Fundamentals

Basic Definitions

1.1

The aerodynamics forces on any body are due to:

1. .iL\, Dtro'rr L-L.c- [Link]-n;,

$c,ra Ow\{-r

SU*$cu-cr<-

-4 fu lOOt , P

1)V- S[vcu' ,S]rcs*s a.-fwb- hc,,'r 0 p . $ K'n

6",,_,{ri,u $-(f

fu".

$'a'7' 1'1't'ual Uu**^ f1'"*

ksc:*_t_1

, -L

No rnatter how complex the body shape, the aerodynamic forces and moments on the body
are entirely due to the above two basic sources. They are the only mechanisms nature has for
communicating a force to a body moving through a fluid.

./

11

iri,

'-"\

Ur^

'-2

The integrated eflect of these distributions gives rise to a resultant aerodynamic force. This
can be resolved into a component normal to the freestream velocity
parallel

(lift, 1,), and a component

to the freestream velocity (drag, D).

These are usually expressed in dimensionless form, for two important reasons:

ncL*-p".r-tr c{q-."r 9

,4

t,-', , fS

c"-l Cu. y'3 ^ c.*4.'v'ti r*J

6ca-"Lr k'l.o.r{g{- lc"r l. "-";

Q,/y)i..u'h

si

^/1

l"tr

l"

(,'.:
'-r) D
l-J-

D*
Q*
V

Cr:

S
4*
l/

where

(s -o)

l/

Cf:

u'**''

t-tlt-'(5\r*

ri-*'*l--

r*

U6

?
1.1.1

u f o"'r
i)"
I

.-f.r-tl t-r

/^
L/

-"D

/1.1 ,2(o')

C
{cd.i-oc'{

"Ec..'4

9^S
l/
sKi'^ fii*

?L

CIr

Q*

f3^D) e r

Cn:

1*

tl

rf\.".

t(A

:!

*L
t*c

h*D)i

12(b)

11,
l. t.r)

7*

What are likely values of Cr, for an aerofoil?

*ir: I

3.c

What are some typical Cp values? Cp depends strongly on the shape of a body as well as its
Reynolds number. The

Cn curves for some 2-D shapes are shown below.

to
ilI,
I

t]

o"l
0'o

(See P256

of "Multimedia Fluid Mechanics" DVD)

The drag coefticients for some practical objects are:

o efficient aerofoil length/area

based on chord length or plan area

o"o
o

sphere (football, cricket, tennis, table tennis, hailstone).

Cp for a sphere depends only on Reynolds number, via the following

Sec 3.4 of "Physical Fluid Dynarnics", by Tritton]

Reminder:
[Read

,oo

zoo
Cs

curve.

,nnl
aol

lleasucd t!.
Schtller -Schm;edel
Liebsler
o AlLen

uoIl-

oo

d
.

20*
I

10 +-

ar
e[*
1l-

',on'rlrl

,','n,

'uo'

s"'

rL
,L
a.8 I

I
lot L
a.a

0.,

0t +-

touL

0.08

8aJ

[Link]

C,n Clt*-h

=Qo

(>)

2
" 68100?' 6810,' " ut70rz u 6810t2 o osr|oz t 68ra5 dq
' t olau
R=ia
{

t,"

x
c?orr
1 i- Tiw,'

fv.D.h

+RruX.

4o *',f s

,M

8'7 ^/o.T.

/\-\- ')L x,
/c

(,

ce ^r\
''\,

lIL '

a car (based on frontal area)

a parachute

c c?

c"3

)
'

i '|-Lx tD :.l-

,-l

1.2x4"0x

'')

,l.

:/

-20

o.t )

\)a-

I .o

(,'

L"/

,qi,'^trrpl<s

Fl-

,^

fq

ctb ag'rx-q

sh' t*e,.h,'.,'0)

?l*t

'|

3.5oun

.nl Dq

rrwvlq

Iq

c rM F

Class problem
Hail stones as big as golf ballsl

that they are solid ice and spherical. Hail forms in thunder clouds and, since they take
time to grow, upcurrents must be sufficiently strong to (at least) keep the hail stone suspended.
Assume

What must the minimum upcurrent speed be? (there is no exact answer!)

4"D

f*J

D=

ov
J,*

*3

*vr

(,,*

llr
tw#

fl
j

3
,4

/t^

] Qa). Uro S
20
Ass w,*o
0

*^'C,

x o.+otaott

fa;, Uo= ftz

-l
2

[Link],

.+? 33 'f** rc:

U*.
.f

lrY
\./
0O

tr

g,,o f )rr 3

L5

--/

;.''
,)

3o *, /S

C0 {-{-L'y'c
io.a l,'ro,..-: R*f
CPd)
61r'5,ur,"tc,l. Lp k 0 '*

6,r' Sfl kut,*c-

The dimensionless dependent variables

- Cr, Cn, Cr,C1 -

upon parameters such as:

depend

aerofoil shape; chord length; incidence; stream conditions; gas type. For example the actual lift:

'\

L: il(o, c,Y, P^,,f^,/j*,

or

the

Thr*

L Buckingham's theorem gives that

t4c't-9{)f'M1 cr-e'hf din'Yp"*xi'4'/e'SS fl*"P

+ *3 = 4
t {*ao***al {irucnpar{ tuoti, ie"qth, h'n''ei ,
r\/,V

C\[Link]-L

cL: l^^(xlu,r(*.

t8

1.1.4

a dimensionless combination of terms on the

dimensionles.s coefticient C7, depends upon

RHS of 1.1.4. From Aero

U^ )

_,

fre

/ *)

,u/6-P; o, - 5{}r( J

-/'t"
f:l

, *f"*
._j
!

!2
\n

r'

j\ti o*r

1'1'5

ln the first part of A201 we consider only inviscid, incompressible flornr, so that for a given aerofoil
shape or section

L1

c<.\,^

Cl

Ctqe-t-,

Cp

-a,

t-(
= nt

Cg

F,

:*

P-L

"A *O)

oru"r

Rr, {

, "()

( Re,

D()

1.1.6(a )

ln the second part, for inviscid compressible flow

Pj (w,

il,

F+ (ra,

*,

A4\
/14)

1 1 6(b)

qlt 5' t'tnd

Comparison between inviscid and viscous aerofoil flows

All real fluids are viscous. However, in many high Reynolds number flows, viscous eflects are
confined to a very thin boundary layer adjacent to the body surface and to the wake.
Ito

Lart

i'^

bo.,un

vt:c'cL<l'

fQtt'u'r

c1"/vw)

Itjdr.;'{

"- C(Lt i,'t O I

U,S{-

*{P'

i.',visc.i.J
tr1.0.'

[The flow around f lat plates at 0 a nd 20 degrees incidence, Re

Fluid Motion" by Va n Dyke]

i4 vrSc

rc{

10000. From "An Album of

h,..*o.J;.--*

t-r.:ttr0.
r\coci
ti
iPe- " rat o"-,'

t'*
[ccu\
'-*l .^-

n".-

J tll {*

1.

":,

;!..,:2,,. ., i,,,r:-.,
i .i
i: i t-'i

t,

;."

Outside of boundary layers and wake regions, the flow can reasonably be treated as inviscid. For

streamlined bodies in which boundary layers and wakes are thin,'inviscid'computations

of surface pressure are very close to - possibly within measurement accuracy - the true value.
lnviscid theory then gives excellent predictions for the lift.
ln two-dimensional flow, inviscid theory predicts zero drag; this is obtained by integrating around

the aerofoil for the axial force component generated by the pressure (which itself everywhere
acts normal to the body surface). Even when the boundary layer remains attached (i.e. there is
no flow separation), this zero drag prediction is incorrect for real viscous two-dimensional flows,
where drag arises for two reasons:

^J

(i) Skin friction on the body surface

(ii) The growth of the boundary layer changes, very slightly, the 'eflective' body shape as seen by
the external flow. ln turn this alters the pressure distribution slightly so that integrating around
the aerofoil surface now generates a drag force. This is the boundary layer ind[qed pressure:!-r_ag.
T+ [qca^aei *he don,tinual &nr at dvaX ira blu# buJieS.

A^"

Wr^

041't^" t /w P3 r h*'^ t

ol i*'te"'n*1"c:-^''t /'-s

s gata"*'e-ke's

Vr
4."1

f,t" d&-

c-u'.r*rla-t^

6c

Yla**r*

Q"a'{

L'_,

A^

**j-b

"4 Lt

i0

lht

fr*

"uda-<-<.

ft o-*"*,

Alx$lrun- o\l'vz)v1r,*A'6-5

I.2

Vorticity and simple vortex motion

The following comments refer specifically to 2D flows, although they can be extended readily to
three dimensions. Consider an infinitesimal element of fluid, initially square in shape. Because of
velocity gradients in the flow field i.e. the terms

1114 dl;
^-r"7t

'dz

dg

?r"
.<_

Uz

'l

,ry

.rr-

the fluid element distorts continuously. This rate of distortion is usually referred to as the rate
of strain. ln a real viscous fluid this rate of strain is responsible, through the efFect of viscosity,
for producing viscous stresses.
We can consider three types of rate of strain
,1

dv-

fo' <&

(i) direct

A,u

CIr

tu

?g
./aI

(! u*

7b

a'1

@e

(ii) shear

*)

[7
IJ
lv'"
-./

3r:
ax

&' 7fr

arl

?&,

>c

::Q

tu- 7A

??

4J

(iii) solid body

fu^

Ir

<0

&x

0s
(
1a
,LL

ln*)

7a

CI

ln the above sketches we have assumed incompressible flow. This means that the area (or volume
in 3D) of the element remains constant as it distorts. The concepts we are deriving, however, hold

equally to compressible flows. ln general, any flow will combine together the three distortions we
have seen above.

*2
An important concept in fluid motion is the determination of the fluid angular velocity. How do
we define it for a fluid which may be experiencing the deformations shown above? Again consider
an infinitesimal fluid element which moves, and distorts over a very small time interval dt. The
element centre is
d

at O, and we define two (initial) axes AB and CD which rotate during this

istortion.

ln itia

After dt

i#p
tg8
i+

{!
,--)7
-r,L-

A*

-V

IiA

\.N'

'.,

$-

-)+

(<-.

of AB O

The angular velocity of CD O

[u-

.* 0u

The angular velocity of the fluid element is the averagq of these two:

angular velocity

r lAvzlw
l+

We define the vorticity, u; (omega) as

0,,

1..2.L

ru/
?_*
WY
t2

3u
a,g

{.1ro

'6x

The angular velocity

t-4 po
bu -.s

C ab-*t

,/

ra\

{-*-+
,\r-

,L-1

tt

r*

,f&,.

f,1,r"1dllLi-t{cr

V\dLt:fJ

Hence ,,r

twice the angular velocity

1.2.2

Vorticity is a vector (we will see later that it is defined as the curl of the fluid velocity). Equation
I.2.2 gives its magnitude. The direction of the unit vector - its axis of rotation - lies along the
z-axis (out of the page for two-dimensional flow in the x-y plane) and positive vorlicity is rotation

in an anticlockwisqfl'fi"iryr*.b

as

Flow with vorticity is known

ru

rurz

t'cu"l "

0*-.. yl*
w "= VX

d{df

I f j" tf t
.,
lU=
*=
aiaa

hct."ta,i

t-a.

Yluts Loywt

a/iu
as ir.*trrrF*a**"d
i q4*
I
(n* mnnuf *r ue{oc,ty *} p{{r{ *rans{*tfir*) I ,t^ v td /
t

Ftow without vorticity is known

How does vorticity appear within a fluid?

at a solid wall in a viscous fluid

lt

is

created'

ie

by

b0,,','',

da\n

la-rj".t-'

by motion through a curved shock wave (only for compressible flows therefore)

by flows where pressure and density gradients are non-parallel (e.g. some compressible
flows, atmospheric flows, ocean flows)

Our flows are normally confined to the first of these. Once

it has been created,

vorticity moves

through the flow field by:

difFusion (by viscosity) from the wall

carried by the velocity of the fluid - convection.

rL

--->

CgVttlACh"""wt

An important note is that rotation, as specified by vorticity, corresponds to the [Link]-

cle, and not to motion of the particle on a fluid path. E.g.

in

the free vortex problem considered later, we will see that each fluid particle moves on a circular
path, but its vorticity is zero.

lt

is also possible

to

have

fluid particles moving in a straight line

which do have vorticity.

"h"c 9
\y6rl-ic .Y

l/a

foT.e,iAr lrvrov^)

ctl-''f I
13

c-

N4 trA4 tr

i.5s,

d'33

L1

Circulation
Circulation,

l,

is defined as

.li

l: { [Link]' (ro '^ "csua/w"hckuit'<

'Jc
dfrechou)

Using Stokes theorem, this can also be expressed as

(#*v,.il")

f : [Link](: [*aAin2D).
.lA
Jt
Note that diflerent notations for positive

1.24

(i.e. clockwise or anticlockwise) are used - here

will assume anticlockwise f is positive.

d*Pd

1.2.3

r:

cawfudf

we

da
#v
J
C

(1

11

l-

w dA

JA

(nn

gtnlA'l'oY.1

&ram A

d3= JA.6-

o,v-d*^F &{f rcs*,'*os )

frt i* the [Link] at. [Link]"r;

to ri g h+ - ha' d- rtr [e fc]r 14 ovt *
[Link] olo"n C.
It is an important property since it can be shown (see later) that, in a two dimensional flow, the
lift tr (per unit span) is related to f by:

L: -f ur

-;-tsoKes

{h"o.e*

6J u'do
a
I

=-

J(o.

u) .J4

P'd4
l

14

i*;. Y^V : : l,g"

n

f9P

a4

a/aa

176.

VorrexMotion

a', 2(

fUg

lU"

uz

e itthe
ler (rl
sidder
3r er
We next consider some vortex motions in 2-D. ln our analysis we can con sic
@ -'a)
rt
mos
conven
ient
(Cartesian) or (r - d) (polar) coordinates. Often polar coordinates will be t he

Recall

that vorticity in 2-D is given by (also given in the data sheet)

0u 0u \/o , )Vn
*- 0,
0y- r ' 0r
,r:-:-,

/:a:ttsia,'r

1av
r00

1.)l:
T.A,J

'X
po lcr*^

Forced Vortex (solid body rotation)

\r" =

vs:
t{i =

r:
l-r

fr-r"C-[:le';i

f :

r-ctYSW1-{

ASS**.

tL

"6
Zir l(

V6
o

cr

7c

Lr tc'

$s

lti

L]

la
I

c,irc'.--ttai'

pa-d

15

i'u,.s R

F^

n"

?zr c R'

cd-lp. t' ic'L,, #r'r

V* *? ri* r,{..r}

i^l'e6'*'h:.,

f*

tot i 1'd.\r{.
I

rJ

*^q {S}

$i""I

.'
;-,:f Clu.,

..:

i l\

Free Vortex

Vi
Vu

:o

:.9
I

z
+9(:)
)e
{I
r n

O'v-t

"2,-j-

.,.o

But

f:

7-rrK C^

?rR Vs
f"C

The answer is that at

r:0

-=-

n*c

,o

t\
Au'-

r,1{,}4't., u }

.l'adA and c,,, :0

irro t*"*h*.,,. ^-{

W^C*Vu-,-'t'

rh'c r-tj

so why is

r*.{-A

{J

/'e."f{,{,c.

not zero?

we have a "singularity" - infinite vorticity occurs over a infinitesimal

area. All of the circulation comes from this source, hence we often talk about "a line vortex of
strength l" at a given location, which is the location of the "singularity".

16

Rankine Vortex
Both of the previous vortex models have problems:
Forced
Free

o-5 n *)

vortex: \/ g -) 6'

vortex' \/g -) oo

^
I + 0

a4

A good simple model - the Rankine vortex - combines both.

Up

/T\ ., o,l\f.
I

q'jrt*"rn

I 'lr,'\Y,/ /'\

{""{s Wr fN

''[n-"qur

6'(

K,
(ro r o totd lu s)

AI

=R.

Furua w*{rera

Vua A-r:-

g*"
Yl* vd'tta l'l'-t f"r"^ W"
vv*616t a^_ w Sovrzlq
+ lra;t;i3
raVatkng

[^fl"

vahex'
SPbi/vts

Fhl

17

A'"r^

cN*-a'"^4-

a'vrd

Class Problem
ln an aircraft trailing vortex, the maximum swirl velocity is 50m/s and occurs at a radius of 5cm
from the vortex centre. Using the Rankine vortex model, what is the velocity \/6 al20cm?

K. :

c c "i i'"'r

fu"C
r'

llt

i-:

J.!t\t:.v'v't

Vr'-

: c

2*'t

S_Iixtr o!c)

2-

1B

::

l3--5 ,r/s

Control volume examples

Example

1: Force on nozzle

/.

G"ry1 U"v44a

i4v-\ <c-t'zrA

D.
,[3

ft\

l,

P,

ut

A fonce, F, is
express

dl*

needed

to stop the nozzle moving. A control volume

,uz

analysis can be used to

the force in terms of mean flow parameters.

Applying the momentum equation to the control volume shown gives:

Rate of change

A.s a Lr

of momentum in CV

LnJ

Yv\e -fu act"1

i'.sl :

f r

=Ft
f C.A :

Net force acting on CV

tu.

Net momentum flux into CV

$lo.^ s1; fh f, * C
ft*" d,et-c.- ta rc-ss.'L'
1>

y,A, r,A,

vvtttvYrtnrbvw-' in

trl

fr(At - Ao)

vvtAw+a*1brJ

r"*

CI*-l

l*

= !,v]fl, lzuzzAz
1l*" "fry t8l = *l-cf
-1-)

U,r- Bu.-'-,*LL^ lb l+.[Link]

an
zv

P,

t P"z ,

ux

t ,

Li7

Exanrple

2: Smooth and rapid expansion in ducts

pz
{rr

Pt
U>

dz

t/r

Bernoulli can be used for the case on the left, but [Link] case on the right (due to losses). To
estimate ,p2for the case on the right, use the control volume shown and make some reasonable
assu m ptrons.

5c: A

5l\[Link].t)

4f*
As*rn*n fNasst-,urut * ?,

fi5b J /'t/\-f.

(.*ruvvu-v1firv",

trt

d-"cy1vs3 L"ftS

)=O

CU'

Cgl :;- [c 1

*f-Az
Y,A,

fsr

h, (u, -ur) :

* [rJ

Cc) fr,(f,-p)

r8l

b*f

l,lL

A,

=
V

u,

-:

(r,- 'nr)

A, Lt1r* u,)

t4t A,

t(lr. Lt,

U, & t
A2

6e?

?,-

Pt

t{1 lwu^s 4 A, , A,

(a,,n |hn^ tl,-ri

d-fr-Cran**

A-{/r,aS\

s\nc"Fvv^

*f*rtr

21.

avr

p lraS6

cLi,lcl-

L^,-

*'^

'ill

Lt

L.3

Equations of motion

Two types of analysis are possible:

Systems analysis

Control volume analysis

Fixed control volume in space -

Finite system moving wit h fluid so same

fluid moving through it

fluid particles enclosed

1rr

fur,{Vw<
<frru[,,rC,v-r

cT

/t

L'wfiA{ ,^:; h't

r\
,l

&*ui

'l

The continuity and momentum equations then take the form:

bnX:,"r"

iF"1

A (*u,, ,^

CV) : n&r f

v'I),tL % vwy'n

4.r

tn!4J

fAww-',vu

noo-

cerrn

;\rxut l-

i{lc*

L-V

/\
')=
J" (rno*ro"tlrv,',,

nn

n (r^ovrv^w*', in LV') = F"''6+

ar-L^J^ Cv +

[r

vw'*f

uPuvt
frsrcu, aoln'.n
-Jll

lD I v"'vt9

i,nl,o C-V

For fluid flows, a control volume analysis is usually better

19

Exarnple

3: Actuator disc theory for propeller

Proprellers consist

of rotating blades which produce lift and drag, and involve complex helical

flow:;. Overall performance features can be analysed using an approximation called actuator disc
theory. This assumes that flow which does not pass through the propeller has constant stagnation
pressure, and

that the flow which

rt66fuc'"fu

!1;56'

passes through

'

uL

'o
o
o

the propeller follows the following profiles.

",tr,<iltk:t

->
tl.-)l
;,r

t '--

"""rft

Li*{ i r rtl

-i-f

Ui co

(4

1-,-))

"

{
0)

*7

a
a

Ue

D;ff

0)

o_

f\
Y

0)

a
a
q)

-)

ln t
r*:-

.o
d

'--..-v

\-ri

(V

o')
cd

Applying the momentum equation to a control volume which extends far upstream and downstream, and which extends far enough above and below the propeller that we can consider the
streamlines 'p : p&.

[Link]"'.t

.Skaatit-r-3

hrt-a ov'r C L"^

4t**
,bf

:,l

*f (1.(r*O

uR,

Tj'uo(ita)-L''l,
n

L]ll

I:

u^ ir( l+d^)
rl-D'
-.-^-t

Jr,

'T

l--

/p

Ac'v'os\

P'r'cpt
t

---.'?

]t
AlI ---a*
1)

22

,
I 1r ) -'

r
_2,*
r, ,,
-=--llLi"\"0,)
1'-._.'>

\
t

,-.- -'

.4-)

(_>

i'

'*tl
--)-1
r

tI c '

lI

t-r:'

p"n-P{
U^'
r->

Ao uP'
'4-

,:""

Ap

,tl.

hf t+<;,)

t4-

uJ t (r rd)

Apply Bernoulli upstream of the disc:

14

(u^

'2

r)

z $

Apply Bernoulli downstream of the disc:

P,
-'
[' tAP

+l u,(u*'( tra)'
2

g.;lot!^ fu,

f,'-'AP

Pat,

D't

t"')
Y U^'( t

-\
(l)

^u
. .(

/
J7 uPU^ ((
I

z
uu'(
/
I
6)
-/ I

od
n\\

A,> :

-t

Fu'"-'

(t)

ira )'

u^z {

;,1

a')

t b )'

()*''(1r6)
I )

Equate expressions for Ap:

i
I

-)L

,L(t

bt

rtd')

2a,

&"e:

( b' +

equalto (2." *u2)12. lt is then possible to

(and hence power, etc) in terms of D, ti,o and u,2.

Hence the disc velocity, u1, is

23

zb)

express the

thrust,7,

Exarnple

4: Actuator disc theory for wind turbine

Wind turbines extract mean energy from the flow. Hence the flow which passes through a wrnd
turbine sees a reduction in stagnation pressure.

e;fucu

**g

\x

hD'r61,1\

U*

rfr

The same analysis as for the propeller again gives that ls:2a,.
ex+rac+eJ

Neglecting losses, the power, P, pre+.ided by a wind turbine is equal to the rate at which the
mean flow loses kinetic energy:

r:

tvt l

2-e

U6:

z
r\

Ttt2 l)*((-ct)r,
4I

/n

,J

$1

TrD^
4--

&

JI

Ttn'ts r

:
found by setting dP
,k

J (zu

du
35e

,[Link]

the BuLz l;-ib

\------:r/---l

il6 (z-b)

) up J

w h"g*\

'7* q b r

ta

t* (t-D')
//

The maximum power output from a wind turbine can be

JP :: c

/'*\"'h

'2

*''

..$

{}

uu'(i-b)'

lz

{n

L =- I)

=(}

'=

rr D' "3

U^-'zZ*

't

s
:

'z* { 63)
7

T
hr

orxi

r,lu
24

t,1{

oqwe"

'

815

.lhal

+*n

otlr- tduh*' \
( l;i"ii, T,t.,r-ul
/

the

.r-t-D

ce:v' be erlrackJ

t'.risq

J'

z.

U,*

a,s33

Exannple

5: River bore and tidal

waves
River Severn bore in UK

E.g. Qiantang river bore in China,

fa-v'

,- r/ r'a \

(
I

tt /^-'

l
ri

JI *)

There are losses so

it is not

and assume that

possible

pt,hrt over

to

i't -i'*
1

Llo'rt',
---),
--*-*i-. /,
/.
'

* *) \-__------."o
---- ",
7----7-;r----=--7--;=-

t-+x

so

that 'r\

f^r,n + J*tj

//

lt4:

u2h.2),

is:

f , 1,1) doa

j
')

1",t,^

lr,

c-

: ,l'u i)
,

The momentum equation applied to the control volume gives

; \

the top surface of the water.

that the net pressure force on (1)

J:

f--7--

use Bernoulli. Assume 1-D flow (so

The hydrostatic variation of pressure within the water gives:

P{U)

t.l,

Vw
J

trr

,f'tL
\"
\v

-r

fh, '},

\ I

.
'r'n,

9"'

l'r
,

\a

*.'L

l1) dJ : tultL&z
+|
/t'.; dYl 4
pr.l^,(hr-{',,)
P'
{
,
')A I
' v Ji,
I
::
u
,tr'
ht
;.
ho
q
(
r'
J'f,"
)^ V*'rl ,'
f
-t *
/,1

/hr-

, \''J

L,

) 'i
blt' /t ,

U,n

f"t

,
25

';

J
I

(hrz -

11

,2 )

r"rj
ori

//
.)

tt'1rt"V,

\t!

ltls^ h,*.

u,'ln,(i-l)
u,,h.,
hz

lrl>' \-\

co nhn,,,,t ffi-1

ht

(hr'*t",')

ttytt^,) = +(yL')(h"h')

L\J<h7

U,2

rl
Note, the Froude number is defined as

ltI :
--:\
-7

i'l^ , h.)
-------,*,?---

F: $.,a(
,/stL

'14

F,'= LL.D!,

lo.

2 h r'

7 h,'

It can be shown (not part of this course) that for a hydraulic jrmp, tidal wave, bore, Tsunami
etc F1 ) 1 and Fz 1\ (equivalent to a shock wave).

Anology

o[ Fr tr,*h lilerJ^ 'rutrl'e'n

26