Lesson 5 Resources

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Welcome to the resources section for Lesson 5, a lesson that addresses how narrative functions in games,
which is both similar and different to how it functions in movies or television.
But first, a special thanks to Michael Niggel from Hazard Creative for letting us use his map of choices in
Journey under the Sea, the famous Choose your Own Adventure novel. We use the image in the section
"Games Aren't Books."
The role of story in games has been controversial in game studies and game design, and there still is much
difference of opinion on the topic. At first, the debate focused on the relationship between mechanic and
story and which is more important in understanding and interpreting games. Ludologists, who see game
mechanic as the essence of games, took up one side of this debate, while narratologists, who see story as
essential to creating meaning from a game, took up the other. And these debates sometimes got quite
heated.
That conversation has changed over the past few years. Now, instead of asking, Are all games stories?
the conversation has evolved into the better question of In what ways can games tell stories?
As role-playing games usually pride themselves on their stories, we use this genre of video games to help
introduce some of the complexities that arise when trying to introduce a story into a interactive play space.
Think about it how do you tell a meaningful coherent story when the player is given the option of not
actually rescuing the prince?
This lesson then presents some basic components of narrative to help understand some of the more
complex issues we will discuss later in the lesson:
There are characters namely the heroes (protagonists), villains (antagonists), and sidekicks
(tritagonists) who act and make decisions in the story.
There is plot namely the action that unfolds over time
There is genre namely the accepted style and setting in which the action takes place.
Using these three elements, we then unpack a common structural approach to understanding stories,
focusing on Joseph Campbells monomyth. There are lots of positives and negatives to Campbells
paradigm, but it is talked about frequently in game studies, so we thought it would be important for you to
be familiar with it. The monomyth, at its heart, is an extended metaphor for the loss of innocence that
occurs in growing from childhood to adulthood, focusing in particular on the period of transition. It is based
on Campbells obsession with the traditional mythology of hundreds of cultures around the world.
The monomyth has three main stages, each with many substages:
A. The Departure describes leaving home and has five substages
1. Call to Adventure
2. Refusal of the call
3. Supernatural aid

4. Crossing the threshold

5. Belly of the whale
B. The Initiation describes the loss of innocence and has six substages:
1. Road of trials
2. Meeting the goddess
3. Woman as temptress
4. Atonement with the father
5. Apotheosis
6. Ultimate boon
C. The Return describes the journey home and has six substages:
1. Refusal of the return
2. Magic flight
3.
4.
5.
6.

Rescue from without

Crossing the threshold
Master of two worlds
Freedom to live

While useful to a point, Campbells paradigm has some problems.

It is clearly male focused, which Campbell acknowledged.
It is almost too flexible, meaning that it can be bent and twisted to describe all stories, which is actually
a weakness from an analytical point of view
It is too often used as a prescription for storytelling, which leads to clich.
There are parts, especially in The Return, that arent a great fit for story in games.
That last point serves as a jumping off point for a discussion of interactivity, as interactivity is really what
distinguishes games from other media forms. All media is interactive, but games are different in the extent
and kind of that interaction. We unpack those differences by exploring how various forms of media are
interactive, including a discussion of Choose Your Own Adventure novels, hypertext fiction, and the first
story-based video games. This last section features the early text adventure games, including the genredefining, Zork.

Required Reading:
The reading for this lesson will help you better understand the narratology versus ludology debate. Jan
Simons article, Narrative, Games, and Theory, lays out some of the important points on both sides of the
argument, although his sympathies are clearly with the narratologists. Simons argues that both sides can
learn from each other, but only if they give credit to the intellectual rigour of their opponents. Setting up
straw arguments wont help anyone. Pay particular attention to the first half of the paper which provides a
good context for this topic. In truth, much of this debate has been largely settled amongst game scholars,
or at least quieted down, but the tension between story and game remains an important element of game
design. The last quarter of the paper is more difficult to work through. Give yourself some time to consider
the argument here and why it is made in this way.
Simons, J. (2007). Narrative, Games, and Theory. Game Studies. 7(1).
[Link]

Tiny Summary
Narrativity is a key concept in the humanities, but the increasing prevalence of new interactive computerbased media has led games studies scholars to argue that narrative theory is no longer appropriate as a
theoretical framework in the examination of gaming. Instead, a new framework has been proposed, that of
ludology. Ludologists prefer to focus on the rules and structures of games, rather than their narrative
elements. Simons believes that the schism between narratology and ludology can be overcome with
cooperation, as the two perspectives are more similar than they appear. He argues that the two sides can
learn from each other, notably that gameness is a subjective concept, and that depending on the
language game youre in, games involve quite a lot more than action sequences, strategies and payoff
functions.
Problem Statement
(S)cholars of games studies argue that narrative theory is no longer appropriate to cope with the forms
and formats of new media and are calling for a new paradigm that provisionally has been baptized
ludology. The anti-narratology strategy of ludologists keeps them trapped in the language game of the
humanities (Simons, 2007).
Purpose
As the issues concerning the debate between narratology and ludology seem to have been ignored rather
than resolved, the purpose of this paper is to review the literature and arguments regarding narratology and
ludology in game studies.
Ludologists believe there are fundamental differences between narratives and games:
narrative readers are external observers concerned with what has happened, while those who play
games are involved players who are concerned with what is going to happen (Frasca, 2003).
Simons (2007) argues that this is a matter of perspective. The world in both stories and games is often
unstable and inescapable, but participants in both scenarios know that things will eventually come to some
kind of an end. Although players in games believe they have agency within the game world, the courses of
action open to the player are scripted into the design of the game.
Understanding games requires hands-on experience with them.
Simons (2007) argues that readers, film buffs, art lovers, and passionate game players tend to confuse the
experience of their beloved objects with a theory thereof.
narratives are representations while games are simulations. Representations can only produce descriptions
of traits and sequences of events while a simulation retains the characteristics of an object and includes a
model of behaviours that reacts to stimuli (input) according to a set of conditions (Frasca, 2003).
Genette (1969) argues that narration includes representations such as description, but that narration itself
is concerned with the temporal and dramatic parts of a story, whereas description suspends time and
displays the story spatially.
Simons (2007) argues that although simulations retain the characteristics of an object, they are limited by
the constraints imposed by the designers, and that input is not always required. He says that simulations
can be run in the mind by imagining a certain situation ... feeding this situation imaginarily with certain
conditions ... and then (waiting to) see what happens.
He continues with the argument that narratives can also be simulations, in that one of the purposes of
seeing and perceiving narratively is to weigh how certain effects that are desired may be achieved, and
how desire is linked to possibilities for being, how events may proceed ... game players probably weigh the
outcomes of the alternative choices they are confronted with in a narrative way.
Finally, Simons (2007) argues that terms such as narrative, narration, narrativity, etc., have no clear cut

definitions. They are provisional and constantly changing labels for sets of assumptions, tentative
descriptions, local theories, wild speculations, bold hypotheses, metaphors, pragmatic inferences, etc.,
and that the proposed distinction between representation and simulation is itself a good example of how
categories and definitions are set up strategically in an attempt to re-model the playground of the
humanities.
While narratologists likely consider novels and fiction films as prototypical examples of narrative while
games studies scholars consider games as set apart from serious activities, Simons (2007) argues that
just as narrative is not confined to fictional discourse, games are not always fictional either. A branch of
gaming research called game theory proposes that a game is not a game because it has some set of
features that jointly guarantee its gameness, but because it can be modelled by game theory. In game
theory, a game is any situation in which two or more decision makers interact. Games studies, then, is a
predominantly humanistic approach to the study of competitive and rule-based activities known as games,
and is primarily concerned with computing.
Game theory is primarily focused on payoff, the situations within a game where decision makers try to act
in such a way that they will get the most out of it, taking into account the actions of other decision makers
that influence the outcome. This type of analysis reduces the structure of a game into a single form known
as the payoff matrix, which is essentially a list of payoffs for every combination of strategies the players
can deploy. This concept is exemplified by the game of Prisoners Dilemma. The payoff matrix for this
game does not predict which choices the players will make but it represents all states in which a one-time
playing of the game can end making it possible to identify the potential moves or calculations of the
players. Game theorists are interested in stories because the inherent conflicts, dilemmas, and calculations
in narratives can be reduced to strategies resulting in payoffs (either positive or negative).
Ludologists argue that a plot makes a story and rules make a game, but for game theorists, there is no
assumption that rules are necessary for games. There are only situations in which players prefer certain
outcomes to others, using strategies to move gameplay forward. If rules exist, they are merely constraints
on the use of available strategies. Viewed in this way, games and narratives are similar. In both situations
one can reason backwards from the outcomes (or the ending) to identify the key strategies (or events) that
led the gamer (or the reader) to that situation. This is in opposition to the views of ludologists that narratives
are retrospective (backward looking) while games are prospective (forward looking).
The temporal distinction may not even be necessary. Simons (2007) argues that temporality is merely a
structural or referential element, as both games and narratives can be analysed in both forward and
backwards dimensions, as well as simultaneously.
Furthermore, where game theorists are interested in all the possible actions taken by decision makers,
narratologists are usually interested in the actions that were actually taken. From this point of view, there is
not a categorical distinction between narratology and game theory, but rather a matter of scale: narratology
is not game theorys adversary but rather one of its aids which explores specific paths through the entire
state space that constitutes the domain of game theory (Simons, 2007).
Ludologists believe that another distinction between games and narratives concerns the role and status of
characters (Simons, 2007). According to ludologists, where narratives are about the other, games are
about the self. Simons argues that this distinction is not entirely clear, as characters in games ... are
functional and not emotionally and psychologically characterized entities as their counterparts in narratives
(2007). In other words characters in games are doing while characters in narratives are being.

Simons believes that the schism between narratology and ludology can be overcome with cooperation, as
the two perspectives are more similar than they appear. He argues that the two sides can learn from each
other, notably that gameness is a subjective concept, and that depending on the language game youre
in, games involve quite a lot more than action sequences, strategies and payoff functions.
Additional Resources:
There is a truckload of material on this topic, and it really is one of the most fascinating topics in game
studies because it describes the struggle of the discipline of Game Studies to define itself. Here are three
sources to get you started:
Aarseth, E. (2004). Genre Trouble: Narrativism and the Art of Simulation. First Person: New Media as
Story, Performance, and Game. Ed. Noah Wardrip-Fruin & Pat Harrigan. MIT Press.
Murray, J. (1997). Hamlet on the Holodeck: The Future of Narrative in Cyberspace. MIT Press.
Pearce, C. (2004). Towards a game theory of game. First Person: New Media as Story, Performance,
and Game. Ed. Noah Wardrip-Fruin & Pat Harrigan. MIT Press.

Games We Mention in this Lesson:

Here are some of the games we mentioned in this lesson. If you don't know a game we mention, follow one
of the links we provide below. Again, we dont control these files, so some of the links may expire. Help us
keep the links fresh by letting us know if one goes down. Also, you can find play-throughs, trailers, and fan
sites for just about any game you can imagine, so a quick google search will give you a taste of how a
game works.
Ultima
Gameplay from Ultima. While the clip does not show stealing, it does show how the player can interact with
town inhabitants and explore the world.
[Link]
Wizardry
General gameplay that shows how a player is able to organize and utilize their party, as well as the
challenge and mechanics of combat
[Link]
Final Fantasy
Some gameplay prior to and including the first 'boss fight' from the NES version.
[Link]
Wasteland
Gameplay that shows some world exploration and battle mechanics.
[Link]
Quest for Glory: So you want to be a hero?
Gameplay clip shows the day-night transition and exploring, as well as the unusual adventuring aspects.

[Link]
Final Fantasy VII
The clip shows the complex emotions and interactions (love and betrayal) found in the game through Aeris'
Death.
[Link]
Knights of the Old Republic
Clip is a short battle.
[Link]
Baldur's Gate
General gameplay that shows some exploration and inventory management from Baldur's Gate 2.
[Link]
Half-Life II
Gameplay showing how narrative dialogue is included as a part of active gameplay, not isolated to
cutscenes. (watch to 7m40s)
[Link]
Halo
A cutscene compilation showing the relationship between Master Chief and Cortana.
[Link]
Portal 2
A compilation of gameplay with tritagonist Wheatley (watch first few minutes to get the idea) - second clip
shows Wheatley's betrayal.
[Link]
[Link]
Planescape Torment
Clip 1 features a dialogue between the player (Nameless One) and Morte (watch to 4m00s).
[Link]
Heavy Rain
Clip of Scott Shelby storyline highlighting the mystery elements of the plot.
[Link]
Braid
Gameplay illustrating the non-linear nature of the game (note how player can 'rewind' to overcome
mistakes).
[Link]
Chrono Trigger
Early gameplay that introduces the time travel plot device.
[Link]

Another World
The denoument of the game.
[Link]
Super Mario Bros.
Here's Mario rescuing the princess in the first Super Mario game.
[Link]
The Last Express
Clip showing the climactic gathering in the traincar at the end of the game. (watch until 6m30s)
[Link]
Ultima IV: The Quest for Avatar
Clip 1 (NES version) the call from Lord British (watch to 1m30s). Clip 2 (Commodore 64) The book and
circle of stones (watch to 2m00s).
[Link]
[Link]
Max Payne
An example of the use of a comic book style narrative. (Gameplay sped up to focus on narration, watch to
2m35s)
[Link]
King's Quest V: Absence Makes the Heart go Yonder
Meeting Crispin the wizard, who gives the player supernatural aid.
[Link]
Pokemon Red
Player receives their first Pokemon and has their first battle with their rival.
[Link]
Sword & Sworcery
The hero enters the symbolic "belly of the whale". (watch until 7m45s)
[Link]
The Secret of Monkey Island
The hero meets Governor Marley (the "goddess") for the first time.
[Link]
Quest for Glory IV
First brief encounter with Katrina the "temptress".
[Link]
Fallout 3
The apotheosis/end game decision.
[Link]

Mass Effect 3
Combat gameplay that shows the use of the combat roll as mentioned in the interview.
[Link]
Prince of Persia
Encounter between the Prince and his dark twin. (loud non-game music at 4m33s)
[Link]
Tales of Vesparia
Spirits flying off into the sunset at the end of the game.
[Link]
Blade Runner
One of the possible game endings, driving off into the sunset.
[Link]
Mass Effect 2
Player overcomes the final guardian (disobeying her boss and doing what is 'right') Watch until 7m40s
[Link]
Super Mario Bros.
Here's Mario rescuing the princess in the first Super Mario game.
[Link]
Silent Hill 3
The final battle (after main character 'gives birth' to her inner demon ('god'). Contains scary images.
[Link]
Fallout
The overseer tells the player that they are not welcome back into the vault (watch to 5m08s)
[Link]
Wolfenstein 3D
Gameplay of the final battle with Hitler (mecha-hitler included).
[Link]
Robin Hood: Conquests of the Longbow
The capture and trial of Robin Hood. (Watch to 8m45s)
[Link]
X-Com
Gameplay that gives a general idea of how the game works, note how save-scumming could be used to
test possible strategies.
[Link]
The Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time
Gameplay. Clip 2 is the trailer (shows the powers in action).

[Link]
[Link]
Zork
A short playthrough of Zork, a text adventure game, where commands mush be specific and a determined
path is set for the successful completion of the game
[Link]
Hitch Hikers Guide to the Galaxy
The end of play for this complex text adventure
[Link]
Spellbreaker
A speedrun of the text adventure. Second link shows images of the feelies.
[Link]
[Link]
Hitch Hikers Guide to the Galaxy
The end of play for this complex text adventure
[Link]
A Mind Forever Voyaging
Gameplay clip for the first part of the game. Link two shows images of the associated/required feelies.
[Link]
[Link]

Created Sun 24 Aug 2014 9:05 AM PET

Last Modified Fri 9 Jan 2015 12:42 PM PET