! walls 9.6 Asymmetric structure including “perpendicular’® walls,190 SHEAR WALL STAUCTURES: (Eid) {5 (ene) +S (end? (9.8) Shear walls shat are not aligned with the structure axes can be incorporated into such an analysis by resolving their rigidities into components along the axes at the shear centers of the walls, and treating the components of rigidity as those of walls aligned paralle! or perpendicular to the direction of loading. 9.3 NONPROPORTIONATE STRUCTURES Nonproportionate siructures consist of walls whose flexural rigidity ratios are not constant throughout the height, and that consequently have different load-deflee= tion characteristics. When the system of walls is subjected to horizontal loading, so that the structure deflecis and possibly twists. the rigidity of the floor slabs constrains the cissimilar walls to deflect with similar configurations thereby ins ducing horizontal interactive forces between them. The horizontal interactions play «8 significant role in redistributing the horizontal shears and moments between the walls. 9.3.1 Nonproportionate Nontwisting Structures ‘ A nonproportionate, plan symmetric, nomtwisting structure, such as shown in Fig, 9.7a, could be analyzed using a plane frame analysis program by assembling half of the walls in a single plane, representing them by column elements. and cons! Recting them at floor levels by axially rigid links (Fig. 9.7bp and then subjecting them to half of ihe loading. A hand method exists, however, that is accurate and can also be easily prox grammed for a small computer [9.1]. It is an iterative relaxation method, some: what similar in its derivation to the well-known moment distribution method, The erations are reduced, however, by @ series expression to make it a relatively! concise two-step operation. Rather than presenting the derivation, which is lengthy. the principles of the method are explained, and the resulting procedure illustrated with a worked example. Referring again to Fig. 9.7a. in which a plan symmetric set of shear wally. changes flexural rigidity ratios at levels 4 and B, the extemal moment at each floor level is allocated initially between the individual walls in proportion to their flex~ ural rigidities. At each of the change levels A and B'two allocations are made, one above the change and one below. Considering any single wall. because of the nonproportional system the moments that have been allocated just above and below level 4 are out of balance. Equifibrium of the wall is then restored at A by applyiny @ correcting moment that is shared above and below 4 in proportion to the respec. tive wall rigidities. This is repeated at cach change level in each wall. 99 MONPROPORTIONATE STRUCTURES = 191 Half syan. structure eee Heide tdted tet (bp Fig. 9.7 (a) Nonproponionate, plan-symmetric structure: (b) half-structure model for computer analysis. Now retuming to level A. the correcting moments applied to the set of walls just above A will not sum to zero, This means that at that level the wall moments are not in equilibrium with the total external moment, ‘The same situation exists just below A with a residual moment of the same amount. A correcting moment is then applied to the set of walls just above A, and similarly just below A. and distributed between the walls in proportion to their rigidities. In any one wall at level A, because of nonproportionality, the distributed moments just above and below 4 are again out of balance, and so the cycle of balancing begins over. ‘The final moment in a wall just above level A consists of the sum of the initially allocated “ primary’ moment. and a secondary moment that comprises all the al- locations of correcting moments from the vertical and horizontal distributions. The iteration converges to a solution in which the moments in each wall just above and below cach change level balance, while the sum of moments in the walls at each change level balance with the extemal moment. Fortunately. the steps of the it- eration can be written as a mathematical series that can be represented by a simple expression. In cach wall the moments at levels other than the change points receive car: ryover moments from the change level correction moments; however, these di- tninish so rapidly with each story further from a change level that it is necessary to calculate them only for two stories above and {wo below each change level This reveals the interesting information thal, in AONproportionate structures at lew192 © SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES: cls more than two stories away from change levels, the external moment is shared between the walls almost exactly in proportion to their flexural rigidities, as in proportionate structures. A procedure with a worked example for illustration is now presented. The pro- cedure as given provides for the determination of wall moments at all levels of the structure; such a complete analysis, however, would be lengthy and tedious, ‘Therefore. a shortened form of the analysis, which would be adequate for most design purposes, is used in the accompanying worked example, In this, the mo- ments are found in the walls at the change levels. at one story above and one below. the change levels. and at the base Procedure and Worked Example. Consider the structure shown in Fig, 9.84 and b. which consists of 20 3.5-m stones with a total height of 70 m. The five shear walls include two symmetrical pairs (Types [ and 2) and a central core “ep oF § — (2) ~it | Uniform wing = “|e pressure [Link]/n? Change level | & <1OkN/m height = [Link] | Qoalt seructurey | ot - | ele deo s (b) ample stricture-plan; (b) example siructure-end view 9.2 NONPROPOATIONATE STRUCTURES 183 FABLE 9.1 Wall Dimensions and Inertias Wall | Wall 2 Wall 3 Toul Half Inertia Inertia Inemia Inertia Dimensions h Dimensions ty Dimensions th Afr (m) (n'y im) (mi) cm (my (m') op region. 8x02 8533 $%0.2 2.083 Outside 26.046 13,023 48.5-70 m 6 * 6, walls 0.2 m thick Middle region. = B x 0.3 12.800 5x 0.3 3.125 Outside 26.046 13,023 21-455 m 6 6, walls 0.2 m thick Nottom region. 8 x 0.45 19.200 7% 0.5 14.292 Ounide 47.020 23.835 O-21m 6 = 6, walls osm (Type 3). Two change levels, 4 and B. divide the structure into three regions. The wall dimensions and inerti ven in Table 9.1. Making use of plan symmetry ‘one-half of the structure, comprising one Type | wall. one Type 2 wall, and a half of the core. will be analyzed. Each stage of the worked example consists of a Procedural step in algebraic terms. together with a corresponding numerical step for the example structure. Procedure. For a nontwisting system of nonproportionate shear walls numbered (22,3) +m, and with change levels A. Be... . x. 1. Determine for each wall j at each change level x, the parameters and = (9.9) where I', and J") are, respectively. the incrtias of wall j just above and just below change point x, For example. for wall 1 at change tevel A 8.533 ~ gaa + 2.083 + 13.023 7 O48! and 12.800 “| 13800 + 3.125 + Ios 4? The other values, for change level B and for other walls, are obtained similarly.194 b, Aky = hy ~ ay, SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES (9.10) For example, for wall 1 al change level 4 Ak, = 0.442 — 0.361 = 0.081 ‘The other values, for change level B and for other walls, are obtained similarly (9.10 For example, for wall 1 at change level A pj IS __. ncn “! $533 + 12.800 12.800 8.533 + 12.800 = 0.600 ph ‘The other values for change level B and for other walls are ob similarly. It should be noted that as a check, at a change level, D, Ek? = 1 for the set of walls, and {p\,| + |pl,| = | for each wall. The values of k, Ak, and p. obtained from sieps Ia. Ih. and Te are entered in Table 9.2. 2. Determine also for each change level a, = B pi Aky (9.12), pet For example, considering change level A, and using values from Table 9, TABLE 9.2 Parameters for Analysis Change i Level Wall, ey, ‘Ak, By eh, By By) A 1 0.361 0.442 0.081 -0.400 0.600 -0.036 0, z 0.088 0.108 0.020 0.400 0.600) = -0.009 0.011 3 0.551 0.450 0.101 0.500 0.500 0.045 ~0.056. @, = 0.0101 8 1 0.442 0.336 © -.106 + -0.400 0.600 0.030 -0.076 2 0.108 0.251 0.143 —0.179 0.821 = —0.030 3 0.450 0413 -0.037 -0.356 0.6% 0 0.037 ay = 0,0296 #9 NONPROPORTIONATE STRUCTURES — 195, «x, = (=0.400)(0.081) + (=0.400) (0.020) + (-0.500)( =0.101) = 0.0101 The other value for change level Bis obtained and entered in Table 9.2. - Using the parameters evaluated in Steps | and 2, determine for each wall j at change level x (ok, — aki) and (ery Bky — a k%, (9.13) cs For example. for wall 1 at change level A, and using the values from Table 9.2 Bia TDamror (0-400 0.081 ~ 0.0101 x 0.361) = ~0,036 a - 2) = 0.0101 (0.600 x 0.081 — 0.0101 x 0.442) = 0.045 ‘The other values, for change level B and for other walls, are obtained sim- ilarly and the results entered in Table 9.2. . Calculate the total external moment M, on the structure at each level /, des- ignating a5 My. My... « Xx, For example, at levels A + 1A, and A — | . M,, the extemtal moments at change levels. A. B. Mui = 30(70 = 49)°/2 = 6615 kNm M, = 30(70 ~ 45.5)" /2 = 9004 kN M1 = 30(70 = 42)°/2 = 11760 kNm The other values. for change level &, plus and minus one story. and for the base, are obtained similarly. The results for this step and for all subse- quent steps are entered in Table 9.3. . Determine the primary moments in each wall j a. just above and below each change level X, using respectively My = kM, and Mim AGM (9.14)TABLE 9.3. Bending Moments in Shear Walls (in kNm) Final +109 560 873 873 1297 382 2301 =87 +324 —405 +109 2388 + = 481 -99 as74 12 427 3575 3250 3980 5198 a2 120 5307 4-1 3065 4970, 49 = 280) +1080 ~4070 +1091 +289 14015 3354 = 1080 13726 +2737 15919 31054 36015 36015 B+t 14a74 17075. 16s 90 9040 14R30 14838 12101 13892 41344 18449 0 1Bd49. 30356 o 30356 24696 24696 73500 Base 89 NONPROPORTIONATE STRUCTURES 197 For example, at change level A in wall 1 M\... = 0.361 x 9004 = 3250 kNm My.) = 0.442 9004 = 3980 kNm The other values. for change level B and for other walls, are obtained rly, b. at all other floor levels j using My, = By (9.15) For example, in wall 1 at levels a + 1 and @ — 1 My. 4, = 0.36) x 6615 = 2388 kNm My) = 0.442 * 11760 = $198: kNm The other values, for levels just above and below floor levels B. for the base and for other walls, are obtained similarly. 6. Determine the secondary moments in cach wall j at the following levels: 4. Just above and below each change level X using, respectively, MA, = 8M, Miy = ~ByM, and (9.16) For example, in wall 1 at change level A Mt {0.036} * 9004 = 324 KNm MY, = ~(0.043) x 9004 = -405 KNm The other values, above and below change level B and for other walls, are obtained similarly. . At two levels above and two levels below change levels using Myo yy = 0.268 A fy Myva3y = (=0.268)Mi, (9.17) Mya = —0.268 ME, My. -24 = (0.268) M%,, If further refinement in results is sought for stories beyond these. the progressions. in Eq. (9,17) should be extended, In the example, at one level above and one level below change level A in wall 1498 SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES 268. x 324 = —87 kNm Movin = Muy -v1 = 70.268 * (405) = 109 KN 7. The firal moments are then obtained from the sum of the primary moment and the corresponding secondary moment. thus a. at change level x in wall j using My, = My pe + My (9.18), which. as @ check on the resuli, should equal My = Mig + My (9.19 For example, at change level A in wall 1 Mi, = 3250 + 324 = 3574 kNm and, as a check M',, = 3980 — 405 = 3575 kNm bat intermediate floors i in wall j using Mp, = My * Mag (9.20) Asan example, at level a + 1 in wall |, and using Eq. (9.17) the fi moment Mpyoiy = 2388 + (—0.268)324 = 2301 KNm Al other primary moments and their corresponding secondary mome are summed to obtain the final moments. 8. The shear within a story-height region of a wall is then given by the diffe ence in moments in the wall at the top and bottom of the story, divided the story height, For example, the shear in wall | in story 14. that is betw levels A and A + 1 is given by Maa = My ois a (9.21) 3574 — 2301 3.5 Deve = 364kN These values have not been included in Table 9.3, 9.4 BEHAVION OF NONPROPORTIONATE STRUCTURES — 199. 9.3.2 Nonproportionate Twisting Structures Structures that are asymmetric in plan, as in Fig. 9.9a, generally twist when sub- jected to horizontal loading. The complication of < axis rotation, as an additional variable, makes the problem even less tractable, and a computer analysis is the only practical method. A convenient model for the computer analysis of a shear wall structure uses column elements along the centroidal axes of the walls to represent the shear walls (Fig. 9.9b), with either the assignment of a “rigid-floor’’ option or with constrain- ing members in the horizontal plane t¢ represent the inplane rigidity of the floor slabs, The columns are assigned the flexural and shear rigidities of the correspond ing walls. For walls that change only in thickness, or symmetrically in width, so that their axes are vertically continuous, the column elements are stacked in a vertical line. For a wall that changes width asymmetrically. the column element above the change should be connected to the offset column element below by a horizomal rigid beam (Fig. 5.2b). If the available structural analysis program does not have a “rigid-floor’’ op» tion, the constraint exerted by the inplane rigidity of the slabs on the relative hor izontal displacements of the walls can be represented by incorporating at each floor level a horizontal rigid frame interconnecting the centroidal axes of the walls. The beams are assigned to be axially rigid and flexurally rigid in the horizontal plane, but to have negligible stiffness against vertical plane bending. If the line of the resultant load does not coincide with one of the columns it may be applied at each floor as a statically equivalent pair of forces to two of the columns, An altemative to the three-dimensional model described above would be an equivalent planar model, as explained in Chapter 5. Such a model would allow a much reduced. two-dimensional analysis, which would be more amenable to anal- ysis by @ microcomputer. 9.4 BEHAVIOR OF NONPROPORTIONATE STRUCTURES Considering the case of a nonproportionate shear wall structure that does not twist, fas represented by the equivalent planar structure in Fig. 9.10a, the links constrain the walls to have the same curvature in the uniform regions away from the change levels. Consequently, in those regions, the external moment is distributed between the walls in the same ratio as their flexural rigidities, as would be the case if the structure were proportionate. In the transition from above to below a change level. a redistribution of the wall moments must take place to satisfy the change in the ratio of the wall rigidities. Because the only mechanism allowing a force transfer between the walls is by horizontal forces in the connecting links, the moment redistribution must occur by couples consisting of horizontal forces and reverse forces in the links at successive levels around the exchange level, as in Fig. 9.1 0b. ‘The size of the moments transferred is usually large enough to cause the interactive forces at the change level to be very large, with the result that, locally, the shear4b) (a) commputer analysis Fig. 9.9. (a) Nonproportionate, plan-asymmettic structure; (b) model for c ttid fag mt bo ebhaie PPP he eee ee ae (b) Fig. 9.10 (a) Allocation of moment between nongroportionate walls: (by resulting interactions, 201202 SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES: in a wall and the reverse shear in another wall may casily exceed the total external shear at that level. The severe local effects on the walls” loading close to the change level due to the moment transfer give rise to carryover effects above and below, which diminish within one or wo stories before becoming negligible. The shear: force diagrams of the walls are, therefore. significantly disturbed by the change levels. The wall moment diagrams in changing to a different distribution across change level are, however, much less disturbed. These effects are exemplified by the shear and moment diagrams in Fig. 9.11a and 9.11. respectively. which are plotted from the results of a full computer analysis of the structure in the worked example of Section 9.3 (Fig, 9.8) Nenproportionate shear wall structures that twist and translate under hori: zontal loading also behave similarly to proportionate structures in regions away from the change levels, with the walls’ resulting moments being a combination of the moments from their flexural and flexural torsion rigidity effects, us expressed! by Eq, (9.5), At the change levels, transfers of moment occur with severe dist ances in the walls” interactions and shears. Because of the twist. the transfers Of moment at the change levels have to accommodate the effects of bath the walls” fiexural resistence to twisting of the structure, which involves the plan locations, of the walls, as Well as the walls’ resistance to the structure's bending 7 9.5 EFFECTS OF DISCONTINUITIES AT THE BASE In medium high-rise apartment blocks that depend for their horizontal resistal on cross walls, it is not uncommon for some of the walls to be partially discontim ued at the base 10 provide for lobby space. To discuss the different types of foreé interactions that may occur, two extreme cases of discontinuity will be consider Case | is illustrated by Fig. 9.12 and Case 2 by Fig. 9.133. In Case 1 the inner pair of walls have openings in the ground story. which leat each wall standing. in effect, on a pair of edge columns. In Case 2. the inner wall are cut back in the ground story to leave each wall supported on a much shor ter central wall. ‘Consider for Case 1 the equivalent half-structure planar model. as shown i Fig. 9.12b. When the structure is subjected to horizemal loading. the flex of the columns supporting the right-hand wall causes the ground story of that Wi 0 be very much less transversely stiff than that of the left-hand wall, The flexut stiffness of the right-hand wall. however. has been reduced by @ proportionatel much lesser amount because of the edge location of the columns. The resulting effect in Case 1, therefore, is a heavy transfer of shear from the, discontinuous wall to the continuous wall, with a relatively smaller transfer off moment. As an approximate illustration, the resulting forces on the walls are as shown in Fig. 9.12c. Referring to Fig. 9.13b, which is the equivalent planar mode! for Case 2. th flexural rigidity of the cut-back wall is very much reduced in the ground story, whereas its transverse rigidity has suffered by a proportionately lesser amount, Mall type 1 Kall type 2 == Mall vype 3 — Torel external shear = Change Tevel Total external ehear Hloor Level = Change level a) a0 2087] Value of shear (kN) 20 Wall tye 1 Wall type 2 type 2 vexcernal momen: \ ° ¢ = 222 =e R z Value of moment (KNn) (bb Fig. 9.11 (a) Resulting shear in walls: (b) rosuliinyy moments in walls, 203206 © SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES Consequently, there is a very large transfer of moment from the cut-back wall to the continuous wall in the levels just above the ground story. with correspondingly large horizonial interactions between the walls, and high forward and reverse shears, As an approximate illustration, the forces on the walls are asin Fig. 9.13¢. It is quite possible. in Case 2-type structures with severe reductions in length of certain walls, for the remaining walls to be subjected to a shear of twice, or more than twice, the total external shear on the structure {9.2}. This discussion of the effects of discontinuities is intended mainly to explain the modes of the resulting actions, and to serve notice about their potential signif= icance. The desirability of a detailed analysis in such a case. rather than an ap- proximate intuitive estimate of the forces. is evident. 9.6 STRESS ANALYSIS OF SHEAR WALLS When the foads acting on an individual shear wall have been determined, the next stage of the design process is to use the loads to determine the wall stresses. If the wall is rectangular in elevation and has a height-to-width ratio greater than 5, a close estimate of the axial stresses is given by simple bending theory. If. however, the aspect ratio is less than S: 1, or if it is irregular with changes in width or. openings, or if beams or other walls connect to it, a more detailed analysis is necessary. For this. the finite element technique is convenient, versatile, and ac- curate. ‘The major structural analysis programs usually include a selection of elements: suitable for problems of walls bending in their planes. If only a frame analysis program is available a shear wall can be analyzed alternatively by an analogous frame consisting of beam members. Although not able to compete with finite ele- ments in representing nonrectangular shapes, the analogous frame has some virtue in its simpler mathematical concept and in its amenability to solution by an ondi- ~ nary frame analysis program. In this section, a discussion of the use of finite elements for shear wall analysis. is followed by a description of an analogous frame particularly appropriate to shear wall analysis. 9.6.1 Membrane Finite Element Analysis The predominantly inplane action of shear walls allows them to be satisfactorily represented in most cases by plane stress membrane elements. The simplest types of rectangularand quadrilateral elements are usually adequate. In some wall anal= yses, greater accuracy could be achieved by using a smaller number of complex elements. Typically, however, shear wall analysis, with its need fora refined stress description only in local regions, is better satisfied by a larger number of simpler elements. A detailed discussion of modeling techniques for the computer analy: of shear ‘96 STRESS ANALYSIS OF SHEARWALLS == 207 walls is given in Chapter 5. Ifa refined analysis is needed in cenain regions of a shear wall, either because the wall has irregularities such as openings, or because of anticipated high stress gradients in certain regions, such as close to the base. refined mesh Should be used in these regions. The refined mesh may be included 45 part of the primary model, with a transition mesh connecting between the coarse and fine mesh regions, as described in Chapter 5. If. however. the required stress detail calls for the mesh in a region to be very much finer than elsewhere it may be inadvisable to analyze the complete modcl simultaneously, even if the computer capacity allows it, Large differences in element size can lead to computational errors, Such cases may be better treated by a preliminary analysis with the region in question represented relatively coarsely. A separate more detailed analysis of the region can then be made using a very refined mesh with imposed boundary loads or point displacements taken from the first analysis. Caution should be ap- plied in accepting detailed stress results immediately adjacent to sharp internal comers where. theoretically, the stresses are infinite. The more refined the mesh used in such regions, the larger and more alarming the stress results become. 9.6.2 Analogous Frame Analysis When only @ frame analysis program is available, and the shape of the shear wall can be divided into a mesh of rectangular segments, an analogous frame may be used for analysis. Earlier analogous frames [9.2] were developed for plate stretch: ing and compression. without particular reference to inplane bending. Only if used ina refined mesh across the wall will these satisfactorily represent bending. More recently, analogous frames have been develaped for shear wall analysis that ac= commodate inplane bending ‘One of these which has proved to be superior in efficiency is termed the braced- frame analogy [9.3]. Its concept. derivation and application are considered next Braced-Frame Analogy. The analogy was conceived originally with a sym- metric module (Fig. 9.14a). It consisted of two columns joined by rigid beams at the top and bottom, and diagonal braces. This was satisfactory as a full-width unit for plane walls and for orthogonal shear wall assemblies with not more than two walls joining at any comer, In general cases of shear walls with fractional-width meshes, or assemblies with more than two walls at a comer, the symmetric module is inadequate because the adjacent columns of intersecting modules cannot easily be arranged to bend independently, as they must. Consequently. the module was modified to be asymmetric (Fig. 9.14b), with a column on the left-hand side con- necting to the rigid beams. a hinged-end link on the right-hand side. and diagonal braces. The left-hand ends of the beams and the ends of the column rotate with the nodes, while the right-hand ends of the beams and the link are rotationally released from the nodes. Although physically asymmetric about its vertical center line, the module behaves in the same way as the symmetric module, ‘The requirement of the frame module is that it should simulate the bending, shear, and vertical axial stiffnesses of the corresponding wall segment. The prop~ erties of the module members are derived as follows.208 © SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES Rigi¢ been, Rigid bean Braces, Columns connected rigidly te beans ) tb) Fig. 9.14 (a) Analogous frame: original symmetric module: (b) analogous frames. im= proved module Bending Stiffness. The bending stiffness of the wall segment (Fig. 9.15a) mu be matched by the bending stiffness of the module (Fig. 9,156). The latter is given’ by the sum of the flexural stiffness of the column, and the bending resistance o! the column anc link sectional areas acting about the center line of the module, Assuming the wall and module to have the same elastic modulus, E. ae El, + 26A, (2) = ee (9.22) Shear Stiffness. The shear stiffnesses of the wall segment (Fig. 9. 16a) and the! frame module (Fig. 9.16b) should be equal. This is provided in the module by U sum of the transverse stiffness of the column in double curvature bending und horizomtal components of the axial stiffness of the diagonals. I2El, ‘ EAy CO! ne i Gor _ Ebi ho” 201+ yh in which G is the shear modulus, sis Poisson’s ratio, and G = E/2(1 + p). y (9.23 KA fa) () Fig. 9.15 (a) Wall segment: flexure; (b) analogous frame; flexure. 06 STARSS ANALYSIS OF SHEAR WALI a) {) Fig. 9.16 (a) Wall segment: shear; (b) analogous frame: shear. Axial Stiffness, ‘The axial stiffnesses of the wall segment (Fig. 9.17a) and the frame module (Fig. 9.17b) should be the same. The axial stiffness of the module comprises the sum of the axial stiffnesses of the column and link, and the vertical components of the axial stiffness of the diagonals. 2EA, | 2. = (9.24) Solving Eqs. (9.22) to (9.24) simultaneously gives the properties of the frame members: COLUMN: Moment of inenia 1, = © (on - 0.5) (9.25) Sectional area A, = 1b(0,25 — B) (9.26) LINK Sectional area 4, = 16(0.25 - B) (9.27) t t (a ) Fig. 9.17 (a) Wall segment; axial deformation; (by analegous frame: axial deformation:210 SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES: DIAGONAL BRACES: th(0.25 + B) Sectional area Ay = ———;—— in which ee (9.29) 16h" (1 + ge) The other propenies of the braced frame members are assigned to be a Equation (9.25) can be used te show that J, is negative for segment height-1o-widd ratios less than 2[(1 + y)/3]'/?, and Eq. (9.26) can be used 10 show: that A, i negative for height-to-width ratios greater than 2(1 + jx) Abhough nega property members are a fictitious concept, frame analysis progrars wil re accept and process them provided the resulting direct stiffness coefficients 0! structure are all positive. f the Analogous Frame. An approximate analysis of a shear wall roctre canbe mad by riding cach wall to corse mesh of wait son height modules (Fig. 9.18). For a more detailed and accurate solution, a refin mesh of fractional wall-width and story-height modules can be used. The com: ponenis of each module are assigned properties according co the dimensions of _ corresponding wall segment. The two rigid beams between each pair of vertical ly adjacent modules are replaced by a single rigid beam. Beams connecting oe wall from other parts of the building are joined rigidly to the ends of the rigigh beams, The resulting analogous frame may be analyzed by any standard frame: analysis program. Fig. 9.18 Analogous frame model for elevator core. SUMMARY 211. Conversion of Analogous Frame Forces to Wall Stresses. The stressex ia wall segment are obtained by applying the resultant moment, axial force, and shear in the corresponding frame module as evitluated from the results of the anal- Ysis. to the horizontal section of the segment. The resultant bending moment in a module is obtained by summing algebra- ically the average of the moments at the top and bottom of the column and the couples given by multiplying the axial forces in the column and link by the half: width of the module, The resultant axial force is the algebraic sum of the axis foree in the column and link, and the venical components of the axial forces in the diagonals. The resultant shear force is the algebraic sum of the shear in the column and the horizontal components of the axial forces in the diagonals. The Fesulling moment and axial force is applied 10 the segment section to obtain the wall axial stresses, and the resulting shear is applied to obtain the wall shear stresses. The wall stresses are referred to the mid-height of the segment. The vertical Mresses vary linearly over the width of the segment and are constant over its height, The shear stress is uniform over the whole segment. Horizontal direct stresses are not evaluated becatise the axial rigidity of the arms causes the values Of the re= sulting internal horizomtal forces to be meaningless. The stresses from shear wall analyses using this analogous frame have shown io compare closely. that is within 1%, with results from finite element analyses having a similar sized mesh. SUMMARY ‘The chapter is concerned with tall building structures that consist of assemblies of shear walls. connected only by members of low flexural resistance such ay thin slabs. The walls interact, therefore. primarily through horizontal forces. The chap= ler is also concemed with the analysis of individual shear walls. Assemblies of shear walls may be categorized as proportionate, when the ratios of the walls" flexural stiffnesses are constant throughout the height, or nonpropor- lionate. Each category may be divided further for consideration ino nomwisting or twisting structures The allocation of extemal shear and extemal moment between the walls of a proportionate system can be made on the basis of cach wall’s proportionate con- tribution to the overall flexural stiffness, and the overall flexural-torsional stiffness of the structure. The allocation of shear and moment between the walls of a nonproponionate system is more complex because of the horizontal interaction between the walls, For a nontwisting system, a hand method based on a type of moment distribution gives an accurate solution. The methad is amenable to programming for use on a very small microcomputer. For a twisting, nonproportionate system, it is recommended that a stiffness ma: tnx computer analysis is carried out with the walls represented by column ele- ments.212 SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES The stress analysis of rectangular walls with a height-to-lengih ratio greater than five can be made with acceptable accuracy by simple bending theory. Shorter walls. irregular walls, and walls with openings should be analyzed by using either mem- brane finite element or analogous frame models. Plane stress membrane elements of rectangular or quadrilateral shape are recommended, with refinements of the mesh in regions of special interest. If only @ frame analysis computer program is available. and if the wall can be divided imo # rectangular mesh, an equivalent frame may be used to obtain a reasonably accurate solution. REFERENCES 9.1 Gluck, J. “Lateral Load Analysis of Multt-story Structures Comprising Shear Walls / with Sudden Changes in Stiffness.”’ J. Am, Cone, Inst, 66, September 1969. 729- 736. 9.2. Lemer. E. and Stafford Smith, B. “Severe Interaction Effects between Plain and Ir regular Shear Walls.” Proc. 4th Canadian Conf. on Earthquake Engineering. Unie versity of British Columbia. Vancouver. June 1983, 220-230, 9.3. MeComnick, C, W. ‘Plane Stress Analysis." ASCE J. Sirucr. Div. 89(S1 4), August 1963, 37-54. 94° Stafford Smith. B. and Girgis, A, “Simple Analogous Frames for Shear Wall Anal= ysis." ASCE J. Stewct. Empineer, 110(11), November 1984, 2655-2666 MS CHAPTER 10 Coupled Shear Wall Structures ‘The previous chapter considered shear wall structures in which lateral loads on the building are resisted by the independent actions of the individual walls. In many practical situations, however. walls are connected by moment-resisting members For example. walls in residential buildings will be perforated by vertical rows of ‘openings that are required for windows on extemal gable walls or for doorways or Corridors in intemal walls. In the design of slab residential blocks consisting of Walls and floor slabs only. self-contained apartment units are generally arranged On opposite sides of a central corridor along the length of the building. This ar- Fangement naturally results in parallel assemblies of division walls running per= Pendicular to the face of the building. with intersecting longitudinal walls along the corridor and facade enclosing the living spaces (Fig. 10.1). In addition to serving the Iunctional requirements of dividing and enclosing space. and providing. fire and acoustic insulation between dwellings. the cross walls are employed as load bearing walls, since their disposition favors an efficient distribution of both gravity and lateral loads to the structural elements. If the floor slabs are rigidly connected to the walls, they serve in effect as connecting beams to. produce a shear interaction between the two inplane cross walls. Such structures, which consist of walls that are connected by bending-resistant elements. are termed “coupled shear walls."" in which the presence of the moment-resisting connections greatly creases the stiffness and efficiency of the wall system. 10.1 BEHAVIOR OF COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES Hf pair of inplane shear walls is connected by pin-cnded links that transmit only axial forces between them. any applied moment will be resisted by individual mo= ments in the two walls, the magnitudes of which will be proportional to the walls” flexural rigidities. The bending stresses are then distributed linearly across each wall, with maximum tensile and compressive stresses on opposite edges (Fig. 10.10¢). If, on the other hand, the walls are connected by rigid beams to form a dowelled vertical cantilever, the applied moment will be resisted by the two walls. acting as a single composite unit. bending about the centroidal axis of the two walls. The bending stresses will then be distributed, linearly across the composite unit, with maximum tensile and compressive strenncn Occurring at the opposite 213212 SHEARWALL STRUCTURES ‘The stress analysis of rectangular walls with a height-to-length ratio greater than five ean be made with acceptable accuracy by simple bending theory. Shorter walls, walls, and walls with openings should be analyzed by using cither mem- brane finite element or analogous frame models. Plane stress membrane elements of rectangular or quadrilateral shape are recommended, with refinements of the mesh in regions of special interest If only a frame analysis computer program is available. and if the wall can be divided into a rectangular mesh, an equivalent frame may be used to obtain a reasonably accurate solution, REFERENCES 9.1. Gluck. J. “Lateral Load Analysis of Multi-story Structures Comprising Shear Walls ‘with Sudden Changes in Stiffness." J. Am. Conc, Inst. 66, September 1969. 729~ 736. 9.2 Lemer. E, and Stafford Smith, B. "'Severe Interaction Effects between Pisin and fr Shear Walls,"* Proc. itt Canadian Canf. on Earthquake Engineering, Unie of British Columbia, Vancouver. June 1983, 220-230. 9.3. MeComnick, C. W, “Plane Stress Analysis."" ASCE J. Struct. Div. 89(St 4). August 1963, 37-54. 9.4 Stafford Smith, B. and Girgis. A. “'Simple Analogous Frames for Shear Wall Anal- ysis." ASCE J. Struct. Engineer. WLOC1 1). November 1984. 2655-2666. GE CHAPTER 10 Coupled Shear Wall Structures The previous chapter considered shear wall structures in which lateral loads on the building are resisted by the independent actions of the individual walls. In many Practical situations. however. walls are connected by moment-resisting members. For example, walls in residential buildings will be perforated by vertical rows of openings that are required for windows on extemal gable walls or for doorways or corridors in internal walls. In the design of slab residential blocks consisting of walls and floor slabs only. self-contained apartment units are generally arranged 6n opposite sides of a central corridor along the length of the building. This ar: Tangement naturally results in parallel assemblies of division walls running por pendicular to the face of the building. with intersecting longitudinal walls along the corridor and facade enclosing the living spaces (Fig. 10.1). In addition to ctional requirements of dividing and enclosing space. and providing insulation between dwellings, the cross walls are employed as load bearing walls, since their disposition favors an efficient distribution of both gravity and lateral loads to the structural elements. If the floor slabs are rigidly connected to the walls. they serve in effect as connecting beams to produce a shear interaction between the two inplane cross walls. Such structures. which consist of walls that are connected by bending-resistam elements, are termed “‘coupled shear walls,"" in which the presence of the moment-resisting connections greatly in- creases the stiffness and efficiency of the wall system. 10.1 BEHAVIOR OF COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES Ifa pair of inplane shear walls is connected by pin-ended links that transmit only axial forces between them. any applied moment will be resisted by individual mo= ments in the two walls, the magnitudes of which will be proportional 10: the walls" flexural rigidities, The bending stresses are then distributed linearly across each wall, with maximum tensile and compressive stresses on opposite ciges (Fig 10.10d). If. on the other hand, the walls are connected by rigid beams to form a dowelled vertical cantilever. the applied moment will be resisted by the two walls acting as a single composite unit, bending about the centroidal axis of the two walls, The bending stresses will then be distributed linearly across the composite unit. with maximum tensile and compressive stresses occurring at the opposite 213214 COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE 30,¢m (100 -eeeee 18.0% (59 t) Fig. 10.1 Planform of typical cross-wall residential block, extreme edges (Fig. 10.10c), The practical situation of a pair of walls connected by flexible beams will lie between these two extreme cases. which may be regarded as bounds on the structural behavior of a coupled wall system. The stiffer the connecting beams, the closer the structural behavior will approach that of a fully composite cantilever. The efficiency of the system may be assessed by the degree to which it approaches the optimum behavior of a composite cantilever. When the walls deflect under the action of the lateral load. the connecting beam ends are forced to rotate and displace vertically. so that the beams bend in double curvature and thus resist the free bending of the walls (Fig. 10.2), The bending action induces shears in the connecting beams, which exert bending moments. of opposite sense to the applied external moments. on each wall. The shears also induce axial forces in the 1wo walls, tensile in the windward wall and compressive in the leeward wall. The wind moment M at any level is then resisted by the sum of the bending moments M, and My in the two walls at that level. and the moment of the axial forces N/, where AV is the axial force in each wall at that level and / is the distance between their centroidal axes. Bear actions Fig. 10.2 Behavior of laterally loaded coupled shear walls 10.2 METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 215 M = M+ M+ NE (10.1) The last term NF represents the reverse moment caused by the bending of the Connecting beams which opposes the free bending of the individual walls. This term is zero in the case of linked walls. and reaches a maximum when the con: necting beams are infinitely rigid, The action of the connecting beams is then to reduce the magnitudes of the moments in the two walls by causing a proportion of the applied moment to be carried by axial forces, Because of the relatively large lever arm I involved, a relatively small axial stress can give rise t a disproportionally larger moment of resistance. The maximum tensile siress in the concrete may then be greatly re- duced. This makes it easier to suppress the wind load tensile stresses by gravity load compressive stresses. 10.2 METHODS OF ANALYSIS As with other structural forms considered, it is possible to analyze coupled shear wall structures by cither approximate or more exact techniques. The former are simpler and more amenable to hand calculation. but tend to be restricted to regular OF quasiregular structures and foad systems. The latter can deal with irregular struc (ures and complex loadings, but require the services of a digital computer. The method to be employed will generally depend on the structural layout and on the degree of accuracy required, ‘The most important approximate method is termed the continuous medium tech nique, (In the literature it has also been variously termed the ‘continuous connec tion method," the “‘continuum method."” or the “*shear connection method."*) As the name suggests, the structure is simplified by making the assumption that all horizontal connecting clements are effectively smeared over the height of the build ing to produce an equivalent continuous connecting medium between the vertical elements. This can be achieved with reasonable accuracy only fora uniform, Sys= tem of connecting beams or floor slubs. The two-dimensional plane structure is thereby transformed into an essentially one-dimensional one. in which all ‘major actions depend on the height coordinate. This enables the behavior of the structure to be expressed in the form of an ordinary linear differential equation. allowing closed form solutions to be obtained. In many practical situations. the building layout will involve walls that are not uniform over their height, but have changes in width or thickness, of in the dis position of the openings. In addition, the base support conditions may be complex due to either a discontinuation of the walls at the first story level. or the form of substructure employed. Such discontinuities do not lend themselves toa uniform smeared representation, and the continuous medium approach cannot be used with any confidence. Such irregular systems are most conveniently and accurately ana- \yzed by using an equivalent frame approach, in conjunction with standard frame analysis programs based on the stiffness matrix method of analysis. ‘The analyst216 © COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE must use his skill and experience to replace the coupled wall structure by an equiv- alent plane framework of beams and columns. As discussed in Chapter 5. rel tively wide walls may be modeled by a line column situated at the centroidal axis, with rigid horizontal elements connecting the centroidal axis to the outer fibers at cach floor level, to transmit the rotational and vertical displacement effects at the edge of the wall to the connecting beams, As @ consequence. the method is fre- quently referred to as the “‘wide-column frame method,"* Practical shear wall structures are generally analyzed by this method. If the wall contains irregular openings or has a complex support system. it may: prove difficult to represent the structure by a plane frame model with any degree of confidence. In that case, it is better to use a finite element model with an as~ sembly of plane stress elements (cf. Chapter 5, Section 5.5). Previously. it was considered uneconomical to use the finite element technique: for the complete analysis of such structures, However, with the availability of) ‘general purpose computer programs that include a wide variety of line and surface: elements, a complete analysis is now a more reasonable proposition. ‘This chapter considers in detail the continuous medium and the analogous frame” methods of analysis of coupled walls, Since the analysis of plane structures by the finite element method is well documented elsewhere in the literature, only a brief discussion of the method is given with particular reference to its use in the analysis of coupled walls. 10.3. THE CONTINUOUS MEDIUM METHOD This approximate method allows a broad look at the behavior of coupled wall structures and, simultaneously, gives a good qualitative and quantitative under- standing of the relative influences of the walls and the connecting beams or slabs’ in resisting lateral forces. 10.3.1 Derivation of the Governing Differential Equations Consider the plane coupled-wall structure shown in Fig. 10.3a subjected to dis= tributed lateral loading of intensity w per unit height, A general form of loading is used to illustrate the derivation of the governing differential equation. before solutions are derived for common standard design load cases. The basic assumptions made in the analysis are as follows: 1. The properties of the walls and connecting beams do not change over the height, and the story heights are constant 2. Plane sections before bending remain plane after bending for all structural members. 3. The discrete set of connecting beams. each of flexural rigidity Ef, may be replaced by an equivalent continuous connecting medium of flexural rigidity EI,/h per unit height, where A is the story height (Fig, 10.3b). Strictly 109 THE CONTINUOUS MEDIUM METHOD = 217° Equivalent connect ing edi — bibbbblel ¥ fb) Fig. 10.3 Representation of coupled shear walls by continuum model speaking, for this analogy to be correct. the inertia of the toy be half of the other beams. teeny 4. The walls defect equally horizontally. as a result of the high inplane rigidity of the surrounding floor stabs and the axial stiffaess of the connecting beams, It follows, shat the slopes of the walls are everywhere equal along the height. and thus. using a straightforward application of the slope-dellection equil- tigns, it may be shown that the connecting beams, and hence the equivalent connecting medium. deform with @ point of contraffexure at mid-span, It also follows from this assumption that the curvatures of the walls. are equal throughout the height. and so the bending moment in each wall will be pro- portional to its flexural rigidity ‘The discrete set of axial forces. shear forces, and ‘bending moments in the connecting beams may then be replaced by equivalent continuous distribu- tions of intensity m, q, and m, respectively. per unit height. In panicular, if the connecting medium is assumed cut along the vertical line of contraflexure, the only forces acting there are a shear flow of intensity q(2) per uunit height and an axial force of intensity n(z) per unit height. as in Fig. 10.4 The axial force in cach wall at any level z will then be equal to the integral of the shear flow in the connecting medium above that level, that is, ” N= | qd: (10.2) or, on differentiating l= (10.3)218 COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE Pebebbaddd ttttttiatttt Fig, 10.4 Imemal forces in coupled shear walls. Consider now the condition of vertical compatibility along the cur line of con~ traflexure of Fig. 10.4. Relative vertical displacements will occur at the cut ends of the cantilevered laminas due to the following four basic actions. [In the deri- vation, positive relative displacements are taken to mean that the end of the left~ hand lamina (1) moves downward relative to the end of the right-hand lamina (2).[ 1. Rotations of the wall cross sections due to bending (Fig. 10.5a). Under the action of a bending moment. the wall will deflect. and cross sections will rotate as shown in Fig. 10,5a, Twa forms of bending action occur: first. the free bending. of the walls due to the applied external moments. and second. the reverse bending caused by the shear forces and axial forces in the connecting beams The relative vertical displacement 4, is given by (Fig. 10.54) s-(foa) fs where dy/dz is the slope of the centroidal axes of the walls at level z due to the combined berding actions. 2. Bending and shearing deformations of the connecting beams under the action of the shear flow (Fig. 10.5b). Considera small element of the connecting medium of depth dz, which may be assumed cantilevered from the inner edge of the wall. The flexural rigidity of this small lamina is (E/,,//1) dz, and the cantilever is sub- jected to a tip shear force of y dz Due to berding only, the relative displacement 63 is given by (10.4) by = -2 (4) th be 2S eiy/ny ae (3) 12h, (ios where b is the clear span of the beams, The effects of shearing deformations in the connecting beams may readily be 109 THE CONTINUOUS MEDIUM METHOD 219 Fig. 10,5 Relative displacements at included by replacing the true flexural rigidity £/, EI, (10.1), where and ine of contraffexure, by am equivalent flexural rigidity220 © © COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE in which Gd is the shearing rigidity and d is the cross-sectional shape factor for shear. equal to 1.2 in the case of rectangular sections. The correction is necessary only in the case of connecting beams with a span-to-depth ratio less than about 5. The evaluation of 6s has assumed that the connecting beam is rigidly connected to the wall, and thus ignores the effects of local clastic deformations at the beam= wall junction that will increase the flexibility of the lamina, Both elasticity and finite element studies have shown that the additional flexibility that arises may be included by the simple expedient of extending the beam length by a further quarter- beam depth into the wall at cach end. The length b in Eq. (10.5) should thus be taken as the true length b + 4 beam depth, Equations (10.3) and (10.6) enable Eq. (10.5) to be expressed in terms of the axial forees N, as f bh aN (10.7) 12El, 4 3. Axial deformations of the walls under the actions of the axial forces V (Fig. 10.5¢). The action of the shear forces in the connecting beams will be to induce tensile forces in the windward wall | and compressive forces in the leeward wall 2. Consequently. the relative displacement, 5, at level z will be ET. AA eat) Lae ag where 4, and A, are the cross-sectional areas of walls | and 2. respectively. 4. Any vertical or rotational relative displacements at the base (Fig. 10.5d). Vertical or rotational deformations of the base may occur as a result of displace- ments of the foundations (proportional to the modulus of subgrade reaction, for example) or a5 a result of the flexibility of the supporting substructure. Such foun dation displacements will induce rigid body movements of the superstructure above. and will give rise to displacements that are constant over the height as shown in Figs. 10.5d Assuming relative displacements (6,.) and rotations (34) occur in the same senses as the internal axial forces and moments, the relative vertical displacement 6, is. by 6 + by = by say (10.9) In the original deflected structure (Fig. 10.2) there can be no relative vertical displacement on the line of contraflexure of the connecting beams. Consequently, the condition of vertical compatibility at this position is 6, +6, +6, +6,=0 10.4 11 CONICS MEDIO METHOD 294 or, using the appropriate expressions for cach: * | was+a=0 (10.10) ‘The last term will be zero in the common exse of On considering both the free bending duc 1 the externally applied moment Mf and the reverse bending due to the shears and axial forces in the connecting me= dium (Fig. 10.4}, the moment-curvature relationships for the two walls are, at any level. : tt =m—(S+d) | aae—m, (0.1) -(24 a) [adem (10.12) where M, is the moment caused by the axial forces in the connecting beams. The addition of Eqs. (10.11) and (10.12) yields the overall moment~curvature relationship for the coupled walls, aa ae ui qd: =M—IN (10.13) El, + hy + aye Differentiating Eq. (10.10) with respect to z. and combining with Eq. (10.13) to climinate the curvature d*y/d=* gives wv (10,14) ‘This is the governing equation for coupled walls expressed in terms of the axial force N. ‘The parameters in the equation are defined as arty oP hl R= and 1=ht ASA +A,222 COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE As usual. the left-hand side of Eq. (10. 14) describes the inherent physical prop- ents of the structure. and the right-hand side involves the form of applied loading. Alternatively. eliminating the axial force N from Eqs. (10.10) and (10, 13) gives. (10.15) The is the governing equation for coupled walls expressed in terms of the lateral deflection y 10.3.2. General Solutions of Governing Equations The general solution of Eq. (10.14) will always be of the form. 1 Poe N= C, cosh tac + Cy sinh kez ~ ——s | 1 + ——5 + (kex) (kay (kay i (10.16) in which B is ‘he operator d/dz and C, and C; are integration constants that must be determined from the appropriate boundary conditions at the top and bottom expressed in terms of the variable N. ‘The general sulution ef Eq. (10.15) is. similarly ya. + Cr + Cy cosh kas + C, sinh ko = Elka 1 ae Dt 3+ 5 +: 5 (key (kay (hae) (10.17) where C, 10 G, are constants to be determined from the boundary conditions ex= pressed in tenins af the variable y. Boundary Conditions. By considering conditions of compatibility and equie librium at the top and bottom of the structure, appropriate boundary conditions may be derived for a range of base conditions. For example. for a structure that is free at the top and rigidly built in at the base. the two noundary conditions for Eq. (10.16) will be N= (10.18) ALS At the base, the first term in Eq. (10.10) is the base slope. dv/dz. which is zero, The third term also is zero, and hence the boundary condition becomes: 109 THE CONTINUOUS MEDIUM METHOD 223 Wy dz 0 (10,19) In Eq. (10.17). the four boundary conditions will be (10.20) (10.21) _ At the top. the axial force and moment are zero. and, hence. from Eq. (10.13). @y/, The second boundary condition at the top may readily be derived by substituting for N and its first derivative dN /d: from Eq. (10.13) into the compatibility Eq. (10.10), and making use of Eq. (10.21). The required boundary conditions are then (10.22) Ge ~ oF (k? — 1) { Ma) (10.23) Corresponding conditions may be derived for other practical cases such as walls supported on elastic foundations and walls supported on different types of portal frames, In the latter case. it may prove necessary to make further simplifying assumptions regarding the mode of behavior of the suppor structure in order (0 derive the appropriate number of conditions in terms of the variable used, This usually involves a reduction in the degree of statical indeterminancy of the suppor. frame by the insertion of hinges at assumed points of contraflexure. or at the junc- lions of relatively slender columns with relatively stiff beams. These situations are discussed further in Section 10.3.7. 10.3.3 Solution for Standard Load Cases. A complete solution is now obtained for a uniformly distributed lateral load that is often used to simulate wind loading. Solutions are also given in Appendix | for two other standard load cases. a triangularly distributed load and a point load the top, which, as discussed in Chapter 3, are used to simulate earthquake loading. Uniformly Distributed Lateral Loading. Consider the case of a pair of cou pled shear walls on a rigid base, subjected to a uniformly distributed load of in= tensity w per unit height. The external moment is Ms w(H 2) /2 (10.24)224 = COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE Axial Forces in Walls. The panicular integral par of the solution may be de- termined from Eq. (10.16) and. on evaluating the integration constants C, and Cy from Eqs. (10.18) and (10.19), the complete solution becomes: -3 {5(: TH cosh kaz + kof sinh ka(H — z)| cosh ko | (10.25) Equation (10.25) shows that the distribution of the axial foree throughout the height depends on two nondimensional variables only. the relative height = /H and the stiffness parameter kei, since ke aH» 2/H. Equation (10.25) may be expressed H Wome Fy ( V+ 1 (kaHY ” (Kexdf)" cosh kectt kaa sinh ko — cosh kat) (10.34) The variation of the deflection factor F, may be expressed most conveniently in terms of the parameters & and ka, as shown in Fig. 10.8. The curves show that the maximum lateral deflection is reduced by more than 60% for values of AH greater than 4. Forces in the Discrete Structure. The results that have been obtained relate to the equivalent continuous system, and it is necessary to transform them ta the real coupled wall structure, The shear force Q, in any particular connecting beam é at level z, may be ob- tained from the difference in values of axial force N at levels h/2 above and below the level concemed, that is. @, = Nz — h/2) -— Nia + h/2) (10.35) Deflection factor Fy 2 haw Fig. 10,8 Variation of top deflection factor Fy,228 © COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE Alternatively. Q, may be abtained by integrating the shear flow q overthe height concemed ol which becomes, of substituting for g from Eq. (10.27). weet \a oy 2isinh ke W/2) | ion bac, el H (Ka cosh keel | = katt oinketit = 3) | (10.36) If the sheur flow curve (Fig. 10.7) has already been plotted. @, may be obtained. by evaluating the area under the curve over the story height concemed. or by multiplying the estimated average value of y by the story height. The shear in the top beam will be derived from the shear flow over half story height at the top. The maximum moment in any connecting beam may be obtained from the shear: flow curve F; where an inspection will indicate the position of the most heavily loaded beams. The value of Q,(max) may be evaluated quickly by considering the two beam positions on either side of the maximum value Fs{ max ). The maximum value will be given approximately by H (max Jie (10.37) Q(max) = w The maximum bending moment in any connecting beam i, at the junction with the wall, is equal to O.b/2. Equations (10.31) and (10.32) will give the continuous distribution of bending moments in the two walls, In the real discrete structure. the distribution i: _ Tinuous asa component Q/b /2 is fed inta the wall at each beam position. If desired’ the diserete distribution may then be obtained from the known values of shear fore in the beams. It may be noted that although there is no bending moment or axial force at the top of cach wall in the continuous system, discrete values, obtained by integrating the continuous forces over half a story height at the top of the build» ing, exist in the real system, Although the distributions of bending moments und) axial forces in the real structure may apparently be determined more accurately by! adding up the effects of individual beam forces, it is very doubtful if the additional laborious work would be warranted. The continuous distributions may be regarded as sufficiently accurate for the practical purposes of determining the wall stresses, unless one wall is very much smaller than the other, In the above conten worth bearing in mind that the bending stresses und shear stresses at the ends of the connecting beams must be diffused into the edgen 10.9 THE CONTINUOUS MEDIUM METHOD 229 ‘of the walls over the depth of the beam, In most cases, the semiwidth of the wall is much greater than the depth of the beam, and diffusion of stresses inte the imerior of the wall takes place over some distance from the junction. Such dis- continuities in the wall's bending moment and axial force. although statically cor- fect in relation to the centroidal axes of the members, may have in reality little meaning for relatively wide walls when using simple bending and axial load the- aries to determine the wall stresses. Consequently. the continuous bending mo- ment distributions in the walls may well be as accurate as the discontinuous dis- tributions in many practical situations Wall Shears. By considering the equilibrium conditions for a small element of wall and the associated connecting medium in the continuous structure, (Fig, 10.9) it may be shown that the shear forces S, and S; in the two walls are given by aM h S = G (10.38) (10.39) in which M is the total external moment. Hence. on using Eqs. (10.3) and (10.24). the shears in the walls are S,= = 4) q (10.40) e ) 4 (10.41) in which the function q is given by Eq, (10.27) and represented graphically in Fig. 10.7. The first term in each gives the shear that would exist if the walls were pin- connected, It may be noted that since q = 0 al a fixed base, the base shears will always be given by the first terms in the equations. Fig. 10.9 Forces on small element of wall-continuum model230 © COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE In the case of two equal walls. Eqs. (10.40) and (10.41) reduce, ay required by symmetry. to (10.42) Since it follows that the second terms in Eqs. (10.40) and (10.41) are equal in magnitude but of oppose sign, This is essential for horizontal equilibri the two shears must equal the applied shear wH'( | — It follows that. at the top of the structure. when dif / yb SAH) = =8(H) = -(4 -§ = 4 Ja This situation will be true for any distributed loading for which the static shear! force is zero at the top. It must therefore be deduced that, in order to produce a shear force in each wall at the top of the continuous structure, there must exist at the top of the connecting medium a concentrated horizontal interactive force @ between the walls, of magnitude b gee 4) Jad) The force Q will be tensile or compressive according to whether the top sl force 5,(H) is positive or negative. but will vanish in the ease of two equal wall The magnitude of the top interactive force depends on the structural parameters involved, and is an indication of the heavy interactions that ean occur at the toph of such structures. Axial Forces in Beams. Consideration of the horizontal equilibrium of the small wall clement of Fig. 10.9 gives the distribution of axial forces # in the connecting medium as (10.44), in which the function F, is sel : sinh kee — =)] — 1 F. = Saag leosh has + kal sinh koa ~ =I] 10.3 THE CONTINUOUSMEDIUMMETHOO 231 ‘The formulas that have been derived cnable the distributions of axial forees, bending moments and shear forees in the walls. the shear forces und bending mo- ments in the connecting beams. and the lateral deflections to be calculated directly’. 10.3.4 Graphic Design Method In the detailed derivation of the solution for a uniformly distributed load. it was shown that the forces in the structure are dependent on two nondimensional par rameters. the relative height ://H and the stiffness parameter Kal. This allowed a series of curves to be derived showing the forms of distributions of axial foree Ni, bending moment M, or Ms, and shear force intensity q. with height -/H, for a range of values of keel. The lateral deflection is dependent on three variables. but 4 similar generalized curve was obtained for the particular case of the maximum: top deflection. These curves may be used directly as design aids to give the internal forces al any required level. A simple altemative technique has been devised [10.2] to give directly the stresses in the walls, It has the added advantage that it is devised in such a way that the influence of the different parameters on the structural behavior is readily seen, and the designer can check the efficiency of the wall with flexible connecting beams relative to the optimum case of a dowelled system. The technique is described in detail here for the case of u pair of coupled shear walls on a rigid base subjected to a uniformly distributed load. Design curves are also presented in Appendix | for the other standard load cases of a triangularly distributed lateral load and a point load at the top. Consider the pair of coupled shear walls shown in plan in Fig. 10.10a. The WALL WALL 2 ¢ 295 OF composite section actual stress distesbutton composite cantilever stresses stresses Fig, 10.10 Superposition of siress distributions due to composite and individual cantilever auctions to give true stress distribution in walls232 © COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE stress distribution at any section, under the action of the bending moments Mf, and Ms. and the arial force N, will be as shown ig. 10.10b, Taking tensile stresses. as positive. the maximum extreme fiber stresses in wall | will be given by (10.45) Similar expressions hold for the stresses in wall The complete stress distribution, which cons considered derived from an alternative superposition of two hypothetical pur bending stress distributions, namely (1) a bending stress distribution based on assumption that the wall system acts as a single composite cantilever, the neutral axis being situated at the centroid of the two wall elements. as shown in Fi 10. 10c, and (2) two linear stress distributions obtained on the assumption that walls act as completely independent cantilevers. with the neutral axis at the cet troid of each wall. as shown in Fig. 10.10d. The real stress distribution of Fi; 10.10b is ther obtained by superposition of appropriately sized hypothetical dis- tributions of Fig. 10.10¢ and d, By this procedure. the solution of the comple coupled structure is reduced to the combination of solutions for two separate si ple cantilever problems, Suppose that K; is the percentage of the total wind moment that is resisted independent cantilever action, and that K; is the percentage resisted by composi cantilever action. and consider the two component stress distributions. 1. Composite cantilever action (cf. Fig. 10.10c). The total bending moment il any section which is carried by composite action is (10.47, By taking moments about one edge. it is found that the centroid of the pai walls is located at a distance of (Ax{/A) + cy from the edge A, ¢, being distance from A to the centroid of wall | (ef. Fig. 10.10a). The second momen of area f, of the two wally about their centraidal axis becomes 103 THE CONTINUOUS MEDIUM METHOD = - 233. fated the extreme fiber stresses in wall 1 of the composite cantilever wi _ wl =e) faye 2, anes (10.49) and (10.50) Similar expressions again hold for the stresses in wall 2. 2. Individual cantilever action (cf. Fig. 10.10d). Since both walls are assumed. to deflect equally. the individual moments carried by the walls will be proportional to their second moments of area, The total moment carried by individual cantilever action is (10.51) ‘and (10.52) (10.53) (10.54) Similar expressions again hold for the stresses in wall 2 ‘The individual and composite cantilever factors A and Ky must vary throughout the height in such a way that when the linear stress distributions defined by Eqs (10.49) and (10.50) and (10.33) and (10.54) are superimposed, they give a distri- bution defined by Eqs. (10.45) and (10.46), The accordance may be defined by equating the corresponding stresses at the four extreme wall fiber positions. Hence. on substituting in these equations for the axial force NW from Eq, (10.25) and equating stresses, the composite cantilever factor Ay may be shown to be234 COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE - 200 (kek) [1 = (2/N + fae" (1-5) | sinh kKaH — kal cosh kat sinh ke H = cash ka (H — (10.55) and, by definition. K, = 100 — & (10.56), ‘The proponions of composite and individual cantilever action required ta pro- duce the true stress distribution at any position are thus functions only of the struc) tural parameter Aaéf and the height ratio 2/H, The form of functions | and Ry are shown in Fig, 10,11 for a range of values of the parameter kf, covering th range of all practical situations. The curves for F; and F; in Figs, 10,7 and 10.8 may be used directly as cor responding design curves for the shear flow g and the top deflection yy in con: junction with Eqs. (10.28) and (10.34), Significance of Parameter kaH. It has been shawn that at any height 2/H, the distributicns of the axial forces, and thus bending moments, in the walls, the shear flaw in the connecting medium, depend on the relative stiffness paramet kaH, which, using expressions for & and a as defined for Eq. (10.14). is given by oa =100 § Bie “od 5 a0 0 : o = be 2 2 2 one 5 yoo Boo z + 6 @ ye 14 1 OS Variation of wall moment factors &, and Ks. Fig. 10.11 10.4 THE CONTINUOUS MEDIUM METHOD 235 For a given set of walls, with fixed dimensions, the value of kaff will be a measure of the stiffness of the connecting beams, and it will increase if either J, is increased or the clear span b is decreased, If the connecting beams have negligible stiffness (Ke = 0) then the applied moment M will be resisted entirely by bending moments in the walls, and the axial forces N will be negligible, That is, the structure behaves as a pair of linked walls, If the connecting beams are rigid (ka A = oo). the structure will behuve as a single composite dowelled beam, with a linear bending stress distribution across the entire section, and zero stress at the neutral axis. which is situated at the cen- Iroid of the two wall elements, The stress distributions for these (wo limiting cases are shown in Fig. 10,10d ‘and c. and correspond to the cases of K, = 100% and K. = 100%. respectively. For practical situations involving beams of finite stiffness the stress distrib will lie between these two extremes (Fig, 10,106). As the beams increase in stiff hess the induced axial forces in the walls increase, inereasing the companent of uniform tensile or compressive stresses in the walls, and reducing the wall bending moments, and hence the component of bending stress in each wall. The value of ka will thus define the degree of composite action and will indicate the mode of resistance to applied moments. If ke H is small. say less than about |, the beams may be regarded as flexible and the walls tend to act as inde= pendent linked cantilevers, If ke # is large. say greater than about 8. the beams are classed as stiff and the structure tends to act 2 composite cantilever, In between these values, the mode of action will wary with the level concemed, ax indicated in Fig. 10.11. Particular attention must be given to the most heavily loaded section at the base It is shown in Chapter 15 that corresponding general relative stiffness parame ters may also be used to describe the lateral load behavior of rigid-frames, braced frames, and wall-frame structures. Further consideration is given 1o the signifi- cance of the general governing parameters k and aH. and their relationship to the shearing and bending stiffnesses of a bent, 10.3.5 Coupled Shear Walls with Two Symmetrical Bands of , Openings Shear walls with 1wo symmetrical bands of openings are frequently encountered \n specific situations, such as on the flank walls of residential buildings. They may also be conveniently analyzed by the procedures developed for a single row of openings: Consider the structure shown in Fig. 10.12a, Beciuse of symmetry. there will be no axial force in the central wall, the moments in the outer walls and the shear flows in the twa sets of connecting laminas will be equal, while the axial forces Nj in the outer walls will be equal and opposite. The wind moment will then be resisted by the wall moments and axial forces M; in the outer walls, as.236 © COUPLED SHEAR WALL STAUCTURE a () Fig. 10.12 Representation of coupled shear walls with two symmetric rows of openi by equivalent single bay structure. M = 2M, + M,+ 2M) in which M, and M, are the moments in the outer and central walls. respectivel The simplest way of treating the structure is to consider a half-structure, c sisting of a wall type | and a half-thickness wall type 2. joined by connect beams. and subjected to half the applied loading, Since there is no axial force the real wall 2. it will not undergo any axial deformation. and this may be achie by assigning to it a very large area As. Similarly, the second moment of area wall 2 should be taken as | /; (Fig. 10.12b). The formulas established previousl for a pair of dissimilar walls may then be used directly, 10.3.6 Worked Example of Coupled Shear Wall Structure The theory and design curves in the preceding sections provide a practical met for the rapid analysis of coupled shear walls of any cross-sectional shape. Althouy they are accurate only for structures with uniform properties over the height. 1 can, by the judicial use of average properties, verve as a useful guide to the fi in nonuniform structures, The analysis allows an assessment of how much of tl applied moment is resisted by bending moments in the walls. and how much axial forces. To illustrate the practical use of the design curves. the typical system of phi coupled shear walls shown in Fig, 10.13 is considered. It is assumed that 105 THE CONTINUOUS MEDIUM METHOD = 237 16.5 ki/ 56m (183.7 fe) 1, Ta kapste) (20 stories) bil a zo 2 Crrras eee poe 01 Seytmg in (AFL CBeHED (ZED Fig. 10.13 Example structure. system forms one of a series spaced at 6,1 m (20 it) centers ina 20-story building. and is subjected to a uniformly distributed wind loading of intensity 16.5 kN/m. (1.13 kip/ft) height It is required to determine the stresses in the walls at base level, the maximum shear, and hence the maximum moment. in any connecting beam. and the maxie mum lateral defiection at the top. In addition, the distributions of axial forces and bending moments in the walls are evaluated to illustrate the general forms of distribution of such forces. The required procedures are first described, and then illustrated numerically for the considered structure Step I. Determine the areas and second moments of area of the walls. and the second moment of afea of the connecting beams. Depending on the design code used, the latter may be taken as gross values. calculated from the beam section's full dimensions. or reduced values 10 take account of cracking in the concrete. Wall properties: 4 = 4 5. 0.3 = 3,125 mi (362.1 Lx 7 x 0.3 = 8.575 m! (993.5 ft) d= + ty = 11.700 m* (1958.6 fr’)238 ‘COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE A, = 5% 03 = 15m (16.15 fe) Ay = 7 x 0.3 = 2.1 of (22.60 fe) A= Ay + Ay = 3.6m? (38,75 P) 1 =m (26.25 fi) For the connecting beams, assuming that the entire cross section is effective b= X04? x 03 = 1.6 x 10°' mt (0,185 fr) The second moment of area is reduced to include shearing deformations. Ase suming a Poisson's ratio of 0.15 for concrete, the shear modulus G is oak ee 21+) E From Eq. (10.6) 12 XE x 1.6% 107" x 1.2 x04 x O03 x £/2.3 = 0.1104 ~. Effective second moment of urea /, = = 1.441 x 107* m* (0.167 fit) Taking account of the wall-beam flexibility, effective length = true length + beam depth = 2.2 m (7.22 ft. Step 2. Determine the structural parameters &. a. and kee from Eq. (10.14). & alte < k= 1.0995 REF _ 12x 144 x 10 xB a 225% 28x 17 & = 0.05633 m~' (0.0172 ft-') <. kell = 1.0995 x 0.05633 x 56 = 3.468 = 3.1725 x 10" This value indicates that the beams are of intermediate relative stiffness. Step 3. For the particular level ¢ considered, calculate the wind moment |} a(A Generally, this will be initially at the base where the applied moment is greatest. 109 THE CONTINUOUS MEDIUN METHOD = 239. Determine from Fig. 10.11 the percemage of the moment at this Jevel curried by individual cantilever action (Xj) and the percentage carried by composite can> tilever action (A). The individual moment acting on each wall will be propor tional to its second moment of area, From Fig. 10.11. the values of K, and &’; at base level (=/H = 0) ate Ki =42% Ky = S8% Total base moment = $ x 16.5 x 25.872 kNm (19.083 kipft) Portion of base moment due effectively to individual cantilever action is 0.42 x 25,872 = 10,866 kKNm (8015 kipft) 2 Moment on wall 1. My a % 10.866 = 2902 KNm (2141 kipft). 8.575 Moment on wall 2, M, = Tho 10,866 = 7964 kNm (5874 kipft): Portion of base moment duc effectively to composite cantilever action is 0.58 x 25,872 = 15,006 kNm (11,068 kipit) Step 4. Calculate the second moment of area J, of the composite cross sextion, Hence calculate the stresses at the extreme fibers of the walls, using ordinary beam theory, due to the individual and composite moments, and add these to obtain the (rue stresses at these positions. The bending stress distribution is linear across each wall. From Eq, (10.48). effective composite second moment of area of eross section is i, = 3.125 + 8.575 + thot x §° = 67.70 m? (7843 fr’) ‘The position of the center of gravity (c.g.) of the cross section and the distances from it to the extreme wall fibers are shown in Fig. 10.14. Using ordinary beam theory, the stresses at the salient points A. B. C. and D are, on adding the stresses due t dual and composite cantilever stresses luking tensile stresses as positive, cogs Of composite section . 0.767 m— ue 2.1674 ae plete Fig. 10.14 Cross section of wal240 COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE +3910 KN /m? (+567 Ib/in.*) 0 —1841 kN /m? (—267 th /in*) 7964 x 3.5, 15.006 x 0.167 = + = $3288 KN/m? (+477 Ib/in*) « 8.575 67.70 on = — OL KS _ 15.006 6.83 _ _ yr65 N/m? (691 Ib/in.*) oF 8.575 67.70 It is of imerest to note that if the walls were uncoupled and behaved as inde- pendent cantilevers. the comesponding base stresses would be as follows: Gq = —0y = 5828 KN /m? (802 Ib /in.*) Ge = ~ oy = 7739 KN/m? (1122 Ib/ia.?) illustrating the considerable reduction in stresses that results from the coupling action, Step 5. From Fig. 10.7, determine the maximum shear force factor F;(max) and hence the shear flow g,,,,, at the most heavily loaded be: [Eq. (10.29)]. The maximum possible shear in any beam is equal 10 gia. and the maximum pos= sible beam moment i8 dqxh * 6/2. This procedure will overestimate the beam shears and moments, by an amount which depends on the story height. If a more accurate estimate is required. the actual beam locations may be superimposed on Fig. 10.7 to indicate the position ‘of the most heavily loaded one. The maximum shear may then be obtained by finding the area under the shear flow curve over the story height concerned. From Fig, 10,7. the value of the maximum shear force factor fork aH = 3.468, F,(max) = 0.381 ata level 2/H = 0.39 The maximum shear flow q,,,, becomes. from Eq. (10.29). 56.1 7 = = x —— x 0.381 = 36.39 KN/m (2.49 kip/ft) fue = 16.5 8 X Topg 0.38 /m ( pi Thus. the maximum possible shear in any connecting beam is Qua wh = 36.39 X28 = 101.9 kN (22.91 kip) and the maximum possible moment in any connecting beam is, Mocs = (Gnait}b/2 = 101.9 * 1 = 101.9 KNm (75.16 kiptt) 10.4 THE CONTINUOUS MEDIUM METHOD 241 Altematively. if the positions of the 20 connecting beams are superimposed on the shear flow diagram of 10.7. the most heavily loaded beam is that at the eighth floor level, where an average value over the story height of the shear force function Fy is 0.380. The maximum shear is then Quay = 36.30 X 2.8 = 101.6 KN (22.84 kip) and the maximum beam moment is M,., = 101.6 x 1 = 101.6 kNm (74.93 kipft) In this case, the pasition of the maximum value of F coincides almost exactly with a beam position. and there is insignificant difference between the {wo values Of Q,,,,. Provided the number of beams exceeds 10, the percentage error obtained in using F,(max) rather than the true average beam value should not exceed more than a few percent since the shear flow curve is fairly flat near the most heavily: loaded region Srep 6, Determine the deflection factor F, from Fig. 10.8. The maximum lateral deflection at the top of the structure is then obtained from Eq. (10.34), From Fig, 10.8, for ka = 3.468 and & = 1.0995, the value of the maximum deflection factor Fy is 0.353. That is, since Fy is equal to unity if no coupling beams are present, the effect of the coupling is to increase the stiffness by 300%, Assuming that the dynamic modulus of clasticity of the concrete employed ix estimated to be 36 KN /mm? (5,22 > 10° Ib /in,*), the maximum top deflection becomes. from Eq. (10.34), 116.5 x 56 8 36 x 10° x 11.7 0. 016 m or 16 mm (0,052 ft or 0.63 in.) Simin x 0.333 With no coupling beams, the maximum top deflection would have been Yuan = 0.048 m (0.157 ft) Step 7. If desired. the variation of axial force Nin each wall throughout the height may be determined from Eq. (10.26) and Fig. 10.6 from which the value of F may be determined directly at any level. The bending moment in each wall then follows from Eg. (10.31) and (10,32), For completeness, in order 10 demonstrate the influence of the axial forces in reducing the wind moments in the walls, these have been evaluated and are shown in Fig. 10.15a and b, The curves illustrate the considerable degree of negative242 COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUSTURE 20) 18 Story herght. Story height 2000 10 ? é 6 8 10) ial) monenss M, and My (ktiex 109) 0 1000 Antal Force (kM) te) th) Fig. 10.15 Distributions of (a) axial forces and (b) bending momemts in walls. bending that takes place in the walls in the upper levels, due to the resisting ment induced by the connecting beams. In the lower levels. the amount of defor mation of the connecting beams is reduced. and the relative influence of the sulting axial forces is diminished. The proportion of the wind moment that resisted by axial forces diminishes toward the base. but it still accounts for 48) of the total moment at the base. A redistribution of forces takes place continuous! throughout the height. and the behavior is much more complex than that of i nary cantilevered walls. The beneficial effects that arise from the coupling actior are clear. bul these, of course, must be balanced against the cost of providit moment connections between the beams and walls. Step 8. Wf required. the shear forces in the walls may be calculated from (10.40) and (10.41), At the most heavily loaded section, at the base. the 101 shear force is shared between the walls in proportion to their flexural rigidit At the base, the wall shears become 2 S, = 16.5 56 * 2 = 246.8 kN (55.5 kip) 7 16.5 x 56 x “ = 677.2 kN (152.2 kip} 103. THE CONTINUOUS MEDIUM METHOD 243 10.3.7 Coupled Shear Walls with Different Support Conditions The previous sections have Considered the analysis of laterally louded waills: sup= ported on rigid foundations. However, architectural requirements may dictate that shear walls are discontinued in the first story to provide large open areas for en= trance foyers, The coupled walls may then be supported at first floor level an a set of columns or on a portal frame allowing relative deformations to occur at the base of the walls. Similarly. if the coupled walls are supported on individual footings or other foundation systems that interact directly with the underlying soil, relative vertical oF rotational deformations may occur at the base. These effects are fre- quently modeled by linear or rotational springs, whose stiffness is proportional to the modulus of subgrade reaction, The governing equations and the general form of solution are not affected by the boundary conditions. Only the constants of integration C, to C, in Eqs. (10,16) and (10.17) will be affected. The boundary conditions for different base suppor systems are most conveniently derived in terms of the fundamental condition of compatibility (Eq. 10.10). Provided that the relative base displacement 6, in Eq. (10.10) can be expressed in terms of the variable in the governing equation, sul- ficiemt boundary conditions may be derived at the base (0 allow a solution to be obtained Two particular cases are considered to illustrate the method of dealing with different forms of base conditions: walls supported on elastic foundations and walls supported on a portal frame Walls Supported on Separate Elastic Foundations. In this case, the walls are supported on individual foundations (Fig. 10.16) that deflect elastically. both vertically and rotationally. under the actions of the imposed axial forces andl mo- ments at the bases. Since both walls are assumed to deflect horizontally equally at all levels. it follows that the slopes and curvatures of the walls at the buse are also equal. The relative vertical and rotational displacements will then be (10.57) and = Mw + My am (10.58) kay + key in which No. Mya. and Myy are the axial forces and wall moments at the base, and k,y and k,y are the vertical stiffnesses and kay and ky» are the rotational stiffnesses of the elastic foundations under walls 1 and 2, The wall base moments are equal to M, — Nol. where My is the applied moment at that position, If the walls are fixed to footings on an elastic foundation with modulus of subgrade reaction A, the stiffnesses are given by244 COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE x subgrade modulus. & Fig. 10.16 Coupled shear walls on individual clastic foundations, kaha k= WA hy = Ma hin = Rh where 4p, and A, are the cross-sectional areas, and J, and f,, are the second ‘moments of zrea of the footings. Consequently. if Eqs. (10.57) and (10.58) are substituted into Eq. (10.9) to give 5,, the compatibility condition [Eq. (10.10)] at the base may be expressed in terms of the axial force Nj, and the required boundary condition obtained. A cor= responding condition in terms of the deflection y may be achieved by the use of. the moment-curvature relationships [10.3]. Walls Supported on Columns or Portal Frames. For supports of this na- ture, it is convenient to assume that the base (z = 0) of the system of coupled shear walls is situated at the axis of the portal beam or at the top of the columns, at a height Jy, above the rigid foundations, The total height of the building is then H+ hg. The governing differential equation holds over the normal range of the height variable z from 0 to H, and the lower boundary condition must then be expressed at the level z = 0. It will again be possible to obtain general closed form solutions for any support system provided thal the lower boundary condition can be expressed explicitly in terms of the axial force 4 (or the shear flow q), or the lateral deflection \'. at the 102 THE CONTINUQUS MEDIUM METHOD = 245 level concemed. depending on the particular form of governing differential equi tion employed, To do so, it is frequently necessary make certain simplifying assumptions regarding the behavior of the support system in order to obtain the appropriate load deformation characteristics at level z = 0 To illustrate the procedure involved, consider the general case of a suppor system that consists of a trapezoidal portal frame with pinned column bases, as shown in Fig. 10.17. The forces transmitted from the wails to the frame are shown in Fig. 10.18. In view of the continuity within the beam system, it must be sumed that the ponal beam ulso deflects with a point of contraflexure al the mide span position. Figure 10.18 shows the portal frame with a hypothetical cult at the point of contraflexure at which only vertical shear forces Qp and axial forces H,, occur. Since the structure is statically determinate, it is possible to calculate the relative displacement beoween points B and C on the two wally in terms of the base forces and Ny. The appropriate boundary condition then follows again from the com patibility condition at the base. Provided that the supporting structure can be rendered statically determinate by the insertion of pins or moment releases at appropriate positions, such as thane indicated "Xin Fig. A1.9. it will generally be possible to carry out an indepen- dent analysis of the substructure to allow the relative base displacement to be eval: uated. A wide range of support structures may be considered by this technique 110.3] ‘The solutions fora pair of coupled shear walls, supported either on elastic foun dations or on different forms of portal frame. are tabulated in Appendix |. Results are given for the three standard load cases of a uniformly distributed load, a tri~ angularly distributed load, and a point load at the top. Fig. 10.17 Coupled shear walls on sup: porting frame.246 COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE Pormt of contraflexure at mid-point of beam Fig. 10.18 Forces in supporting frame. 10.4 COMPUTER ANALYSIS BY FRAME ANALOGY ‘The approximate method of analysis described in Seetian 10.3 is most appropria for uniform or quasiuniform structures. For ether than simple regular systems. if is necessary to use 2 more sophisticated model to obtain an accurate analysis. The most convenient method is by the use of a frame analogy, which is a very versatile and economic approach and may be used for the majority of practical situations, ‘The analysis requires the modeling of the interaction between the vertical shear: walls and the horizontal connecting beams, Over the height of a single story, wall panel may appear to be very broad, but when viewed in the context of the entire height it will appear as a slender cantilever beam. When subjected to lateral forces. the wall will be dominated by its flexural behavior, and shearing effects will generally be insignificant. In the simplest analogous frame model. the wall can then be represented by an equivalent column located at the centroidal axis. t¢ which is assigned the axial rigidity EA and flexural rigidity E/ of the wall. The condition that plane sections remain plane may be incorporated by means of stiff arms located at the connecting beam levels. spanning between the effective column and the external fibers as shown in Fig. 10.19. The rigid arms ensure that the correct rotations and vertical displacements are produced at the edges of the walls, The connecting beams may be represented as line elements in the conventional manner, and assigned the cor rect axial, flexural, and if necessary. shearing rigidities. Generally. shearing de- formations shculd be included if the beam length/depth ratio is less than about 5, The coupled shear wall structure of Fig. 10.194 may then be represented by the: analogous wide-column plane frame of Fig. 10.19b. 104 COMPUTER ANALYSIS BY FRAME ANALOGY =—-247 Hal! centroree! Flemble columns at panes 101 controrda} ares 7 x Stiff "wide-column” w a) (b) Fig. 10.19 Representation of coupled shear walls by equivalent wide-columa frame. 10.4.1 Analysis of Analogous Frame The analogous frame may be analyzed most conveniently by the conventional stiff- ness method, which has been extensively developed over the years, and iy now well documented in the literature fe-g.. 10.4, 10.5]. There is no need to treat the subject in detail, and only its specific use in the analysis of coupled wall structures is considered. General purpose frame analysis programs are now widely available to carry out the matrix operations required on both micro- and main frame computers. These require no more of the engineer than a specification of the geometric and structural data. and the applied loading. Different approaches are possible for modeling the rigid-ended connecting beams in the analytical model, depending on the facilities and options available in the program used. The most important techniques are as follows. Direct Solution of the Analytical Model (Fig. 10.196). A direct application of the stiffness method will require a series of nodes at the junctions between the stiff arms and the connecting beams in the wide-column model. ay well as at the column story levels, The rigidity of the wide-column ams can be simulated by assigning very high numerical values of axial areas and flexural rigidities to the members concerned, In practice. a value of 10°10" times the corresponding values for the flexible connecting beams has been found to provide results of sufficient248 COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE accuracy without causing numerical problems in the solution. This procedure would effectively double the number of nodes and thus the number of degrees of freedom, ‘or unknowns in the analysis. and would unnecessarily increase the amount of com= putation involved When forming the wide-column model. an extended length may again be used for the connecting beam 10 allow for the effect of the flexibility of the wall-beam: junetion It is frequently assumed that the axial deformations of the horizontal beams are considered negligible in comparison with the bending deformations. particularly asa result of the high inplane stiffness of the associated floor slabs, In that cast, the horizontal displacements of all nodes will be the same at each floor level. Consequently, at three of the four nodes at each floor level. only two degrees of freedom (verical and rotational displacement) will be required, while the remain= ing datum node will have the standard three degrees of freedom (vertical, horie zontal, and rotational displacements). If the facility exists in the program used. the: intermodal constraint or the rigid floor option may be employed to ensure that all joint horizontal deflections are equal at cach floor level. Use of Stifiness Matrix for Rigid-Ended Beam Element. Because of t rigid connecting segments. simple relationships exist between the actions at a cole umn node and those at the adjacent wall-beam junction node. and it is possible 10 derive a composite stiffness matrix for the complete beam segment between col umn nodes that incorporates the influence of the stiff end segments, The required stiffness matrix for the line element with rigid arms shown in Fig. 10.20 may be derived either by transforming the effects at the wall-beam junctions i and j to the nodes at the wall centroidal axes | and 2 by a transformation matrix, or by calculating the stiffness coefficients directly from first principles. In the I case, unit vertical or rotational displacements may be imposed at nodes | or 2 and the resulting resisting moments and shears established from ordinary beam theory, giving directly the required unit force-displacement relationships. Explicit forms of the resulting stiffness: matrix for the wide column beam el ment have been published in the literature [e.g.. 10.6]. If the analysis program includes a wide-column beam stiffness matrix, this be used directly to represent the connecting beams in the analogous plane f model of Fig. 10.19b. Fig. 19.20 Line element with rigid end arms. 104 COMPUTER ANALYSIS BY FRAME ANALOGY 249. It must be noted that the composite matrix anu at the wall cent yields the beam moments I nodes A and B on the rigid segment, In the real structure the maximum moments in the connecting beams occur at their junctions with the t points: © and D (Fig. 10.21), In the absence of any lateral loads on the beams, the bending moment distribution varies linearly between nodes A und B. IV the calculated beam moments a A and Bare M, and My. respectively. the tne end moments on the beams will then be given by (Fig. 10.21) Mc (10,59) My = (10.60) Altematively, if a point of contraftexure is again assumed to occur at the mid- span position, b Mc = My = 25 (10.61) where @ is the beam shear. In some eases the connecting beams may be relatively deep. and this will in« crease considerably the stiffness of the wall-beam joint. The effect may readily be modeled in the equivalent frame by incorporating stiff vertical arms in the column clement over the finite depth of the connecting beam, as shown in Fig, 10.22. The stiffness matrix for the resulting column element will then be of the same form as that for @ rigid-ended beam, However. the analogy is less exact than that for the coupling beam. and care must be exercised when adding such stiff segments and in interpreting the ensuing results. Figs 10.21 Bending moment diagram for connecting bea250 COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE Flexible column sett Flesible bean Fig. 10.22 Representation of coupled shear walls with decp connecting beams by equiv alent frame. Use of Haunched Member Facility. Mf a wide-column beam option is not available in the program, but a haunched member option js. the latter may De adopted to represent the rigid arms if specific large stiffness values are given 10) the cross-sectional area and flexural rigidity of the haunched ends. These values must be sufficiently large for the resulting deformations to be negligible. but sufficiently large to cause computational problems from ill-conditioned equatios The stiffness of the end segments depends on the length as well as the cro sectional properties, and the choice of the rigidities EA and ET for the stiff sezments must reflect the effect of the ratio of the length of the arm to the span of the flexible” connecting beam. End values of the order of 10° times the connecting beam values will generally be found acceptable. Use of Equivalent Uniform Connecting Beams. In a symmetrical coup! wall structure, in which axial deformations of the connecting beams are assume negligible. the rotations of the walls at any level will be equal. The rotations 0 the stiff-ended beams are also equal, and. consequently. it is possible to rep the stiff-ended beam by an equivalent uniform beam with an effective second ment of ares /,. thereby treating the wide-column frame as a normal plane fa of beams and columns. - Since the walls do not undergo relative horizontal deflections or rotations. only the vertical translational stiffness has to be reproduced correctly in the equival model, ‘The required second moment of area /, of the equivalent beam may be relat to the value /, of the real flexible beam by equating the relative vertical displace ments 5 of the real and equivalent beams subjected to the same vertical shear Py as shown in Fig. 10.23 Then, (10.62), 104 COMPUTER ANALYSIS BY FRAME ANALOGY = :251 or (10.63) where p is the stiffness amplification factor, equal to the cube of the ratio of the length between the wall centroidal nodes to the tue flexible length of the con necting beam The coupled shear wall structure may then be represented by # frame having uniform beams of length / and flexural rigidity Ei, ‘The required amplification factor o depends on the term (//h)’, In practice, the widths of the walls are generally much greater than the span of the connecting beams: a value of // is typically of the order of 3 to 5. resulting in corresponding values of p of 27 to 125. These figures illustrate clearly the large increase in ef lective stiffness of the connecting beams which can result from the wide-column effect of the walls. If the connecting beams are relatively decp, so that the effects of shearing de- formations may not be insignificant, the effective second moment of areu to be assigned may be further modified to include this effect. The value of /, must then be replaced by d. where fe (10.64) where, again, = (12E/,)/(GAb")d * Altematively, in an analysis program that requires a shear area to be specitied, a shear area A. = (//b)A should be used for the equivalent beam, if A is the Inie cross-sectional area. ‘The wall actions. the shears in the connecting beams and the horizontal deflee- tions are all given directly by the results from the analysis. However. the actual! beams are again shorter than the equivalent beam. and the calculated beam end moments at A and B must be reduced by the factor b/7/ to give the maximum, moments at the ends C and D of the real beams (Fig. 10.21). Eqns. (10,63) and (10.64) do not strictly apply if the structure is not symmet- rical. However, the walls in an unsymmetrical coupled shear wall structure of normal proportions rotate virtually identically at each floor level. and the con- necting beams may safely be replaced by equivalent beams of effective second252 COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE moment of area f, or J; given by Eqs. (10,63) and (10.64), This allows a consid erable simplification of the analysis, and yields results which are generally sutti- ciently accurate for practical purposes. It is only if one wall is of much higher stiffness than the other. for example. if a wall is connected to a column, that the results should be used with caution, In that case. the more accurate analysis is recommended. 40.5 COMPUTER ANALYSIS USING MEMBRANE FINITE ELEMENTS For most practical coupled shear wall structures. the equivalent frame technique will be the most versatile and accurate analytical method. In certain cases. how~ ever. notably with very irregular openings. such as those shown in Fig, 10.24. oF with complex support conditions. it may prove difficult to model the structure with any degree of confidence using a frame of beams and columns, In that case, the use of membrane finite elements is the only feasible alternative. In this technique. the surface concemed is divided into a series of elements, generally rectangular. triangular. or quadrilateral in shape. connected at a discrete set of nodes on their boundaries. Explicit or implicit forms of the corresponding stiffness matrices for different element shupes are presented in the literature. ene abling the structure stiffness matrix to be set up and solved to give all nodal dis- placements and associated forces. The technique has the advantage that a retined mesh may be employed in regions of high stress gradient or particularly complex geometry, and 2 much coarser mesh in regions of low or uniform stress. Itis also possible to medel a structure by a combination of membrane finite elements in a complex region and an equivalent frame in the remaining more uniform region, provided that care is taken to establish the required conditions at the interface. AS discussed in Chapter 5. transitions may be achieved by either triangular or quad- rilateral elements: the latter approach, being more gradual, tends ta yield more: ‘accurate results. Generally, when constructing the mesh for a finite element anal- ysis, rectangular elements should be as square as possible. triangular elements joa (we) [est] [ica] Fig. 10.24 Shear wall with iregular openings. y a SUMMARY = - 253 should be equilateral, and quadrilateral elements should be parallelograms with equal sides, to achieve most accurate results. The method is now well established and documented [e.z,. 10.7. 10.8]. and may be used for practical structural analysis through general purpose programs. that are widely availabl Particular difficulties arise when using the technique for structures such as cous pled walls where relatively slender components stich as coupling beams are con- nected to relatively massive components such as shear walls. Although it is per- fectly acceptable to model the walls by rectangular membrane finite elements with two degrees of freedom at each node, il is inappropriate to use such elements for the connecting beams. The latter would require the use of high aspect ratio (length : depth) elements. which might lead to computational errors: in addition, 4 minimum of three elements would be required to model the double curvature form of bending in the connecting beams, which would increase considerubly the size of the structure stiffness matrix and cost of solution. It #s sufficiently accunule. and much more convenient. to model a beam by a standard line element. but in that case the node at the wall-beam junction would have to have three degrees of freedom associated with it (two translations and one rotation), It would not then be possible 10 ensure compatibility with the adjoining node of a plane stress cle= ‘ment with only two degrees of freedom (two translations). Some other device is then required to achieve proper compatibility between beams and walls, and this may be achieved in different ways, For example. it is possible to use special elements with an additional rotational degree of freedom at each node. Such special elements are still rarely available in general purpose programs. and they increase the number of degrees of freedom by 50%. although they avoid the necessity of horizontally long thin wall elements, A simpler alternative is 10 add a fictitious. flexurally rigid, auxiliary beam to the edge wall clement at the beam-wall junction. The fictitious beam must be connected to two adjacent wall nodes. either in the direction of, or normal f6, the beam, as shown in Fig. 5.17. This allows the rotation of the wall, as defined by the relative transverse displacements of the ends of the auxiliary beam. and the moment. to be transferred to the beam. A similar device may be used to connect a column to a wall if the structure is modeled by a combination of a frame and plane stress finite elements. Ifa large number of membrane elements are used to specify both beams and walls, as in the irregular structure of Fig. 10.24, the openings may always be modeled with reasonable accuracy by specifying very low values of the thickness of the clements in the openings to give stiffnesses that are negligible compared with those of the adjoining solid wall elements, SUMMARY The vertical interaction caused by the presence of connecting beams induces axial forces into a pair of coupled shear walls, The applied moments due to lateral forces are then resisted by a combination of moments in the walls and the couple arising. from the axial forces in the walls, The greater the stiffness of the connecting beams,254 COUPLED SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE the greater is the proportion of the applied moments resisted by axial forees in the walls. The behavior of the structure then lies between that of wo linked. walls and a pair of dowelled walls acting as a monolithic composite cantilever. The presence of the moment-resisting connecting beams causes an increased lateral stiffness and a reduction in the maximum wall stresses ‘An approximate theory is presented for uniform structures on the basis of a simplified model of the structure. in which the discrete set of connecting beams is, replaced by an equivalent continuous connecting medium. A characteristic differ- ential equation for either the wall axial force or the lateral deflection is derived. and general solutions obtained for-a uniformly distributed lateral loading. A sim- plified design method is suggested. in which the wall stresses are obtained as a superposition of two simpler stress systems based on individual and fully compos- ite cantilever actions of the structure. This technique is most suitable for uniform or quasiuniform structures under standard load systems. For other than uniform wall systems, the most practical and versatile method involves a matrix stiffness analysis of an equivalent wide-column frame model. The coupled walls are represented by a plane frame of line columns along the centroidal axes of the walls and coupling beams. the finite width of the walls being represented by stiff arms connecting the wall axes to the ends of the beams. The analysis may be carried out by a general purpose plane-frame computer program using either special rigid-ended beam elements, haunched beam elements. or: equivalent uniform elements for the connecting beams. In particular cases of very complex geometries that are dithcult to model by a grid of beams and columns, the alternative is to use a finite element analysis with the use of appropriate line or membrane elements for the structure considered. REFERENCES 10.1 Timoshenko. 8. P. and Gere. J. M. Mechanics of Materials. Chapter 6, Van Nos- trand Reinhold. New York, 1973 10.2 Coull, [Link] Choudhury. J. R. ““Stresses and Deflections in Coupled Shear Walls," J. ACT 64, 1967. 65-72. 10.3 Coull, A. and Mukherjee. P. R. “Coupled Sheur Walls with General Support Cone ditions,” Prac. of Conference om Tall Buildings. Kuala Lumpur. 1974. pp. 4.24~ 4.30. 10.4 McGuire, W. and Gallagher, R. H. Matrix Sivucrural Anatysis. John Wiley. NOW, York. 1979. 10.5 Coates, R. C.. Coutic, M. G., and Kong. F. K. Strwetural Anuiysis. 3rd ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold. London. 1988 10.6 MacLeod. 1. A. “Lateral Stiffness of Shear Walls with Openings.” In Tul! Buifde ings, Pergamon Press. Oxford, 1967, pp. 39244. 10.7 Gallagher, R. H. Finite Element Analysis Fundamentals. Pret 1. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 1975. 10.8 Zienkiewicz, ©, C, The Finite Element Method, 3rd cd. McGraw-Hill, New York. 197. MM CHAPTER 11 —————— eee Wall-Frame Structures A structure whose resistance 10 horizontal loading is provided by a combination of shear walls and rigid frames or, in the case of a steel structure, by braced bents and rigid frames. may be categorized as a wall-frame, The shear walls or braced bents are often parts of the elevator and service cores while the frames are arranged in plan, in conjunction with the walls, to support the floor system (Fig, 11.1). When a wall-frame structure is loaded laterally, the different free deflected forms of the walls and the frames cause them to interact horizontally through the floor slabs; consequently. the individual distributions of lateral loading on the wall and the frame may be very different from the distribution of the external loading. The horizontal imeraction can be effective in contributing to lateral stiffness to the ex- tent that wall-frames of up to 50 stories ar mare are economical. This chapter is concemed particularly with wall-frame structures that do not twist and, therefore. that can be analyzed as equivalent planar models. These are mainly plan-symmetric structures subjected to symmetric loading. Structures that are asymmetric about the axis of loading inevitably twist, Although the benefits from herizontal interaction between the walls and frames apply also to twisting structures, their consideration in a general way is extremely complex because the amount of interaction is highly dependent on the relative plan location of the bents, Two examples of symmetric wall-frame arrangements are shown in plan in Fig. [12a and b, and an asymmetric structure is shown in Fig. 11.2c. In Fig. 11.20 the horizontal resistance is provided by walls and frames in parallel bents, which are constrained to deflect identically by the inplane rigidity of the floor slabs and, therefore, interact horizontally through shearing actions in the slabs. In Fig. 11.2b, each of the parallel bents consists of a wall and a frame in the same plane. In this case, the wall and frame ina planar bent interact horizontally through axial forces. in the connecting beams or slabs. The potential advantages of a wall-frame structure depend on the amount of horizontal interaction, which is governed by the relative stiffnesses of the walls and frames, and the height of the structure. The taller the building and, in typically Proportioned structures, the stiffer the frames, the greater the interaction. It used to be common practice in the design of high-rise structures to assume that the shear walls OF cores resisted all the lateral loading, and to design the frames for gravity loading only. Although this assum would have incurred little error far build= ings of fess than 20 stories with flexible frames. it is possible that in many cases 255_-—— Hlevator and service core Ae Shear walls 7 AX SN ZENS NMA Vv. SAAS RAS Fig. 11.1 Representative wall-frame structure. Fig. 11.2 (a) Plan-symmetric wall—frame structure: walls and frames in parallel bents: (b) plan symmetric wall-frame structure: walls and franies in same benis: (c) plan-usymumetric wall-frame structure 11.1 BEHAVIOR OF SYMMETRIC WALL-FRAMES — 257 Where the frames were stiff and the buildings taller, opponunities were missed to design more rational and economical structures. ‘The principal advantages of accounting for the horizontal imeraction in design- ing a wall-frame structure are as follows: |, The estimated drift may be significantly less than if the walls alone were considered to resist the horizontal leading. ‘The estimated bending moments in the walls or cores will be less than if they Were considered to act alone. 3. The columns of the frames may be designed as fully braced 4. The estimated shear in the frames. in many cases. may be approximately uniform through the height; « the floor framing may be de- signed and constructed on a repetitive basis, with obvious economy w 11.1 BEHAVIOR OF SYMMETRIC WALL-FRAMES Considering the separate horizontal stiffnesses at the tops of a typical 10-story levator core and a typical rigid frame of the same height. the core might be 10 or more times as stiff'as the frame. If the same core and frame were extended to a height of 20 stories, the core would then be only approximately three times as stiff as the frame. At 50 stories the con would have reduced to being only half as stiff as the frame. This change in the relative top stiffness with the total height occurs because the top flexibility of the core. which behaves. as a flexural cantilever, is proportional to the cube of the height, whereas the flexibility of the frame, which behaves as a shear cantilever, is directly proportional to its height. Consequently, height is a major factor in determining the influence of the frame on the lateral stiffness of the wall-frame. A fumther understanding of the interaction between the wall and the frame in a wall-frame structure is given by the deflected shapes of a shear wall and a rigid frame subjected separately to horizontal loading. as shown in Fig. 13a and b. The wall deflects in a flexural mode with concavity downwind and a maximum. slope at the top, while the frame deflects in a shear mode with concavity upwind and a maximum slope at the base, When the wall and frame are connected together by pin-ended links and subjected to horizontal loading, the deflected shape of the composite structure has a flexural profile in the lower part and a shear profile in the upper part (Fig. 11,3c), Axial forces in the connecting links cause the wall to restrain the frame near the base and the frames to restrain the wall at the top. Ilustrations of the effects of wall-frame interaction are given by the curves for deflection, moments, and shears for a typical wall-frame structure, as shown in Fig, 11.42, b, and c. The deflection curve (Fig, 11.4a) and the wall moment curve (Fig. 11.4b) indicate the reversal in curvature with a point of inflexion, above Which the wall moment is opposite in sense to that in a free cantilever. Figure '1.4¢ shows the shear as approximately uniform over the height of the frame, except near the base where it reduces to a negligible amount. At the top, where259 “aInionny sureaj-jpem Jo studucd 258260 © WALL-FRAME STRUCTURES the external shear is zero, the frame is subjected to a significant positive shear. which is balanced by an equal negative shear at the top of the wall. with a corre- sponding concentrated interaction force acting between the frame and the wall, Special consideration may have to be given in the design to transferring this inter- action force through the top connecting slab or beam. 41.2. APPROXIMATE THEORY FOR WALL-FRAMES Early analytical studies of wall-frame structures [11.1, 11.2] indicated the mode Of interaction between the wall and frame and its potential for stiffening the struc= ture. The analytical treatment of nontwisting wall-frames, given here, allows: a broad | overview of their behavior and, simultaneously, gives a good qualitative and quan titative understanding of the relative influence of the wall and the frame. It also! provides a rapid approximate hand method of analysis that is useful in the prelims inary design of wall-frames (11.3. 11.4]. 41.2.1 Derivation of the Governing Differential Equation The planar wall-frame in Fig. [Link] may be taken (0 represent either a structui with walls and frames interacting in the same plane. or one with walls au fra in parallel planes, Since, in a nontwisting structure. parallel walls and fram translate identically, they may be simulated by a planar linked model. The analytical solution requires the structure to be represented by a unifor continuous model (Fig. 11.5b), with all components deflecting identically. following assumptions are adopted to achieve this: 1, The properties of the wall and the frame members do not change over i height 2. The wall may be represenied by a flexural cantilever, that is, one whicl deforms in bending only 3. The fame may be represented by a continuous shear cantilever. which forms in shear only. This implics that the frame deflects only by reve bending of the columns and girders, and that the columns are axially rigid. 4. The connecting members may be represented by a horizontally rigid cot necting medium that transmits horizomal forces only and that causes fiexural and shear cantilevers to deflect identically Considering the wall and frame separately, as in Fig [Link]. wand q are, (= spectively, the distributed extemal loading and the distributed internal interactive force, whose intensities vary with height, Qy is a horizontal concentrated foree that, as will be demonstrated later, acts between the top of the wall and the frame. ‘The differential equation for shear in the flexural member is agus paangiqsig Z Z (b) continuum at frame structu Fig. 11.5 (a) Planar wall. free body diagrams for wall and frame262 © WALL-FRAME STRUCTURES: = [fete - atailee ~ 2 ue (Ga) > d: in which the parameter (Ga) represents the story-height averaged shear Faia a it Sn ‘as though it were a shear member with an effective shear = Sa Shear modulus G. Note that G is not the shear modulus of the frame ma A the area of its members. ; iforentating and surnming Eqs. (11.1) and (11.2) gives or in which - A Equation (11.4) is the characteristic differential equation for the deflection of wall-frame. 44.2.2 Solution for Uniformly Distributed Loading ‘The solution of Eq. (11.4) far uniformly distributed extemal loading » can written as we =O) + Gz + Cy coshaz + Cy sinh az — er The boundary conditions for the solution of constants C\ to C, are I, fixity at the base 9(0) = (0) =0 (1.4) (14) (Cy 11.2 APPROXIMATE THEORY FOR WALL-FRAMES 263 2. zero moment at the top of the flexural cantilever MAH) = Els 70 (11.8) and (11.2) 3. zero resultant shear at the top of the structure dy dy Es (H) ~ (Ga) 7 (#) =0 (11.9) Equations (11.7), (11.8). and (11.9) are used to determine C, to C, to give the deflection equation: (11.3) wi (1 | (aff sinh af + 1) # “EH (aul coshat ~~ (eos az ~ 1) Ue ) ~ an conac ton |g -2(3) tm Eq. (11.10), the expression within the braces controls the shape of the de- fection curve while the term w#!*/E/ before the braces governs its magnitude. The deflected shape is a function of the dimensionless parameter &H. which rep resents the structural propertics of the wall—frame where (Ga Ais bj a are (Ut) cH characterizes the behavior of wall-frames so that. applied loading, wall-frame structures with the same value of aH have similar deflection profiles and similar distributions of internal forces, The first derivative of Eq. (11.10) is for similar distributions of dy) w(t | (ced sinh a + 1) an a6 Ep | al) En lieny | ech? ~aHtcosh az + at (1 =a) Because the slope of a structure varies gradually with height, ly /ds may be taken ‘o represent the story drift index. that is the story drift divided by the story height, (LT ‘The second and third derivatives of Eq. (11.10) are (sinh az) (11.12)264 © WALL-FRAME STRUCTURES (eet sinh FH * 1) (cosy ere) — aM sinh az — 1 i} cosh a (11.13) (aH sh att + 0 42) ~ att cod o:|} cosh aH (14) i i 1 and shear distributions II be used in determining the bending moment r n . eet aun (11.12), (11.13), and (11.14) are similar to Eq a that each comprises an expression in terms of a## and 2/H. controling e bution of the function, preceded by a term that governs its magnitude 41.2.3 Forces in the Wall and Frame Wall and Frame Moments. The wall behaves as a flexural cantilever, therefore, its bending morient is given by M,(z) = where suffix b refers to the wall. Substituting from Eq. (11.13) for the case uniformly distributed loading, the wall moment is sf | et int ot coh a) ic) = wit [A | ee oot = all sinh ae ~ i} ( The moment carried by the frame at any level is equal to the oa Ge minus the wall moment at that level; therefore, the moment carris ame ‘is given by w(t - 2) M,(2) = = Mad) ay) is obtained from Eq. (11.16). where the suffix s refers to the frame and M,(z Wall and Frame Shears. The shear force in the wall is given by dy). 18 Oy() = EF TH (e (ig 11.2 APPROXIMATE THEORY FOR WALL-FRAMES 265 Substituting from Eq. (11.14) gives Or(2) = { 1 | (aM sinh aH + 1) (aH) cosh aH (sinh az) — cel! cosh cz I} (11.49) The shear carried by the frame at any level is equal to the external shear minus the wall shear at that level: therefore, the shear in the frame is given by Q(z) = w(H = 2) - Q(z) (11.20) where Q,(2) is obtained from Eq. (11.19). Concentrated Interaction Force Qy at the Top. The horizontal concen trated interaction force Q, that acts between the wall and the frame at the top of the structure can be explained from the fact that the slope dy /de(H!) at the top of the structure must have an associated shear at the top of the frame with a value dy Q.(H) = (GA) = (H) (21) But. because the total external shear at the top is zero, the shear in the frame can be equilibrated only by a reverse shear in the wall equal to Qntt) = ~e1 SF (1) (11.22) ‘This horizontal interaction between the top of the frame and the wall causing their respective shear forces is the force Quy. Equations (11.10) through (11.22) allow the derivation of the displacements, moments, and shears in the wall and frame of a uniform wall-frame structure Subjected to uniformly distributed loading. The wall forces are adequate for the wall’s design, whereas the frame forces, which are extemal to the frame, should be used in a separate analysis to determine the forces in the members of the frame, ‘The frame member forces could be analyzed approximately by using the derived frame shears and the portal method or, for taller frames, by using the frame mo- ments and the cantilever method (cf. Chapter 7), ‘The continuum representation of a multistory structure is acceptably accurate for structures of 10 stories or more. If, however, the frames are very tall and slender, axial deformations of the columns become significant and the method tends to underestimate the deflections. Shear in the First Story of the Frame. The assumption in the analysis of zero inclination at the base of the structure, that is dv/dz = 0, implies that. at the base, the wall resists all the shear while the frame curries noi, In an actual struc.266 © WALL-FRAME STRUCTURES ture this is not realistic because the first floor is displaced. therefore the first story columns must be subjected to shear. Although the frame base shear is usually not large, itis useful to be able to estimate its magnitude. This can be determined from the first floor displacement ¥( 1}. as obtained from Eq. (11.10) substituted into a rearrangement of the formulas relating the first story shear and displacement of a rigid frame. given in Chapter 7 [Egs, (7.20) and (7.21)] If the base connections are rigid. the shear in the first story of the rigid frame may be estimaied by of, if the base connections are hinged RE Gl) =e — ary ms Gt aa) in which C, = E¢/,/4)) for the columns in the first story and G, = DCJ, /L) fe the girder spans in the first floor. 4, and Jy are the inertias of the columns sirders. respectively. hy is the first story height, and L is the girder span, yet) (11.24) 11.2.4 Solutions for Alternative Loadings “The above solutions relate 10 wall-frames subjected to uniformly distributed | ing. Solutions for other types of loading distributions follow a similar procedu ‘The displacement equation and its derivatives for a top concentrated load and triangularly distributed loading are summarized with those for the uniformly tributed loading in Appendix 2. These additional loading cases, and their nation with uniformly distributed loading, are useful for representing gradi ‘wind loading and equivalent static earthquake loading. 11.2.5 Determination of Shear Rigidity (GA) In the parameter oH, as defined by Eq. (11.11), the term (GA) represents shear or racking rigidity of a rigid frame averaged over a story height. This defined as the shear force to cause unit horizontal displacement. per unit hei Referring to Fig. 11.6 (oa) = 2 (1125 11.2 APPROXIMATE THEORY FOR WALL-FRAMES = 267° Sheor 0 Fig. 11.6 Typical story of rigid frame subjected to shear. which has been shown in i aa ection 7.4.3 to be given for a typical story of a rigid 12E I I (est (5 +z) where G = E/,/L for the girders across one floor level of a bent. and C= Di, /h for the columns in one story of the bent. . Coals: (11.26) Rigid Frame and Wall Connected by Beams. {1 is common in reinforced concrete structures 10 connect a rigid frame in plane with a wall or a core by beams, as shown in Fig. 11.7a. The wide column effect of the wall may interact severely. ie the frame to cause a significant increase in the racking shear rigidity of the mt a is shear rigidity of the composite bent can be estimated approximately by nsidering it in two parts, as in Fig. 11.7b, and s i sir rigidici oan ig. and summing their rigidities. (GA) (GA), can be taken as half the value of (GA) fora coupled wall structure con- sisting of two similar walls, wit i a jar walls, with centroidal axes spaced at 2(a + aL) [11.5]. 2 2 (64), = AE a (11.27) in which « is given for the majority of practical structures by form = 1 a = 0.566 + 0,024 In(m) + 0.04248 and, form > 1 a = 0.55 In(B) + 0.635 (11,28) where a= a/b, and 8 = EI, /E,268 — WALL-FRAWE STRUCTURES Shear wal) | conmactng Rigid frane Fig. 11.7 (2) Story of planar wall-frame structure with connecting beams: (b) equival substructures of beam-connected wall-frame Stnucture. (GA), is given for the frame by Eq. (11.26), where the term G includes a term account for the mth ginder of length (1 — a )Lm- 11.3 ANALYSIS BY THE USE OF GRAPHS Equations (11.10) for deflection, (11,12) for story drift index, 16) i moment, and (11.19) for wall shear must be evaluated for use fs ses consists of 2 distribution expression that depends on the dimension ss pa aH and z/H, and a magnitude term that accounts for the loading, the heigl the flexural rigidity of the particular structure, Equation (11,10) for deflection can be rewritten as wf 8 {stam al = (cosh az — 1) (alt) cosh aH x) = Sep ~ aft sinh az + (at)? ( or vf) = EE kicatt fH) ‘11a ANALYSIS BY THE USEOF GRAPHS = 269. where &;. which represents the distribution expression in the braces, is a function of only aH and z/H. noting that az is the product of the wa, ‘As before. the expression within the braces controls the distribution of deflec= tion for different values of the parameter «7 of the wall-frame, while the term im front of the braces governs the magnitude of the distribution. Now, however, the term wA"/8E/ represents the top deflection as though the wall alone resisted the loading. that is for the ease of (GA) (and hence aH ) equal to zero, The Variation of Ky over the height for afl = 0, therefore. describes the deflection of a purely: flexural cantilever. and has 2 maximum value at the top equal to unity. The dif. ference in deflections between the curve for aH = 0, and one for a wall-frame sttucture of a certain value of af, represents the stiffening effect contributed by the frame and its interaction with the wall. The stiffer the frame. the greater the interaction and the greater the reduction in deflection. The curves of K, for oH = 2.0 and @H = 0 are shown in Fig, 11.89, The former represents the deficcted shape for a well-propontioned, uniform wall-frame structure with an approximately uniform slope, and an approximately uniform shear in the frame, over most of the height. Similar normalized expressions for story drift index. wall moment. and wall shear ean be developed by rewriting Eqs. (11.12). (11-16), and (11-19) and assigning coefficients 2, Ky, and Ay, respsc> tively. to represent the distribution expressions, thus lie Story drift index tai Relat 2/H) (11.31) Wall bending moment My(z) =" kycatt, fH) (11a) Wall shear Oz WHK (aH. 2/H) (11.33) In each of Eqs. (11.31), (11.32), and (11.33), as in Eq. (11.30), the parameter K describes the distribution of the corresponding action over the height of the structure, as a function of aH, while the preceding term represents the maximum value of the action in the wall as if it were considered’ to act alone in carrying the loading. Consequently, the maximum values of Ky to Ky are all, as for Ky, unity, Representative curves of K3, Ks, and K, for wall-frames with adf = 2,0 and aff = 0 are given in Fig. 11.84 and b. The Ky diagram (Fig. 11.8b) for the wall moment in a structure with «Af = 2 indicates the point of contraflexure with a Feverse moment in the upper region of the wall. The moment carried by the frame ats particular level may also be obtained from the graph of Ky. by subtracting K;, {or the considered structure from Ky for aH = 0, which represents the total ex. temal moment at the same level, and using the resulting difference of Ky in Eq, (11.32), Similarly. the frame shear at a particular level may be obtained from Fig. {1.8b by subtracting K; for the considered structure from K, for wf = 0, which represents the total external shear at that level, and using the resulting difference of K, in Eq. (11.33)270 WALL-FAAME STRUCTURES ——k, factor aK, factor 2 {ONE be OS Oe OF 06 OT OF 05 1.0 Valves of Ky ond & for ail=2.0-and 0.0 ta) — fy Factor Ky factor on SE 0 2 08 06 08 1.0 Values of &; ond ky for aH=2.0 and 0.0 (oy Fig. 11.8 (a) Representative curves for coefficients X, und Ky: (b) representative curves for coefficients K, and Ke Complete sets of curves for K, to Ky, and their formulas, are given for uni- formly distributed, triangularly distributed. and concentrated top loading in Ap- pendix 2. These curves may also be used for the analysis of cores subjected to torsion, as explained in Chapter 13. 114 WORKED EXAMPLE TO ILLUSTRATE APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS 271 11.4 WORKED EXAMPLE TO ILLUSTRATE APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS. The theory and graphs develaped in the preceding sections provide a practical method for the preliminary analysis of wall-frames. They should be used only for structures that do not twist and they are accurate only for structures with uniform properties over the height; however, they may serve additionally as a useful guide to the forces in nonuniform structures. The following outline procedure for an approximate analysis is illustrated by referring to an example of a nontwisting structure consisting of a central core and frames. The plan of the structure in Fig. 11.9 is of a 35-story. 122.5 m-high, wall- frame structure, The horizontal resistance to wind acting on its long side is pro- vided by six rigid frame bents and a central core. It is required to determine deficetions. maximum story drift, and forces in the core and frames for a wind loading of 1.5 kN./m?. given the structural date in the figure ‘The required procedures are first described and then illustrated numerically for the considered structure. Axis of sym -=¢C) Ants of antasyn oe 2.5m Inverse: Exterior Celuan Colusn Fraze type 1 0.083 wt 0.030 Core Inertia 33 at Elastic modulus Bo: 2.0 x 107 kit/at Vine pressure 21S ki/nt Fig. 11.9 Plan of 35-story wall-frame example structure272 = WALL-FRAME STRUCTURES Step 1. Determine Parameter aH a. Add the flexural rigidities Ef of all walls and cores to give the total (EP), In this case there is only a core For the core =f = 313 m* Therefore (E/}, = 2.0 x 107 x 313 = 6.26 x 10" kN b. Evaluate the shear rigidities (GA) of the rigid frame bents and any wall~ frame berss. using Eqs. (11.26). (11.27), and (11.28). and sum them to give the total (G4),. In this case there are only the former. The shear rigidities (GA) of the two types of frame in Fig. 11.9 are obtained by using the expression 12E (Ga) (11.26) if For frame Type 1: 12% 2.0 x 107 (64) = A eee (3 x 0.011) | gf HE + 0.050)] spe ey ae = 2.85 x 10° KN For frame Type 2: (Ga) = = 132 x 10° KN Total (GA), = E(GA) = (4 x 2.85 + 2 x 1,32) x 10° Therefore (GA), = 4.04 x 10° kN ¢. Use the values obtained in Items a and b to evaluate aff, using (Ga), = jt Va oH =H (EN, (ny For the given structure 14,04 x 10° a = 1225 toe" 114 WORKED EXAMPLE TO ILLUSTRATE APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS. 273, Therefore aH = 1,83 An analysis for uniformly distributed loading is then made as follows: Step 2. Determine Horizontal Displacements The displacement at height z from the base is obtained by substituting of and 2/H in Eq. (11.10) or, alternatively. by taking the value of &, corresponding to the obtained values of @M and 2/H from Fig. A2.1 and substituting it in the expression wel ME) = gig Kila. 3/41) (11.30) For the given structure. the wind loading per unit height w= 1.5 X 60 = 90KN/m At the top /H=10 and Ky = 0.44 then, substituting these values in Eq. (11.30). the top displacement is obtained as 8 x 6.26 x 10° = 0.178 m Displacement at other levels have been found similarly and are plotted in Fig. 11.108, Step 3. Determine Maximum Story Drift Index The maximum story drift index is obtained by referring to Fig. A2.2. and scan= hing the appropriate «Hf curve to find the maximum value of K>. which is then substituted in (1.31) For the given structure, Ky(max) = 0.41 at an approxi Therefore, the maximum story dei index is obtained as JH = 0.55,solution Approx, — Commuter 0.2} fe== 274 Shear (Nx 10") c Moment (kW. 10°) fe) shears i pens in ex: tb) le structure: by ime = Deftection tm) () 114 WORKED EXAMPLE TO ILLUSTRATE APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS = 275. sy ee 5) 0.41 foe 6 6.26 = 10" = 0.0018 oF 1/555 Step 4. Determine Bending Moments in the Wall and Frame a, The total moment carried by the walls is obtained cither by substituting a Mf and z/HA in Eq, (11,16), of by taking the appropriate value of Ky from Fig. [Link] substituting in M,(z K,(a@H, 2/H) (11.32) 2 For example. at the mid-ninth story level (2 = 29.95 m. =/H = 0.243) of the structure considered. 4, = 0.25. Therefore. the moment in the core iy obtained as = 1.69 ¥ 10° kNm For a structure consisting of multiple walls, the moment in any individual wall is then obtained by distributing the total wall moment between the walls in proportion to their flexural rigidities. The total moment in the set of frames at a level = from the base. as expressed. in Eq. (11.17), is equal to the difference between the total exicmnal moment and the total moment in the walls at that level. (iy) At the same mid-ninth story level of the given structure, as in Item dat, the moment carried by the frames is obtained as 22.5 — 2 ip UES BY 5 29-75)" 1 69 5 10° kNm = 2.18 x 10° kNm ‘The moment in the individual frames is obtained by distributing the total frame moment between the frames in proportion (o their shearing rigidities, Therefore. the moment in frame Type |278 © WALL-FAAME STRUCTURES 85 x 10° < Ae ‘ TOT Te * 218% 10° km = 4.43 x 10) kN and, the moment in frame Type 2 32x 10° 04 x 10° 2.05 = 104 kNm = * 2.18 x 10° kNm The bending moments at other levels of the structure have been found sim ilarly and are plotted in Fig. 11.10b. Step 5. Determine Shear Forces in Wall and Frame a. The total shear in the walls at a level z from the base may be obtained by. substituting ofl and 2/H in Eq, (11.19) or by taking the value of K, from, Fig. A2.4 and substituting in Eq. (11,33). Q(z) = wHK, (oH, z/H) (1,33) For example. at the mid-eighteenth story level (z = 61.25 m, 2/H = 0.5) of the structure considered, Ky = 0.27. Therefore, the shear in the core is obtained: as OQ, = 90 x 122.5 « 0.27 = 2.98 * 10° kN Fora structure consisting of multiple walls, the shear force in the individual walls is then obtained by distributing the total shear between the walls i Proportion to their flexural rigidities. b. The total shear in the frames at a height z is the difference between the external shear and the total wall shear at that level, as determined above: Oz) = w(t — z) — Q,(z) (11.20), At the same mid-eighteenth story level of the given structure. as in Item Sa, the shear carried by the frames is obtained as 90(122.5 — 61.25) — 2.98 x 10° = 2.53 x 10° kN 11.8 COMPUTER ANALYSIS 277 The shear in the individual frames is given by distributing the total frame shear between the frames in proportion to their sheuring rigidities. Therefore, the shear in frame Type _ 2.85% 10° ~ 14.08 x 10" = S14kN x 2.53 % 10° kNm and. the shear in frame Type 2 1.32 x_10* = gt HSE OP KN 14.04 = 10° * yn 238 kN. ‘The values of shear at other levels of the structure have been found similarly and are [Link] Fig. 11.10c 11.5 COMPUTER ANALYSIS The approximate method of analysis is valuable in pro iding an understanding of 4 wall-frame's behavior and in allowing the initial sizing of members as part of the preliminary design process, It does not allow, however, for changes of prop: erties within the height of the structure or for the effects of axial deformations of ‘the columns that in a tall slender frame could be significant. Therefore, a computer analysis, using one of the widely available structural analysis programs, should be ised for the final design, Modeling the wall-frame structure for a computer analysis will follow the prin- ciples outlined in Chapter 5. If the structure is symmetric on plan and subjected to symmetric loading, so that it does not twist. a planar model of only one-half of the structure subjected to one-half of the loading need be considered. Shear walls and shear-wall cores are represented by simple column cantilevers with corte» sponding moments of inertia, while the frames are represented by equivalent as- semblies of beam elements. In the planar model the cantilever columns and frames are constrained at each floor level by the analysis program's nodal constraint op- tion, if available, or connected by axially rigid links. to cause equal horizontal displacements of the bents. as imposed on the structure by the inplane rigidity of the floor slabs. The horizontal loads may be applied to the nodes of any convenient column or frame. The wall-frame structure analyzed approximately in Section 11.4, and shown in plan in Fig. 11.9, can be modeled for a qwo-dimensional computer analysis as in Fig. 11.1la. One-half of the structure is used for the model and, because the ‘Type | frames are identical, they are lumped into.a single frame with members of twice the sectional properties. The double-symmetry af the stnicture’s plan, about278 = WALL-FRAME STRUCTURES Rigid Vinks 2xFrame | Frane 2 Hol Facore. eer ee ae Oe cen 4 Enhot £ Ltbay Het y/ Quarter, y Sliding hinges representerg —l conditions at aeis of @) symmetry Fig. 11.11 (a) Half-structure planar model for computer analysis: tb) quarter-structure: planar model for computer analysis. axes perpendicular to and along the axis of loading, allow it to be analyzed asa quanter-plan structure. Constraints have to be applied to the cut ends of beams to represent the conditions on the axis of antisymmetrical behavior, as in Fig. 11.11b. ‘The results forthe deflections, moments, and shears from the computer stiffness matrix analysis are compared with the results of the approximate analysis in Fig. 11.10a, b, and.c. The discrepancy between the two methods for the deffections in the upper regions (Fig. 11. 10a) is attributable to axial deformations in the columns of the frame, which are not considered in the approximate solution. The close comparison of the results of the shears and moments from these two methods is typical for uniform structures. A comparison of results from the two methods for 11.6 COMMENTS ON THE DESIGN OF WALL-FRAME STRUCTURES 279 a nonuniform structure. however, would probubly show significant errors in those from the approximate method. especially in the forces around the change levels, where severe local interactions occur. 11.6 COMMENTS ON THE DESIGN OF WALL-FRAME STRUCTURES A wall-frame high-rise structure typically consists of the walls and frames that evolve from the architectural plan of the building. The initial member sizes are usually determined from the gravity loading with some arbitrary increase to allow for the effects of horizontal loading. The benefit of accounting for the wall-frame interaction in the lateral load analysis, as opposed (o assuming that the walls carry all the lateral loading, is that it recognizes the increased lateral stiffness due to the Interaction. and allows the wall and frame members to be designed more correctly and economically 11.6.1 Optimum Structure Occasions may arise in very tall wall—frame structures when it is desirable to pro= portion the wall and frame components so as te optimize the desirable effeet of the ‘wall-frame interaction. Such an optimization would aim not only to achieve sig- nificant reductions in the deflections and the wall moments, bul also to cause a approximately uniform distribution of shear over the height of the frame. This ‘would then permit the repetitive design and construction of the floor framing, To achieve such a well-proportioned uniform wall-frame structure, the come bination of walls and cores should be sized in the preliminary siage of design so that when carrying their attributable gravity loading, together with two-thirds of the total horizontal loading. the tensile stresses in the walls and cores due to hor= izontal loading are suppressed. ‘The system of walls and cores should then be checked for drift. If, when subs jected to the total horizental loading, the maximum total drift or story drift of the walls and cores exceeds twice the allowable value. they should be stiffened to reduce the drift to that value. Adjustments of size in the lower region of the walls and cores are the most effective. The resulting walls and cores should then be combined with the “gravity load designed” framing to assess the drift, and the wall and frame forces, of the whole Structure subjected to the total horizontal loading. Any required additional stiff. ening should again be made by increasing the wall and core sizes in the lower region. A uniform wall-frame structure in which the set of walls and cores acting on its own deflects approximately twice as much as the combined wall-frame should carry an approximately uniform shear in the frame 11.6.2 Curtalled or Interrupted Shear Walls is common in the design of practical wall-frame structures to reduce the size, ‘oF omit completely, the shear walls and cores in the upper parts of the building,278 = WALL-*RAME STRUCTURES: Rigid Hinks Hat Fecore. relf esta toading Prgie Tinks loading teehee Sitding hinges representing —) conditiens at arty of ant) -symmetry (b> Fig. 11.11 (a) Half-structure planar model for computer analysis: (b) quarter-structure planar model for computer analysis. ‘axes perpendicular to and along the axis of loading, allow it to be analyzed as a quarter-plan structure. Constraints have to be applied to the cut ends of beams to represent the conditions on the axis of antisymmetrical behavior, as in Fig. | ia Ib, The results for the deflections, moments, and shears from the computer stiffness matrix analysis are compared with the results of the approximate analysis in Fig. 11.10a, b, anc c, The discrepancy between the two methods. for the deflections in. the upper regions (Fig. 11.10a) is attributable to axial deformations in the columns of the frame, which are not considered in the approximate solution. The close comparison of the results of the shears and moments from these two methods is typical for uniform structures. A comparison of results from the two methods for 11.6 COMMENTS ON THE DESIGN OF WALL-FRAME STRUCTURES 279 a nonuniform structure, however. would probably show significant errors in those from the approximate method. especially in the forces around the change levels, where severe local interactions occur, 11.6 COMMENTS ON THE DESIGN OF WALL-FRAME STRUCTURES A wall-frame high-rise structure typically consists of the walls and frames that evolve from the architectural plan of the building. The initial member sizes are usually determined from the gravity loading with some arbitrary increase to allow for the effects of horizontal loading. The benefit of accounting for the wall-frame interaction in the lateral load analysis. as opposed to assuming that the walls camy all the lateral loading, is that it recognizes the increased lateral stiffness due to the interaction. and allows the wall and frame members to be designed more correctly and economically: 11.6.1 Optimum Structure Occasions may arise in very tall wall-frame structures when it is desirable to pros Portion the wall and frame components 50 as to optimize the desirable effect of the wall-trame interaction, Such an optimization would aim not only to achieve sig- nificant reductions in the deflections and the wall moments, but also to cause an Approximately uniform distribution of shear over the height of the frame, ‘This ‘would then permit the repetitive design and construction of the floor framing, To achieve such a well-proportioned uniform wall-frame structure, the com= bination of walls and cores should be sized in the preliminary stage of design so that when carrying their attributable gravity loading. together with two-thirds of the total horizontal loading. the tensile stresses in the walls and cores due to hor- izontal loading are suppressed. The system of walls and cores should then be checked for drift. If, when sub- jected to the tota! horizontal loading, the maximum total drift or story drift of the Walls and cores exceeds twice the allowable value. they should be stiffened to reduce the drift to that value. Adjustments of size in the lower region of the walls and cores are the most effective. The resulting walls and cores should then be combined with the “gravity load designed’ framing to assess the drift, and the wall and frame forces. of the whole Structure subjected to the total horizontal loading, Any required additional stiff- ‘ening should again be made by increasing the wall and core sizes in the lower region. 4 uniform wall-frame structure in which the set of walls and cores acting on its own deflects approximately twice as much as the combined wall-frame should carry an approximately uniform shear in the frame. 11.6.2 Curtalled or Interrupted Shear Walls tis common in the design of practical wall-frame structures to reduce the size, or omit completely, the shear walls and cores in the upper parts of the building,280 © WALL-FRAME STRUCTURES: where fewere evator shafts are required. The question of how this curtailment will affect the stiffness of the building can be answered by considering the behavior of the wall-frame structure with full-height shear walls or cores. An analysis of the “full-height™" wall-frame structure shows that in the lower region of the structure the wall and frame both contribute to resisting the extemal moment and shear. In the upper region above the point of inflexion. where d7y/dz? = 0. however. the moment in the wall is reversed 10 be of the same sense as the extemal moment: consequently. the moment in the frame exceeds the external moment. Further. in the uppermost region above the level where d*y/d=" = 0, the shear in tke wall is also: reversed, and so the shear in the frame exceeds the extemal shear, Consequently. if the wall is reduced or eliminated above the point of contraffexure, the moment on the upper part of the frame is reduced. and if the wall is reducec or eliminated above the level where ¢*v/dz' = 0, both the moment and the shear in the frame are reduced. In both cases the reduction ar curtailment has little effect on the top deffection, and it may even lead to a slight reduction in deflection. A practical approach to @ curtailed-wall design. therefore, would be to first analyze the structure with the walls and cores that are to be reduced or curtailed! included to the full height. without the proposed reduction or curtailment, and use the results to plot the deflection diagram and estimate the location of the point of inflexion. It would then be allowable to reduce or cumtail the walls and cores at any level above the point of inflexion without causing a reduction in the lateral, stiffness of the structure. If it is intended to omit the walls or cores within one or more stories at an. intermediate level. to provide for a ‘'sky-lobby" or transition in the building, it may be deduced from the above explanation that this is permissible without any reduction in lateral stiffness. providing the omission occurs at a evel above where the point of inflexion would be in the fully continuous structure. An analysis and design procedure similar to that suggested for the curtailed wall=frame structure would therefore be appropriate, 11.6.3 Increased Concentrated Interaction A study of the wall-frame interaction, and especially of the concentrated interac tion force Q,, at the top, leads to the notion that further stiffening of the structure: could be achieved by increasing the magnitude of the top interaction force. Referring te Eq. (11.21) gives the value of the force as Oy = (GA) (11.21) that is, a function of the racking rigidity (GA) of the frame and the slope of the structure, The interaction force could be increased simply by increasing the racking rigidity of the story of the frame adjacent to the top of the wall, whether in ~ full- height" or “*curtailed-wall’” wall-frame structures, The increase in racking. ri- suMMaRy = 2B1 gidity could be achieved in practice by increasing the inertias of the beams and columns in the story of the frame adjacent to the top of the wall. or by introducing @ concrete diaphragm into the frame in that story to give a very large increase in the racking rigidity. Sidies have shown that in wall-frame structures that are predominantly shear walls. reductions in the top deflections of up to 30% can be achieved, In such cases, particular attention must be given to designing the frames, and the members connecting the walls to the frames. for the locally high forces associated with the interaction. ‘SUMMARY © The horizontal interaction berween the walls and frames in a wall-frame structure causes an increased lateral stiffness of the structure. reduced moments in the walls, and, in a uniform structure. an approximately uniform shear in the frame, The benefits of interaction increase with height so that wall-frames are economical for buildings of up to 50 stories or more. The wall-frame horizontal interaction occurs because the different free-de- flected shapes of the wall and the frame are made to conform to the same confi uration by the axially stiff connecting girders and slabs. An approximate theory is presented for nontwisting uniform wall-frames on the basis of a continuum model of the structure, with a flexural cantilever representing the walls, a shear cantilever representing the frames, and a horizontally stiff con- tinuous linking medium representing the slabs and girders. A characteristic differ- ential equation for deflection is written in terms of the two structural parameters of the wall-frame. This has been solved for three typical types of loading to obtain general formulas for the deflections, the story-drift, the shears, and moments on the walls and frames. Design curves are also developed that allow rapid estimates of the deflections and forces. The solutions by both formulas and graphs give close estimates of the deflections and forces in nontwisting uniform wall-frames of 10 stories or more, and approximate estimates of the forces in nontwisting, nonuni- form wall-frames, which may be used as guidelines for their preliminary design. An accurate estimate of the deflections and forces in nonuniform or in twisting wall-frame structures requires a computer analysis ‘The extent of the benefit that can be obtained from wall-frame imeraetion de- pends on the relative stiffnesses of the walls and frames and the height of the structure. In a Very tall structure with a repetitive floor plan arrangement. an op- imum proportioning of the wall and frame would be one that results in a practi- cally uniform shear within each height region of the frame. If the shear walls in a wall-frame structure are reduced or eliminated above a certain level, orthe shear walls are omitted for one or two stories at an intermextiate level, the lateral stiffness of the structure will be effectively not less than that of the corresponding fully continuous full-height structure, provided the changes are located above the point of inflection of the ‘fully continuous’ structure,282 WALL-FRAME STRUCTURES REFERENCES ta 2 HS Rosenblueth, E. and Holtz, 1. “Elastic Analysis of Shear Walls in Tall Buildings.” ACIS, 56612). June 1960, 1209-1 Khas, F.R. and Sbarounis, J. “Interaction of Shear Wallsand Frames."" J. Serucis Div., Proc. ASCE 90, ST3, June 1964. 285-335. Heidebrecht, A.C. and Stafford Smith. B. “Approximate Analysis of Tall Walle Frame Structures.”" J. Struct. Div.. Proc, ASCE 99, ST2. Febuary 1973, 199-221, Rosman, R. “Laterally Loaded Systems Consisting of Walls and Frames.” Prot: Stmpasiun on Tal? Buildings, University of Southampton, England, 1966. pp. 273- 289 oliet, M.-J, and Stafford Smith, B. “An Empirical Approach to the Evaluation of the Shear Rigidity of a Wall-Frame with Rigidly Jointed Link Beams, Structural Engineering Series Report No. 88-5. Deparment of Civil Engineering and Applied Mechanics, McGill University. November 1988. ME CHAPTER 12 Tubular Structures Chapter 4 discussed in broad terms the development of tubular structures for very tall buildings. involving a range of related structural forms: framed-tube. tube-in- tube, bundled-tube. braced-tube. and composite-tube systems. All have evolved from the traditional rigidly jointed structural frame. The basic design philosophy in all of these forms has been to place as much as possible of the load-carrying. material around the external periphery of the building to maximize the flexural tigidity of the cross section, The original development was the framed tbe, which. under the action of wind loading, could suffer a considerable degree of shear lag in the normal-to-wind panels. The later more efficient bundled-tube and braced-tube systems were de~ signed to produce a more uniform axial stress distribution in the columns of the “normal’” panels. Some recent irregular *‘postmodern™ buildings have involved a hybrid form of structure. in which only part of the periphery is of framed-tube construction while the remainder consists of a space-frame system. This chapter is devoted to a discussion of the basic structural behavior of tubular structures, and to a description of the techniques used in the analysis of such struc- tures under the action of lateral forces. The general analysis of three-dimensional tubular structures is considered briefly initially, and then the techniques that have been developed to reduce the amount of computation for symmetrical systems are described. 12.1 STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR OF TUBULAR STRUCTURES This section considers the structural behavior of the basic rectangular framed-tube structure when subjected to lateral forces, and the improvements that have been made in the subsequent bundied-tube and braced-tube developments. Some of the ‘more important assumptions made in the modeling of these systems are discussed. 12.1.1 Framed-Tube Structures The most basic framed-tube structure consists essentially of four orthogonal rigidly jointed frame panels forming a tube in phin, as shown in Pig. 12.1a, The frame panels are formed by closely spaced perimeter columns that are connected by deepdaap Xq parsouuos are yey) suunjos apWuad poseds Ayoso}9 Aq pauuoy axe syoued JUIN) YL REZ] “Bly UE waNOYs se -uN|d UY aqm v FUMIO, sjauEd uN) prUIO! 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(6001 “0961 24nF “(ZLI9 ‘FY STURN (EL M1 SHEA aus JO SIs or one= quaner-plan of he structure 12.1.2 Bundled-Tube Structures For very tall buildings. the shear lug experienced by conventional framed w may be greatly reduced by the addition of interior framed "web" panels the entire width of the building to form a modular- of bundled-tube structure, ( Fig, 4.13). When the building is subjected to bending under the action of lateral forces. the high-in-plane rigidity of the floor slabs constrains the interior webs frames. to deflect equally with the extemal web frames, and the shears carried by cach wil be propartional to their Interal stiffnesses. Since the end columns of the interior webs will be mobilized directly by the webs. they will be more highly stressed) than in the single tube where they are mobilized indirectly by the exterior web, through the flange frame spandrels. Consequently, the prescnce of the interior webs reduces substantially the nonuniformity of column forces caused by shear lag. as shown in Fig. 12.4. The vertical stresses in the normal panels are more nearly uniform, and the structural behavior is much closer to that of a proper tube than the framed tube. Any interior transverse frame panels will act as flanges ina similar manner to the external normal frames The structure may be regarded as a set of modular tubes that are interconnected with common interior pancls to form a perforated multicell tube. in which the: frames in the wind direction resist the wind shears, while the flange frames carry most of the wind moments. The system is such thax modules can be curtailed at different heights to reduce the cross section while structural integrity can still be maintained (Fig. 4.13). Any torsion resulting from the consequent unsymmetry 18, readily resisted by the closed-section form of the modules. The greater spacing of the columns, and shallower spandrels. permitted by the more efficient bundled tube structure, provides the considerable advantage of larger window openings than are allowed in the single-tube structure Another possibility, which yields the same general form of structural behavior, is to use coupled shear walls to form the interior web of the framed tube. and thus: create an alternative form of multicellular construction. The stress distribution in the flange frames will then be governed by the relative lateral stiffinesses af the frames and walls in the wind direction. 121 STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR OF TUBULAR STRUCTURES — 289) Acial stresses in flange columns Ausal stresses tn web columns Fig. 12.4. Shear lag in bundied-tube structwre, 12.1.3 Braced-Tube Structures Although the framed tube is an efficient structure for resisting lateral forces, the Potential stiffness of the tubular form 1s reduced by the web frames, racking due to the bending of the columns and beams. and by the shear lag in the flange fees that reduces their contribution to the overall moment of resistance borh elects in conjuction adding considerably to the lateral deflection, E A structural system that would simulate very closely the desired pure cantilever lube behavior could be achieved by eliminating all exterior columns and replacip, them with diagonals in both directions (Fig. 12.5). spaced sufficiently closely es Fig. 12.5 Diaonal truss tube system280 © TUBULAR STRUCTURES: represent bearing walls. By joining the diagonals where they cross. and at the four comers of the building, the structure will act effectively as a rigid tube in resisting. horizontal forces. However. in addition to the large number of joins involved, and the awkward fenestration, structural disadvantages occur in the primary grave ity loading response, because the vertical loads produce increased resolved forces: in the inclined directions of the diagonal members. thus requiring a greater member cross-sectional area in comparison with a vertical column system. Consequently. a more practical solution to inereasing the efficiency of the framed-tube structure has been to add substantial diagonal bracing to the faces of the tube. The exterior columns may then be more widely spaced and the diagonals, generally inclined at about 45° to the vertical. serve to lic together the exterior columns and spandrel beams to form braced facade frames (Fig. 4.14). The brace ing ensures that the exterior columns act together in resisting both gravity and! horizontal wind forces. Consequently. a very rigid cantilever tube is produced, whose behavior under lateral load is very close to that of a pure rigid tube. The exterior faces are generally provided with symmerically disposed double diagonal bracing. although, if the structure is rectangular in plan. the narrow faces may then have single diagonal bracing arranged in a zig-zag manner to allow the two sets of orthogonal diagonals to meet at the comers (Fig. 4.15). The mode cf behavior of a braced-tube structure subjected to cither gravity OF wind forces may readily be envisaged by considering the superposition of the ef fects of diagonal bracing on the behavior of the structure with vertical columns) only. ‘iegone Gravity loadiag {eheb bd in spandrels compres: Behavior under Gravity Loading. If the columns in a tube structure were equal sectional area, the loading from their tributary floor areas would lead to 1 comer columns being less heavily stressed. and therefore shortening less. than the! intermediate columns. The mechanism by which the bracing contributes to the redistribution of column loads can be envisaged readily by considering first the behavior of the structural components if the bracing members are not connected to the vertical columns, and then considering the interactive forces that would be mobilized the two were subsequently connected tagether. Consider initially a representative region of the facade frame (Fig. 12.6a), im which the diagonals are disconnected from the intermediate columns. Under the action of gravity loading. the connection points on the intermediate columns will displace downward by more than the corresponding [Link] the diagonals, whose: displacements are now controlled by the vertical displacements of the less highly” stressed comercolumns. At this stage. the diagonal members must be in compres= sion while the spandrel beams are in tension. Now consider the forces that must be mobilized to provide vertical compatibility at the intersections when the intermediate columns and diagonals are connected Together. Vertical forces must be provided that pull up on the columns and down ‘nals, as shown in Fig, 12.6b. The initial compressive force in euch i¢ column is now partially relieved by the upward force required at each lpper half of diamond | —Henbors 19 compression ===Menbers in tension Gravity loading bedded Fig. 12.6 Development of forex in braced the due to gravity loading. (a) Diagonals discon- nected from intermediate columns: (h) forces required to restore292 TUBULAR STRUCTURES Spandrels tn compression "Dranend formation” Spandrels in tensten - Cotumns and gisgonats ta compression lgeee rele af drecond (ec) —— Members in compression Mesbers in tention Fig. 12.6 (Continued) (ch Resulting forces in members, ach of its intersections with a diagonal. The corresponding downward Scere a diagonal re caried at is ends by the comer columns, whose compresive fortes are ingreased at eac intersection witha diagonal. The pet result equalization of the stresses inthe intermediate andl comer columns, ¥ ‘The increments of force picked up by the diagonal result te . large som ai rr i to a much lower < at its lower end. which reduces in increments c ah at its upper end. At each intermediate imersection point in a siegom horizontal thrast component must be balanced by an axis fai Nee c shich w rut in the upper half 0 secting spandrel. which will act as 2 st ac brociag = ie i Consequently. these action: ond” and as a tie in the lower half. erectile _ tension in the spandrels in the upper halves of the bracing simon sandal crease the tension in the lower halves. The forces in both the ime Oa comer columas will change significantly at cach diagonal iusraeiim a (og in ion points, changes will occ cal lengths between intersection points. c sr only by th to of gravity load added at each floor level tea resulting force action in s alitatively in Fig. 12. facade panel is summarized qualitative! 2 . , aes face. single zig-zag diagonally braced frames, the brocine ey tively ineffective in equalizing gravity loud stresses in the columas ea 4 : i i jificant cross-tying or eross-s nals are not provided with the very signil sey r ve davion of the spandrels which occurs in double-bruced frames. As u consequent 124 STRUGTURAL BEHAVIOR OF TUBULAR STRUCTURES 283. the diagonals cannot provide the uplift required to transfer load from the inter- mediate 10 the corer columns [12.1], Behavior under Lateral Loading. A similar procedure to that used for gravity loading may be used to determine the action of the braced tube in resisting wind loading. Under the action of wind loading, the side frames act as the webs and the nermal frames as the flanges. Consider for example the structural actions in the frame that acts as the tension flange. If the diagonals are initially disconnected from the in- termediate columns. the columns and diagonals of the face will be in tension while the spandrels are in compression (Fig. 12.72). Because of the shear lug effect. the intermediate columns will now be less highly stressed than the comer columns. and the connection points on the diagonals will be displaced upward by more than the corresponding points on the unconnected intermediate columns. If the diagonals and intermediate columns are connected together, interactive vertical forces will be mobilized, which will pull up on the intermediate columns. and down on the diagonals in order to establish compatibility at the connections: (Fig. 12.7b), These upward forces cause an increase in tension in the intermediate columns. while the downward increments acting on the diagonals are transferred at their ends to the comer columns. thereby reducing the higher tensile forecs that initially existed. In this way, the stresses in the comer and intermediate columns again tend to be equalized When superimposed on the original large tensile force in the diagonal. the in- Grements of axial force acting down the diagonal produce a gradually reducing tension along the member, leading 10 a small net compression in the lowest one or two panels. As in the case of gravity loading, at each intersection point the thrust from the diagonal must be balanced by a horizontal reactive force in the spandrel. Spandrels in the upper halves of the bracing diamonds will now act as struts, while those in the lower halves act as ties. A qualitative representation of the net forces in the windward face due to wind action is shown in Fig. 12.7c. The tensile forces in the intermediate columns i crease down the structure by the increments applied at each intersection with a diagonal. The forces in the columns, diagonals. and spandrels on the leeward face due to the lateral loading will be opposite in sense to those on the windward face. The narrow-face web frames are subjected to bending and shearing actions as result of wind loading. The typical distribution of axial forces in the web-frame Columns of an unbraced framed tube is shown in Fig. 12.2¢. Because of shear lag, the axial forces in the columns nearest to the comers have values that are higher than they would be in pure tubular action, Am extension of the argument used for the Mange panels reveals that the action of the diugonals in» braced framed tube is again to reduce the high axial forces near the comers and bring them down to values closer to the pure linear tubular stress distribution, AAs described in Chapter 6 for braced frames. the diagonals and spundrels of a ‘diagonally braced framed tube serve as the web member in carrying the horizontal12.1” STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR OF TUBULAR STRUCTURES 295, Abrating tensien in spandrels Intermediate ——colvans pulling down on dtaganals Equi? (a) Diagonals disconnected Intermedsate = columns ~ tb) ——---——— Correr, colums 7 — Meabers 6 compression Members sn tens ton Dsagonats Membors in canoress ion TeeeHenbers in tension Fig. 12.7 Development of forces in braced tube due from intermediate columns; (b) forces required to (co) Fig. 12.7 (Continued) (c) Resulting forces in members, shear, with the diagonals in either axial tension or compression, depending on their direction of inclination. Consequently. the shears. and hence the bending mo- ments. which are carried by the vertical columns. are much reduced [12.1]. Combination of Gravity and Wind Loading. On superimposing the distri- butions of force in the flange frame panels due to gravity and wind loads. it is seen that all diagonals will tend to be in compression on the leeward face of the build- ing. thus ensuring the availability of the full sectional areas of the vertical members in developing the tube’s gross moment of inertia for resisting wind forces. The spandrels, however, develop net tension, an unavoidable penalty that must be paid in taking advantage of the braced-tube system, On the windward side, the resulting forces will depend on the relative magni= tudes of the compressive effects due to gravity loading and the tensile effects due to wind loading, The members on the side faces will carry forces that are i combination of the (a)296 TUBULAR STAUCTURES compressive effects due to gravity loading and the compressive-tensile (leeward windward) effects of the wind loading Differences in Structural Form between Traditional Framed Tubes and Diagonally Braced Framed Tubes. In traditional framed-tube structures. the columns are aligred so that their major stiffnesses lie in the plane of the perimeter frame, and the girder spans ate kept short to produce stiff frames for the web panels and a low degree of shear lag in the flange panels. On the other hand. in a diag nally braced framed tube. the bracing effectively eliminates shear lag: the col umns ean therefore be tumed with their narrow-face minor stiffness in the plane: of the frame. the girder spans can be longer, the columns fewer. and. because the: girder stiffnesses are no longer as important since they act mainly as horizontal ties. the spandre! girders can be shallower. This allows the windows to be bath) deeper and wider, a fact that finds approval with both the client and architect. 12.2 GENERAL THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS A tubular structure forms a highly indeterminate three-dimensional system cons sisting of a series of rigidly jointed frameworks connected together at the comers of the building, and to any interior web frames or interior core structure. The analysis of such a structure under any applied load system may be carried out conveniently by the stiffness method, using a general purpose frame analysis: pro= gram. Appropriate modeling techniques have been described in Chapter 5. ‘A typical framed-tube structure will contain a large number of elements. and the number of degrees of freedom may run into thousands. Consequently. an anal- ysis of the total structure will be costly and time consuming. although theoretically straightforward, The effective size of the structure stiffness matrix, and hence the amount of computation necessary. may be approximately halved or quartered if the structure is symmetric in plan about one or two central axes. respectively. The applied loads may be treated as combinations of symmetric or skew-symmetric systems, acting on either a half or a quarter of the structure. Appropriate boundary conditions are used at the lines of symmetry or skew symmetry. as described ear lier in Chapter 5. However. if the structure is irregular in form. a complete three= dimensional analysis, or a full-structure two-dimensional analysis. as described in Section 5.6.3, will be necessary. In the building, the high inplane stiffness of the floor slabs will have a conside erable influence on the structural behavior, by ensuring that out-of-plane defor mations of the frame panels will be effectively restrained at each floor level. The main actions will then be in the planes of the frame panels. Asa further result of the inplane slab rigidity . it may be assumed that cross sections of the building will undergo only rigid body displacements, translation and rotation. in the horizontal plane at each floor level. To obtain an accuralc estimate of structural behavior. it is essential to include this constraining action in the analysis of the three-dimen= sional framework. The constraining action may be achieved in a number of different ways in a 12.4 SIMPLIFIED ANALYTICAL MODES FOR SYMMETRICAL TUBULAR STRUCTURES 297 general frame program. If the available program has a dependent node, or mister- Slave. option. sets of nodes at the same level can be assigned as constrained to have related displacements. The option is useful in representing the inplane rigidity of the floor slabs by assigning one node at each floor level ta be the master or datum one. and the remaining nodes as the slaves. so that their horizontal displace~ ments and rotations are constrained to conform. This is possible since the hori- zontal displacements at all nodes in a horizontal plane may be expressed in terms of the two orthogonal translations and a rotation about a datum axis, The mater, slave option produces a reduction of three degrees of freedom for each slave node s Hier leet oneqinl the number of equations in the total stiffness jatrix can almost halved. for a relativel bandwidth of the stiffness matrix nel pepe If the master-slave option is not available. the inplane rigidity of the slab can be represented at each floor by a peripheral frame of beams. assigned to be rigid in the horizenial plane. connecting the vertical elements. Another less-satistactory technique that has been used is to include fictitious axially rigid pin-ended horizontal diagonal bracing members cannecting nodes on opposite comers at each floar level. The restrained comers then remain fixed rel- € to each other during any translation oF rotation under applied toads, th ad- dition. the axial stiffness of the beams at each story level can be assigned to be so large that any inplane axial deformations, or relative displacements between nodes, are negligible. The introduction of such diagonal bracing members has the disad. vamage that it increases the bandwidth of the stiffness matrix and increases the solution time. If the size of the problem is too large for the facilities available, further reduc- tions in the amount of computation may be achieved by making use of the lumpin techniques described in Chapter 5 to effectively reduce the number of stories of the structure that have to be treated, 2 i 12.3 SIMPLIFIED ANALYTICAL MODELS F TUBULAR STRUCTURES. aie This section considers how, by recognizing the dominant structural action volved. and neglecting the unimportant actions, it is possible to treat symmetrical three-dimensional tubular structures as simpler equivalent two-dimensional sys tems. The basic approach lly considered in detail for the framed-tube sys- tem, and then the corresponding treatment af bundled tubes : i sane ea tubes and braced tubes is 12.3.1 Reduction of Three-Dimensional Framed Tube to an Equivalent Plane Frame is this section is presented a simplified yer securae approximate method for the analysis of symmetrical framed-tube structures subjected to bending produced by lateral forces. The method is intuitively appealing to the enginecr since, by reeog-298 © TUBULAR STRUCTURES nizing the dominant mode of behavior of the structure it fs possible to reduce the analysis to thal of an equivalent plane frame, with a consequently large reduction in the amount of computation required for a conventional full three-dimensional analy sis. Consider initially the framed tube of Fig. 12.2 subjected to bending by lateral forces in the ¥ direction, The lateral load is resisted primarily by the following actions. 1. The shearing actions in the web panels AD and BC parallel to the direction of the applied load. 2. The axial deformations of the normal frame panels AB and DC acting effec- tively as flanges to the web panels. Due to the symmetry of the structure about the XX axis. and the very hie inplane stiffness of the floor slabs. it may be assumed that out-of-plane actions o| the web frames are negligible, and the frames are subjected only to planar actions. It is also assumed that the torsional rigidities of the girders ae negligible. 4 ‘The axial displacements of the comer columns in the web frames are restrained by the vertical rigidity of the (wo normal frames. Consequently. the interaction between the flange and web panels consists mainly of vertical interactive forces through the common comer columns, A, B, C. and D, Asa result of these inter= active forces, the flange panels AB and DC are subjected primarily to axial defor mations, the uniformity of which across the panel will depend on the stiffnesses, that is. on the spans and flexural rigidities, of the connecting spandrel beams at each floor level. . : a Under the applied lateral loading, the shear forces will thus be resisted mainly by the web frames. while the bending moments will be resisted by the moments and axial forces in the columns of the web frames and the axial forces in the columns of the flange frames. By virtue of the large lever arm that exists between these flange panels, the wind moments will be resisted most effectively if the max= imum amount of axial force can be induced in the columns of frames AB and CD. All other torsional and out-of-plane actions may be considered to be secondary, apart from the out-of-plane bending of the columns in the flange frames whose horizontal deflections will be the same as those of the web frames. This action may be of sigrificance in the lower levels of the building since bending then occurs about the weaker axis of the columns In analyzing the primary mode of behavior, the fundamental compatibility con- dition that must be established is that of equal vertical displacements at the comers where the orthogonal panels meet. In the analytical model, a mechanism is re= quired that will allow vertical shear forces. but not horizontal forces or bending moments, to be transmitted from the web panels to the flange panels through the ns. the frame, to displace vertically, and to displace horizontally in unison in the plane of the frame at each floor level, due to the inplane rigidity of the fleor slabs. For 12.9 SIMPLIFIED ANALYTICAL MODES FOR SYMMETRICAL TUBULAR STRUCTURES 299 the flange frames, the joints must be free to rotate in the plane of the frame. and to displace venically. But flange joints on the line of symmetry must. and prefer- ably all flange joints should. be constrained against horizontal displacement in the plane of the frame, as a result of the stab inplane rigidity For example. consider the simple framed tube shown in plan in Fig, 12.84. Since the structure is symmetrical about both center lines XX and FY. only ones quarter. for example, EBH. need be considered in the analysis. The required boundary conditions at the lines of symmetry and skew symmetry are then intro- duced as described in Section 5.6.1. Because of symmetry about the XX axis. the shear force in the beams, and the slope in the ¥ direction, of panel AB must be zero at the line of symmetry (E), Conditions of skew symmetry about the Y¥ axis require that the vertical deflection at the line of skew symmetry (H) must be zero If. on the other hand, the web frame BC contains an even number of columns, $0 that no column is situated on the center line YY. the bending moment at the line of skew symmetry in the beam cut by the fing of skew symmetry must also be zero (cF- Section 5.6.1). Appropriate support systems to simulate the required boundary conditions for the quadrant EBH of the structure of Fig. 12,8a are shown in Fig. 12.8b. ‘The equivalent planar system is obtained by “zotating™ the normal half-panel EB through 90° into the plane of the web-half-panel BH. The inplane stiffness of the floor slabs constrains all members of the two web bents to have the same horizontal deflection in the X direction; therefore it can be assumed that one-quarter of the total lateral forces acting on the faces of the Mange frames of the building can be applied in the plane of the half-web frame. as indicated in Fig, 12.86. Since the beams are assumed axially rigid, the forces may be applied at any convenient nodes, The desired vertical interaction between the web and flange panels may be achieved in various ways, Most comprehensive modem general purpose structural analysis programs ins clude an intermodal constraint option. This allows the displacement relating to Specified degrees of freedom at two or more nodes in a structure to be constrained to be identical. The appropriate nodes at the intersections of the web and flange frames may then be specified directly in the analysis to'have equal vertical di Placements. For conciseness, the technique is described briefly in Section 12. with reference to the more complex bundled-tube structure If this option is not available, some other device must be used to achieve the required vertical compatibility at the junctions. One simple technique is to displace horizontally the intersection column of exch Mange frame by a small distance of. say. one-hundredth of the span of the adjacent beams, so that cach common intersection joint is represented twice, ance on each ‘of the web and flange joints (B and B’ in Fig. 12,8b). In numbering the nodes. the two nodes representing each imtersection joint arc numbered separately, The du- Plicate nodes are then joined by a fictitious stiff beam with a flexural rigidity of say 10.000 times that of the larger adjacent girder, and with one end assigned to be released for mament and axial force (Fig. 12.8c) 12.2). By this device. vertical300 TUBULAR STRUCTURES: Aevally rigid Skew-symmetricel Was Seas ees aS y n ST =e ; | Quarter a mae ct) ie —al outta | 1 — | vA th | Ce i ae ik Quarter in eR a = Half side frame Hale normal frame tb) 1/100 span Fictitious stiff vertical Hinks, 41/100. story he! J 41/100 story belt alls @) Fig. 12.8 Framed-tube or 1ube-in-tube structure. (a) Structural plan: (b) equivalent planaf model: (c. d) detail of allemative jaint connection in planar model, Fretizious, stiff beam DETAIL "A" (c) compatibility is established and the required vertical shear transmitted between the web and flange frames, while decoupling the rotation and horizontal displacement, However, it has been found that the results may be sensitive to the stiffness as sumed for the fictitious beams. - ‘An altemative technique has been devised 10 improve the disconnection of the 12.3 SIMPLIFIED ANALYTICAL MODES FOR SYMMETRICAL TUBULAR STRUCTURES 301 rotations and lateral displacements between the frame panels. and to reduce the Sensitivity of the results to the stiffness of the connecting fictitious members [12.3] The technique again involves the rotation of the flange frames into the plane of the web. The intersection line column of cach frame is shown superimposed on the corresponding one of the web frame, but displaced vertically upward by a small ance, say less than one hundredth of the story height, as shown in Fig, 12.8d, Thus each intersection joint is duplicated, once on the web column, and, imme: diately above. on the flange column, These common nodes should again be num bered separately. Each pair of intersection joint nodes is then connected by a tious stiff vertical link with a large sectional area of. say. 10.000 times that of the intersection line column. The stiff Links ensure vertical compatibility and trans- fer vertical shear between the web and flange frames while disconnecting rotations and vertical displacements. In cach model. the comer column is assigned its true inertias in the correspond ing planes of the web and flange frames. but its area shuld be assigned wholly to the column B’ in the web frame with a zero area assigned to the column B in the flange frame. Horizontal and rotational constraints are applied to the flange frame nodes on the vertical line of symmetry and preferably, as a means of reducing the total number of degrees of freedom, horizontal constraints are also. applied to all other flange frame nodes. I the structure fas additional flange frames that connect pan way along the web. as shown in Fig, 12.92, they can be modeled simply in one of the previous ways described, with the frames overlaying but remaining separate from the web frame. as shown in Fig. 12.9b. In the graphic description of the model. itis usually clearer to show the webs and flange frames separately, but to dimension them hor= izontally as though they were in the overlaid arrangements. as shown in Fig. 12.9¢, The resulting planar model may then be analyzed to give results similar to those trom a full three-dimensional analysis. The basic model does not include the out-of-plane bending of the columns in the normal frames, which may be of significance in the lower levels. These col- umns suffer the same horizontal deflections about their weaker axis as the columns in the side frames do about their stronger axis. The effect of the out-of-plane bend ing may be included in the basic model by adding an equivalent column (RR in Fig. 12.8b), whose flexural rigidity is equal to the sum of the out-of-plane flexural igidities of one-quarter of the flange columns. The additional column is connected by pin-ended axially stiff links to the existing basic plane frame system, The links constrain the column to have the same horizontal deflection as the side panel mem> bers, and allow it to carry its share of the lateral forces. Once the total force and consequent moment has been determined for the effective column, it may be dis Inbuted to the individual columns in proportion to their flexural rigidities. Huil-Core Structures. If the framed tube contains an inner core. it will bend with the same horizontal deflections. as the outer tube, owing 4 the high inplane stiffness of the floor slab, and will earry a proportionate phare of the jateral load, ‘The core is frequently symmetric also, and M4 May eoNvEniently be included by902 TUBULAR STRUCTURES loft, 20ft pet rote Wind Toad ' Fe posttigr tn model of additional flange frame eel Bo Beg © BoB o Bed igh BG () (oy te) Fig. 12.9 Framed tbe with additional interior flange frame, (a) Suuctural plan: (b, €) equivalent planer model. adding one-quarter of it in the same planar model. connected by pin-ended axially links to te web-frame system. Ifthe core acts as a simple cantilever. it may be modelled as a single equivalent column, as shown in Fig. 12.8b. If it is perforated. it may be treated as a wall with openings, as described in Chapter 10. Provided that the internal core can be modeled by an equivalent plane structure, it may always be linked to the outer framed-tube mode! to obtain the distribution of lateral forces on each component. If the core cannot be treated as # plane clement. or if the outer framed tube is 12.9 SIMPLIFIED ANALYTICAL MODES FOR SYMMETRICAL TUBULAR STRUCTURES 303 not symmetric, a three-dimensional analysis must again be performed, The nodes of the interior core must either be constrained by “rigid floor’’ option to deflect horizontally with the nodes of the exterior frame. or be connected to them by a fictitious horizontal frame of axially stiff links. Either of these techniques will simulate the rigid-plane actions of the floor slabs. which span between the wo components, in constraining the frame and core to translate and rouite in the hor- izontal plane as a single unit at each floor level. Since the inner core and outer frame will probably deform individually in predominantly different modes under the action of horizontal loads. a redistribution of horizontal shears will take plice throughout the height of the building because they are constrained to deform in unison Torsion of Framed-Tube Structures. Plane frames are stiff in their own plane and relatively flexible out of plane and in torsion, Consequently. when a framed tube is subjected to twisting due to asymmetric lateral forces, the torsional mo- ments are resisted primarily by couples resulting from horizontal shears in the Planes of the peripheral frame panels. As for the web frames in the case of bend» ing. the dominant action is planar shearing behavior. but in this case all the frame panels are subjected to similar shearing actions. Under torsional loading. the actions of the two orthogonal frames will be cou- pled through the vertical displacements of the common comer columns. A direct plane-frame solution is not then feasible. However. by using the more sophisti: cated modeling technique described in Section 5.6.3, it is possible to derive an equivalent two-dimensional structure that can simulate directly the torsional be- havior of a framed-tube structure. 12.3.2 Bundled-Tube Structures In order to demonstrate the technique of reducing a non-twisting bundled-tube structure to an equivalent plane frame, consider the bundled tube of Fig, 12,10(a). which includes nine modular tubes. Since the structure; is symmetrical about the YY axis. only one half, subjected to half the applied wind load. need be consid ered. The two web frumes ADGK and BEHL are first assembled in a single plane, in any order, with arbitrary spaces between them, as shown in Fig. 12.10, The half-flange frames MLK, JHG, FED, and CBA are assembled in the same plane. also in any order, and arbitrarily spaced. and with the intersection line columns shown in both the web and flange frames, as in the framed-tube representation (Section 12.3.1). The planar system is dimensioned horizontally from the extreme left edge of the model to include the arbitrary spaces. and the nodes are numbered separately. as before. Using the intermodal constraint option, the nodes at each level of the set of web frames are specified as constrained to displace horizontally identical to, say, the extreme left web (datum) node at the level. This procedure simulates the horizontal304 TUBULAR STAUCTURES 15 ft Nodes at each level of tet of Nedes et corresponding Flour levels web bents constrained to dusplace | along the vertical lines indi horizontally tdentical ly lby each set of to equal vertical displacene \o a ~ fa Py # = ae ee eS eae att +e Rtg Rte nt wind b+ b+ hott hte load _ b-t4 Rt Rt + > b-t 4 Pate batt i — Pape Poteet r+ 280 Fe 290 ft wate Vo Fe ao fe Pao Fe 250 ft 260 Ft aore soft ore wee aon ote 13048 wap ft 200 ft 210te 220 ft Wed frames. Half flange frames © Indicates. space of arbitrary length (b) Fig. 12.10 Mcdclling of three-dimensional bundled tube by analogous plane frame struc+ ture, (a) Structural plan; (b) equivalent planar model 12.3 SIMPLIFIED ANALYTICAL MODES FOR SYMMETRICAL TUBULAR STRUCTURES — 305 constraint of the inplane rigid floor slabs. The vertical plane rotations and vertical displacements of the web modes are then left free to behave independently, The constraint option is then used to specify vertical constraint between the common nodes representing joints at the intersections of the web and lange frames. This procedure ensures that the required vertical compatibility between the web and flange frames is achieved. All the flange nodes are left free to rotate. while those on the line of symmetry at M, J. F. and C (Fig. 12.10a). and preferably all other flange nodes also. are constrained against horizontal displacement to represent the effect of the high in- plane rigidity of the floor slabs. The horizontal loading may be applied to any vertical line of joints in one of the web frames (Fig. 12,10b). The equivalent two-dimensional model may then be analyzed by a plane frame program. In addition to allowing the planar analysis of much more complex structures. the nodal constraint approach is to be preferred in all cases to the fictitious member technique because it achieves exact compatibility between the constrained nodes. It reduces the number of degrees of freedom and therefore the size of the compu= tational problem. and it also avoids the possibility of numerical instability in the computation, which may arise from the very large differences in stiffness beiween the fictitious stiff members and the adjacent real ones in the equivalent structural model. The two-dimensional analysis of the planar mode! gives results that match ex= actly those of a full three-dimensional analysis of the structure if the same as- sumptions are made in each case. 12.3.3. Diagonally Braced Framed-Tube Structures In a nontwisting diagonally braced framed-tube structure. all four faces contribute significantly to the lateral resistance of the building. In resisting lateral forces, the side frames act as the webs and the normal frames act as the flanges of the tube. ‘The main interactions between the web and lange frames again consist of vertical shears transmitted through the comer columns. Any symmetry of the structural plan about the line of the lateral load resultant again allows the analysis 10 be based on one-half of the structure. or one-quaner if the structure is doubly symmetrical ‘The three-dimensional frame may thus be again replaced by a equivalent planar model using the same techniques described earlier for framed-tube structures. The ieractions and the vertical compatibility between web and flange frames at their intersections may again be achieved by an intermodal constraint facility in the program, or, if this is not available, by introducing a set of fictitious auxiliary connecting members between web and flange nodes. as described in Section 12.3.1. If conditions of symmetry ar skew symmetry are employed to reduce the size of the model, appropriate constaints must be included at the cut members on the lines ‘of symmetry and skew symmetry. as discussed carlier in Chapter 5 (Section 5.6.1), In devising the analytical model to be employed, the difference in construction between steel and concrete structures should be considered, Steel diagonal bracing will consist of additional inclined steel members attached to the columns and span-306 = TUBULAR STRUCTURES: WN eevee ver clisnur ased? an yale ee NY fa) te) tc) Fig, 12.11 Element of diagonally braced tbe, (a) Infill panel: (b) equivalent double- diagonal bracing: (c) equivalent single-diagonal bracing. dre! girders. However, with concrete tubes, the diagonal bracing will generally be formed by infilling the window openings betwen the columns and spandrel girders along a diagoral ling in the building perimeter frame. It then becomes important to model correctly the actions of the solid window panels in the analysis. Under gravity loading. the toads in the columns will tend 10 compress the con- crete bracing panels (Fig. 12.1 1a) and thus tend to suppress tensile stresses in the diagonal. when they arise. so that the panels can act as tension braces. In the analytical mocel, the bracing panels should be represented either by membrane finite elements (Fig. 12.1 1a), or as double-diagonal braced units in the frame (Fig. 12.11b). These are required to allow the model to be able to pick up the precom: pressive effects of gravity loads. which would not be possible if a single diagonal bracing member were used to model the infill panel (Fig. 12. 1c). The stiffnesses of the double-diagonal bracing members can be estimated from a preliminary sep- arate membrane finite element analysis of a typical individual panel subjected to.a set of diagonal forces equivalent to resultant diagonal compressive loads. This will allow the effective area of the equivalent uniform strut to be determined When a framed-tube structure has deep spandrel girders with short spans. which makes the joint width and depth relatively large. it is advisable to include the wide- column deep-beam effect by the modeling techniques described in Section 5.6.5. Because beading actions are less significant in braced-tube than in framed-tube structures, the member stiffnesses will not be reduced to the same extent in braced, tubes by concrete cracking caused by tensile stresses. SUMMARY ‘The basic philosophy in the design of tubular systems for very tall structures is fo place as much as possible of the lateral load-resisting material at the exterior of the building in order to maximize the flexural rigidity of the system. The most efficient structure can only be obtained by tying together peripheral columns in such a Way that they act as a rigid “*box”” or “‘tube™ cuntilevering out of the ground, REFERENCES 307 ‘The original framed-lube structure consisted of closely spaced exterior columns, connected at each floor level by deep spandrel girders to form a perforated tube, Although an effective system. the potential stiffness of the tubular farm ix reduced by the side web frames racking due to the bending of the columns and beams, and by shear lag in the normal flange frames, which reduces the moment of resistance of the structure's cross section. The deformations associated with shear lag ean also cause distress to secondary non-load-bearing components in the building. One innovation that reduces the degree of shear lag uses interior additional frames across the full width of the framed tube. in one or both directions, to pra- duce # modular- or bundled-tube system. The additional web frames contribute not only their own shear and bending resistance to the building's stiffness, but also. in mobilizing directly more of the flange face columns, they reduce the shear lag in the flange frames, thereby increasing these frames” contribution to the struc- ture’s stiffness An even more efficient system has been developed by adding substantial widely spaced diagonal bracing members to the exterior faces to form a very rigid braced: lube or column-diagonal truss tube system. Under lateral loading, the structure behaves more like a braced frame with greatly reduced bending in the columns and girders of the frame, and a stress distribution that is very similar to that of true rigid tubular structure. The bracing may be of double- or single-diagonal form, and may be provided over part of the periphery only to form a partial-tube system, More recent postmodem buildings have used tubular frameworks over @ purt of the perimeter only. and 2 space frame aver the remainder. The only suitable technique for the generalized analysis of such large complex framed structures is a full three-dimensional analysis. However, it is essential (0 include in the model the constraining effects of the high inplane stiffness of the floor slabs. It may be necessary to resort to lumping techniques to reduce the computation to a manageable size. If the structure is symmetrical and no jwisting occurs. it is possible. by recog- nizing the dominant modes of behavior of the structural components, to reduce the analysis to that of an equivalent plane frame, with a consequent large reduction in the amount of computation required for a full three-dimensional analysis, and with little or no loss of accuracy in the results. : REFERENCES 12.1 Grossman, J. S., Cruvellier, M.. and Stafford Smith, B. “"Behavior. Analysis and Construction of 4 Braced Tube Concrete Steucture."* Concrere dnt,, 819), September 1986, 32-42 12.2 Rutenberg. A. W. “Analysis of Tube Structures Using Plane Frum Programs.’” Pros. of Regionat Conference on Tall Buildings, Bangkok, Thailand. 1974. pp. 197~ 413, 12.3. Stafford Smith, B., Coull, A.. and Cruvelticr, M Intersecting Bent Stricture lanar Models fi Computers anal Structures, 29, \988, Analysis. of -263CORE STRUCTURES 309 / MES CHAPTER 13 Core Structures Elevator cores are primary components for resisting both horizontal and gravity loading in tall building structures. Reinforced concrete cores usually comprise am assembly of connected shear walls forming a box section with openings that may be partially closed by beams or floor slabs (Fig. 13.1a. b, and ¢). The moments ‘of inertia of a reinforced concrete core are invariably large. so that it is often adequate in itself to carry the whole of the lateral loading. The horizontal load bending deflections and stresses of a core with a fully connected section are cal= culated conventionally. as for a vertical cantilever, on the basis of the core's moe’ ments of inenia about its principal axes. If a building is also subjected to twist. as many are. the torsional stiffness of the core can be a significant part of the total torsional resistance of the building, The torsional behavior of the core and its analysis topic that is relatively’ ‘unfamitiar to many engineers, The proportions of the height, length. and thickness of the walls of a typical building core classify it, in terms of its torsional behavior, a8 a thin-walled beam. Consequently. when the core twists. originally plane secs tions of the core warp (Fig. 13.2). Because the base section is prevented from warping by the foundation. the twisting induces vertical warping strains and stresses. throughout the height of the core walls. In structures that are heavily dependent for their torsional resistance on the torsional stiffness of a core. the vertical warping. stresses at the base of the core may be of the same order of magnitude as the bending stresses. In such cases warping stresses should not be neglected. Partial closure of the core by beams or slabs across the openings restrains the: core section from warping and thereby increases the cere’s torsional stiffness, while reducing its rotation and warping stresses. In providing the restraint. however. the connecting beams or slabs are subjected to shear and bending that may be of a sufficient magnitude to require consideration in their design, The warping torsion action of the structural components of buildings has, in the: past. been given relatively little attention; consequently. designers are generally Rot at ease with the concepts of warping behavior, nor with its methods of analysis, In the design af buildings that are structurally dependent on an elevator case. the designer should be able to appreciate whether a core is liable to twist and warp 30 thal this may be taken into account in its analysis and de The aims of this chapter are first, to provide u simph of restrained warping by explaining it from the principles of flexui Vv ~ /,ASEITOTAANY a (b) ) Fig. 13.1 (a) Open-section core: (b} core partially closed by beams: (c) core partially Closed by floor slabs. Conpres ston. roduction to the concept second, (0 Fig. 13.2 Twisted core 308310 CORE STRUCTURES present a classical method of analysis for uniform cores that. through solutions obtained by the use of design curves. offers an understanding of the influence of centain structural parameters on warping: finally. to explain some methods of anal- ysis that are more practical, in allowing the consideration of cores whose properties change throughout their height. and cores that interact with other structural assem= blies. As a necessary adjunct to warping analysis. @ section on the determination of the sectional and sectorial properties is also included 13.1 CONCEPT OF WARPING BEHAVIOR ‘A simple example of restrained warping of a thin-walled core is an / section cane tilever, fixed at iis base, and subjected to torque at the top (Fig, 13.3a). The flanges: in this case are unequal in size so that the section is singly-symmetric about its X axis. The web is assumed to be so slender as to contribute negligibly te the sec: tional properties. Two points on the section (Fig. 13.3b} are particularly significant. The first is the center of area C. which is important in relation to vertical axial forces. If an) axial force is aoplied through the center of area, only axial deformations and stresses will occur. If, however, an axial force is applied to the section through a point other than C. bending about the transverse axes. and possibly warping, can also occur. Neglecting the web. the position of the center of area is given by Ay . 7 Ar z= Ay tA he FO Ay + Ag and L (3,1) ‘The second significant point on the section is the shear center D, which is im portant in relation to transverse forces on the core. If a transverse force acts through D. the member will only bend. If, however. a transverse force acts on the member: elsewhere than through D, the member will twist and warp as well ax bend. The shear center in this case is located along the X axis by i. +4; xu and An inspection of Eqs. (13.1) and (13.2) indicates that the center of area and the shear center generally will not coincide unless the section is doubly symmetric, in which case both points lie at the center of symmetry. When a torqee T about the Z axis is applied to the top of the member in Fig, 13.3a, ittwists about the shear center axis with the flanges bending in their planes, about the X axis, and twisting about their vertical axes (Fig. 13.3¢ and d), The effect of the flanges bending is to cause the flange sections to rotate in opposite directions about their X axes so that initially plane sections through the member become nonplanar, or warped. Diagonally opposite comers b and ¢. in Fig. 13.3, displace downward while a and f displace upward. At any level z up the height of 19.) CONCEPT OF WARPING BEHAVIOR = 311 Shear center Center of sree (6) 92) Binonent Bez) = M2 )L ke) (a) Fig. 13.3 (a) f section core: (by section of core; (6) core subjected to torques (d) twisting oof flanges and web,B12 CORE STRUGTURES: the core. the torque T= T(z)] is resisted intemally by a couple 7, (z) resulting from the shears in the anges and associated with their inplane bending. and a couple 7,(2) resulting from shear stresses circulating within the section and as- sociated with the twisting of the flanges. ‘Then TAz) + Tz) = T(z) (13.3) The horizoncal plane rotation of the member about its shear center axis at a height < from the base is 8(=). hence the horizontal displacement of flange #1 at that level is eit) a3) and its derivatives are (13.3) (13.6) (13.7), Similar expressions hold for flange #2 “The shear avsociated with the bending in flanges #1 and #2 can be expressed by (13.8) and (13.9) Therefore, the torque contributed by these shear forces is Tele) = Our, + Ores = —(E] + Els (13.10) or rile) = Ser, 44 (2) (aan) de 19.1 CONCEPT OF WARPING BEHAVIOR —- 313 where t= hay + hat (13.12) Incidentally. it may be deduced from horizontal equilibrium that @, = Qs. 1, is a geometric property of the section and is called the warping moment of inertia or warping constant. Ik expresses the capacity of the section to resist warp ing torsion. The torque resisted by the twisting of the flanges is ny = en 20 (13.13) where J, is the torsion constant of the section given by byt i= (13.14) in whieh by and b, are the widths. and 1, and 1, are the thicknesses. of flanges #1 and #2. respectively Summing the two intemal torques. (13.11) and (13.13). and equating them to the external torque as in Eq. (13.3). ao do WEL, a (2) + Gt (2) = T (13.18) Equation (13,15) is the fundamental equation for restrained warping torsion. It will be used and extended in the more direct presentation of warping theory, given later. Considering the stresses in the walls due to bending, the compressive stress in flange #1 at ¢, from the X axis and z from the base is M h ale. 2) = 4 (13.16) The tensile stress in flange #2 at cy from the X a (13,17)314 CORE STRUCTURES: which is equal to unity, and noting that since Q, = Qs. and the flange moments M, = M; = M, gives (13.18) and since, from Eq. 13.2 (13.19) Substituting Eq. (13.19) in (13.18) olen (13.20) or ale. (13.21) in which B(z) | = M(z) £1] is an action termed a himomenr, and wey) (= x, 6))e is 4 coordinate termed the sectorial area, of principal sectorial coordinate, for that point on the section. In its simplest form, as considered here, a bimoment consists of a pair of equal and opposite couples acting in parallel planes (Fig. 13.3ch. Its magnitude is the product of the couple and the perpendicular distance between the planes. ‘The derivative of Eq. (13.15) is closely analogous to the Eq. (11.3) representing wall-frame behavior in Chapter 11. (GA) 3 & in which \ is the deflection of the structure. EV the flexural rigidity of the wall. (GA) the effective shear rigidity of the frame, and w(z) the intensity of loading at level z Similarly Eq. (13.21) is analogous to the expression for stress in the wall of @ wall-frame. M(zbe 1d ale. in which ofc. z) is the vertical stress in the wall at a distance ¢ from the neutral axis, These analogies indicate that the restrained torsion of a thin-walled member in the rotational counterpan of the horizontally loaded wall-frame. By reference 10 these analogies, a familiarity with the simpler wall-frame theory ix useful in de~ veloping an understanding of warping theory. 192 SECTORIAL PROPERTIES OF THIN-WALLED CORES SUBJECTED TO TORSION 315 ‘The above clementary consideration of a twisting J section explains the concept of warping-behavior and how the equations and parameters of restrained warping are related to the inplane Rexure of the wall elements 13.2 SECTORIAL PROPERTIES OF THIN-WALLED CORES SUBJECTED TO TORSION ‘The torsional resistance of an elevator cote is provided by horizontal shear in the walls. Part of this. the warping shear, discussed in the previous section. is aso- ciated with the inplane bending of the walls. Additional torsion-resisting shear results from the plate twisting action, which causes shear stresses to circulate within the wall thickness (Fig. 13.4) and. in a closed- or panty closed-section core. from. further additional shear stresses that circulate unidirectionally around the core pro- file (Fig, 13.4b) (13.1). In being the rotational counterpart of planar wall-frame behavior, restrained warping behavior involves a set of so-called sectorial parameters, cach of which has a direct sectional counterpart in wall-frame theory. Since the sectorial params eters are generally unfamiliar to practicing engineers. their determination will be reviewed here. A worked example is given at the end of the section to illustrate the calculation of the parameters. 13.2.1 Sectorial Coor The sectorial coordinate at a point on the profile of a warping core is the parameter that expresses the axial response (i.c.. displacement, strain, and stress) at thal point, relative to the respanse at other points around the section. It is necessary in defining «" to establish a system of axes for the core, and a sign convention. A right-handed axis system will be adopted with its origin at the base of the core and its Z axis vertically upward. as in Fig. 13.3a. In this system a positive rotation about the Z axis is clockwise when looking up the core from the base. or anticlock= wise when looking down the core from the top. Because a building plan is invari- ably viewed from above. an amiclockwise rotation will be taken ax positive. A sectorial coordinate w’ is defined in relation to two points: a pole 0" at an arbitrary position in the plane of the section, and an origin P,, at an arbitrary lo- cation on the profile of the section (Fig. 13.5a). The value of the sectorial coor dinate at any point P on the profile is then given by ate wo" e(s)= | hds (13,22) lo where fh is the perpendicular distance from the pole 0 to the tangent to the profile at P and s is the distance of P along the profile from Py. In effect, the sectorial coordinate «' is equal to twice the arew swept out by the316 L ~ 1 hie a oF Shear stress, linear variation z = zg Fig. 13.4. (a) Twisting shear stresses im open sect 19.2 SECTORIAL PROPERTIES OF THIN-WALLED CORES SUBJECTED TO TORSION = 317° Fig. 13.5 (a) Profile of section; nate w' diagrams, (b) sectorial eoordi- radius vector 0'P in moving from Py to P. «' increases positively for a radius vector sweeping anticlockwise and negatively for it sweeping clockwise. The sec torial coordinate diagram (Fig. 13.5b) indicates the values of wo" around the profile. ‘When the sectorial coordinates are related to the shear center as a pole. and 10 an origin of known zero warping displacement. Eq. (13.22) gives the principal sectorial coordinate values, w, and their plot is the principal sectorial coordinate diagram. The principal sectorial coordinate of a section in warping theory is anal- ogous to the distance ¢ of a point from the neutral axis of a section in bending. The parameters w and ¢ are used in developing the corresponding warping and bending stiffness properties of the sections, and in determining the axial displace- ments and stresses. 13.2.2 Shear Center The shear center of a core is a point in the plane of its section through which a Joad transverse to the core must pass to avoid causing torque and twist. It is also the point to which warping properties of a section are related, in the way that bending propenies of a section arc related to the nowiral axis,318 CORE STRUCTURES Tall building cores are often singly or doubly symmetric in plan, which sim- plifies the location of the shear center. In doubly symmetric sections. the shear center lies at the center of symmetry while, in singly symmetric sections, it lies somewhere on the axis of symmetry. The location of the shear center along the axis of singly symmetric sections is considered here. For nonsymmetric sections the determination is more complex and the reader is referred for this 10 a more comprehensive text on the torsion of thin-walled members [13.1] Considering the singly symmetric section in Fig. 13.6a. the location of the shear center may be determined as follows: 1. Construct the «” diagram (Fig. 13.6b) by taking an arbitrary pole 0’ on the line of symmetry, an origin B where the line of symmetry intersects the section. and by sweeping the ray 0’D around the profile. 2. Using the w' and the y diagrams for the section, Figs. 13.66 and 13.6c, respectively. calculate the product of inenia of the «’ diagram ubout the X axis [., using ha = | wiv dA (13.23) in which da = rds, the area of a segment of the profile of thickness ¢ and length ds. The integral in Eq. (13.23) may be evaluated simply for a straight- sided section by using the product imegral table, Table 13.1, as shown for the worked example in Section 13.2.6. 3, Caleulate f,,. the second moment of area of the section about the axis of symmetry. 4, Finally. calculate the distance a, of the shear cemer 0 from 0". along the axis of symmetry, using (13.24) 13.2.3 Principal Sectorial Coordinate (w) Diagram ‘The w diagram is related to the shear center [Link] its pole and a point of zero warping deflection as an origin. In a symmetrical section the intersection of the axis of symmetry with the profile at D defines a point of antisymmetrical behavior, and hence of zero warping deflection; therefore it may be used as the origin Values of w can be found either from first principles. by sweeping the ray OD around the profile and taking twice the values of the swept areas. or by trams forming the previously obtained values of w'. thus ese - ay (13.25) For the section of Fig. 13.6a, this gives the principal sectorial coordinate diagram in Fig. 13.6d, 19.2 SECTORIAL PROPERTIES OF THIN-WALLED CORES SUBJECTED TOTORSION — 319 whe aren shaded on Oo me ray 0'D swept antt- clockwise ta O'C t20.25m all round Shear cecter 0 ay (b) 4,32_a[ © 4.68 at 289 8 lp 8.88 & -w OG F E a.68 () ) Fig. 13.6 (a) Singly symmetric core section; (b) w! diagram: (c) ¥ diggram; (4) pri sectorial w diagram.320 © CORE STRUCTURES TABLE 13.1, Product Integrals L PRODUCT INTEGRAL TABLE | F, Ca)FRCa}ex 0 Li} ; i Lene; +ybe heap ay) ay fay) | BLC2ay +) + 42b,+2agbp x aot Pt vant atte, +209) — |. z Ee e ene

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