CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION
1

2. PRINCIPLE OF ACC
2
2.1 PRINCIPLE OF ACC
2
2.2 CONSTITUENTS OF AN ACC SYSTEM
2

3. SENSOR OPTIONS
4
3.1. LIDAR
4
3.2. RADAR
6
3.2.1 PULSE DOPPLER RADAR
6
3.2.2 EFFECT OF DOPPLER SHIFT
7
3.2.3 RADAR ANTENNA SCHEMES
8
3.3 FUSION SENSOR
11

4. SPACE OF MANEUVERABILITY AND STOPPING DISTANCE:

13

5. CONTROLLER
14
5.1ARTIFICIAL COGNITION
14
5.2. EXAMPLE OF ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROLLER
15
6. CO OPERATIVE ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL [CACC]
18
6.1. MAIN POSTULATIONS ABOUT CACC
18

7. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

20

8. CONCLUSION
21

9. REFERENCE
22

SL NO List of Figures
page No

1 Range estimation Using FMCW-LIDAR

5

2 Block diagram of pulse Doppler radar

7

3 Parabolic reflector antenna

9

4 Phased array elements

10

5 A prototype of a car with fusion sensor

arrangement 11
6 Block diagram of sensing and controlling process
12

7 Detection of vehicle edges by the fusion sensor

13

8 Flow diagram of controlling process

15

9 Motorola ACC
16

10 Electronically tied vehicles

19

Abstract

The concept of assisting driver in the task of longitudinal vehicle control is

known as
cruise control. Starting from the cruise control devices of the seventies and
eighties,now

the technology has reached cooperative adaptive cruise control. This paper
will address

the basic concept of adaptive cruise control and the requirement to realize
its improved

versions including stop and go adaptive cruise control and co-operative

adaptive cruise

control. The conventional cruise control was capable only to maintain a set
speed by

accelerating or decelerating the vehicle. Adaptive cruise control devices are

capable of

assisting the driver to keep a safe distance from the preceding vehicle by
controlling the

engine throttle and brake according to the sensor data about the vehicle.
Most of the

systems use RADAR as the sensor .a few use LIDAR also. Controller includes
the

digital signal processing modules and microcontroller chips specially

designed for

actuating throttle and brake. The stop and go cruise control is for the slow
and

congested traffic of the cities where the traffic may be frequently stopped.
Cooperative

controllers are not yet released but postulations are already there. This
paper includes a

brief theory of pulse Doppler radar and FM-CW LIDAR used as sensors and
the basic

concept of the controller.

 INTRODUCTION

Everyday the media brings us the horrible news on road accidents. Once a
report said

that the damaged property and other costs may equal 3 % of the world’s
gross domestic

product. The concept of assisting driver in longitudinal vehicle control to

avoid collisions

has been a major focal point of research at many automobile companies

and research

organizations. The idea of driver assistance was started with the ‘cruise
control devices’

first appeared in 1970’s in USA. When switched on, this device takes up the
task of

accelerating or braking to maintain a constant speed. But it could not

consider the other

vehicles on the road.

An ‘Adaptive Cruise Control’ (ACC) system developed as the

next

generation assisted the driver to keep a safe distance from the vehicle in
front.

Conventional cruise control was capable only to maintain a set speed by

accelerating
or decelerating the vehicle. Adaptive cruise control devices are capable of
assisting the

driver to keep a safe distance from the preceding vehicle by controlling the
engine

throttle and brake according to the sensor data about the vehicle. This
system is now

available only in some luxury cars like Mercedes S-class, Jaguar and Volvo
trucks. the

U.S. Department of transportation and Japan’s ACAHSR have started

developing

‘Intelligent Vehicles’ that can communicate with each other with the help of
a system

called ‘ Co-operative Adaptive Cruise Control’.this paper addresses the

concept of

Adaptive Cruise and its improved version.

2. ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL (ACC)

2.1 PRINCIPLE OF ACC

ACC works by detecting the distance and speed of the vehicles ahead by
using either a

Lidar system or a Radar system .The time taken by the transmission and
reception is

the key of the distance measurement while the shift in frequency of the
reflected beam

by Doppler Effect is measured to know the speed. According to this, the

brake and
throttle controls are done to keep the vehicle the vehicle in a safe position
with respect

to the other. These systems are characterized by a moderately low level of

brake and

throttle authority.

Adaptive cruise control devices are capable of assisting the driver to keep a
safe

distance from the preceding vehicle by controlling the engine throttle and
brake

according to the sensor data about the vehicle. Most of the systems use
RADAR as the

sensor .a few use LIDAR also.Controller includes the digital signal processing
modules

and microcontroller chips specially designed for actuating throttle and

brake. These are

predominantly designed for highway applications with rather homogenous

traffic

behavior. The second generation of ACC is the Stop and Go Cruise Control
(SACC)

whose objective is to offer the customer longitudinal support on cruise

control at lower

speeds down to zero velocity. The SACC can help a driver in situations where
all lanes

are occupied by vehicles or where it is not possible to set a constant speed

or in a

frequently stopped and congested traffic. There is a clear distinction

between ACC and

SACC with respect to stationary targets. The ACC philosophy is that it will be
operated

in well structured roads with an orderly traffic flow with speed of vehicles
around
40km/hour. While SACC system should be able to deal with stationary targets
because

within its area of operation the system will encounter such objects very
frequently.

2.2 CONSTITUENTS OF AN ACC SYSTEM:

1. A sensor (LIDAR or RADAR) usually kept behind the grill of the vehicle to
obtain the

information regarding the vehicle ahead. The relevant target data may be
velocity,

distance,angular position and lateral acceleration.

3. SENSOR OPTIONS:
Currently four means of object detection are technically feasible and
applicable in a

vehicle environment. They are

1.RADAR

2.LIDAR

FUSION SENSORS

3.1 LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)

3.1.1 Lidar is an optical remote sensing technology that measures

properties of

scattered light to find range and/or other information of a distant target. The
prevalent

method to determine distance to an object or surface is to use laser pulses.

Like the

similar radar technology, which uses radio waves instead of light, the range
to an object
is determined by measuring the time delay between transmission of a pulse
and

detection of the reflected signal. LIDAR The first acc system introduced by
Toyota used

this method. By measuring the beat frequency difference between a

Frequency

Modulated Continuous light Wave (FMCW) and its reflection.

There are several major components to a lidar system:

3.1.2Laser — 600-1000 nm lasers are most common for non-scientific

applications.

They are inexpensive but since they can be focused and easily absorbed by
the eye the

maximum power is limited by the need to make them eye-safe. Eye-safety is

often a

requirement for most applications. A common alternative 1550 nm lasers are

eye-safe

at much higher power levels since this wavelength is not focussed by the
eye, but the

detector technology is less advanced and so these wavelengths are

generally used at

longer ranges and lower accuracies. They are also used for military
applications as

1550 nm is not visible in night vision goggles unlike the shorter 1000 nm
infrared laser.

Airborne topographic mapping lidars generally use 1064 nm diode pumped

YAG lasers,

while bathymetric systems generally use 532 nm frequency doubled diode

pumped

YAG lasers because 532 nm penetrates water with much much less
attenuation than
does 1064 nm. Laser settings include the laser repetition rate (which controls
the data

collection speed). Pulse length is generally an attribute of the laser cavity

length, the

number of passes required through the gain material (YAG, YLF, etc.), and Q-
switch

speed. Better target resolution is achieved with shorter pulses, provided the
Lidar

receiver detectors and electronics have sufficient bandwidth.

3.1.3Scanner and optics— How fast images can be developed is also

affected by the

speed at which it can be scanned into the system. There are several options
to scan the

azimuth and elevation, including dual oscillating plane mirrors, a

combination with a

polygon mirror, a dual axis scanner. Optic choices affect the angular
resolution and

range that can be detected. A hole mirror or a beam splitter are options to
collect a

return signal.

3.1.4Receiver and receiver electronics — Receivers are made out of

several

materials. Two common ones are Si and InGaAs. They are made in either PIN
diode or

Avalanche photodiode configurations. The sensitivity of the receiver is

another

parameter that has to be balanced in a LIDAR design.

 Fig 1.Range estimation using FMCW-LIDAR

A company named Vorad Technologies has developed a system which

measured up to

one hundred meters. A low powered, high frequency modulated laser diode
was used to

generate the light signal.

Most of the current acc systems are based on 77GHz RADAR sensors. The
RADAR

systems have the great advantage that the relative velocity can be
measured directly,

and the performance is not affected by heavy rain and fog. LIDAR system is
of low cost

and provides good angular resolution although these weather conditions

restrict its use

within a 30 to 40 meters range.

3.2 RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging):

RADAR is an electromagnetic system for the detection and location of

reflecting objects
like air crafts, ships, space crafts or vehicles. It is operated by radiating
energy into

space and detecting the echo signal reflected from an object (target) the
reflected

energy is not only indicative of the presence but on comparison with the
transmitted

signal, other information of the target can be obtained. The currently used
‘Pulse

Doppler RADAR’ uses the principle of ‘Doppler effect’ in determining the

velocity of the

target.

3.2.1 PULSE DOPPLER RADAR:

The block diagram of pulse Doppler radar is as shown in figure.2.The

continuous wave

oscillator produces the signal to be transmitted and it is pulse modulated and

power

amplified. The ‘duplexer’ is a switching device which is fast-acting to switch

the single

antenna from transmitter to receiver and back. The duplexer is a gas-

discharge device

called TR-switch. The high power pulse from transmitter causes the device to
break

down and to protect the receiver.

On reception, duplexer directs the echo signal to the receiver. The detector

demodulates the received signal and the Doppler filter removes the noise
and outputs

the frequency shift ‘fd’.

Fig3.2.1. Block diagram of pulse Doppler radar

3.2.2 EFFECT OF DOPPLER SHIFT:

The transmitter generates a continuous sinusoidal oscillation at frequency

‘ft’which is

then radiated by the antenna. On reflection by a moving object, the

transmitted signal is

shifted by the Doppler Effect by ‘fd’. to the target is ‘ If the range R’, total
number of

wavelength is ‘λ’ in the two way- path is given by,

n = 2R/ λ

The phase change corresponding to each λ =2π

So total phase change, p=2n П

=2(2R/ λ) π

So, if target moves, ‘R’ changes and hence ‘φ’ also changes.

Now, the rate of change of phase, or the ‘angular frequency’ is

W=dφ/dt =4 π (df/dt)/ λ

Let Vr be the linear velocity, called as ‘radial velocity’

 WD = 4 πVr/ λ =2πfd.

Fd=2Vr / λ

But λ = ft, the transmitted velocity.

Fd= (2c Vr)/ ft

So by measuring the shift, Vr is found. The ‘plus’ sign indicates that the
target and the

transmitter are closing in. i.e. if the target is near, the echoed signal will
have larger

frequency.

3.2.3 RADAR ANTENNA SCHEMES:

Radar systems employ a variety of sensing and processing methods to

determine the

position and speed of vehicles ahead. Two such important schemes are:

1. mechanically steered antenna

2. electronically steered antenna

1. Mechanically steered antenna:

A parabolic reflector is used as mechanically steered antenna. The parabolic

surface is

illuminated by the source of energy placed at the focus of the parabola.

Rotating about

its axis, a circular parabola is formed. A symmetrical beam can be thus

obtained. The

rays originating from focus are reflected parallel to the axis of parabola. [Fig
(3.2.3).]
 Fig 3.2.3.Parabolic reflector antenna

1. Electronically steered phased array radar antenna

A phased array is a directive antenna made up of a number of individual

antennas, or

radiating elements. The radiation pattern is determined by the amplitude

and phase of

current at each of its elements. It has the advantage of being able to have its
beam

electronically steered in angles by changing phase of current at each

element. The

beam of a large fixed phased array antenna is therefore can be rapidly

steered from one

direction to another without mechanical positioning

Consider the following figure with ‘N elements placed (equally

separated) with

a distance‘d’ apart. Suppose they have uniform response to signals from all
directions.

Element ‘1’ is taken as reference with zero phase.

 Fig 3.2.3.. Phased array elements (example: reception of the beams)

From simple geometry, we can get difference between path lengths of

beam1 and that

of beam2 is x = d sinθ, where ‘θ’ is the angle of incidence of the beams. This
gives

phase difference between adjacent elements as Φ= 2π (d sinθ)/ λ, where ‘λ’

is the wave

length of the signal. But if the current through a ferro electric element is
changed, the

dielectric constant ‘ε’ is changed since electron density is changed, and for
an

electromagnetic radiation,
 Φ = 2πx /

=2πxf/v,

here the velocity v = f λ

= 1/ (√μ ε)

Hence Φ=2πxf (√μ ε).

So if ‘ε’ is changed ‘Φ’ also changes and inserting ‘N’ phase shifting elements
to steer

the beam, we can obtain an electronically steered beam. Regardless of the

scanning

mechanism the radars typically operate in the millimeter wave region at 76-
77 GHz.The

system should be mounted inside the front grille of the car as shown in
figure. So its

size is to be small. Typical radar produced by Delphi-Delco Electronic

systems is having

the size of two stacked paper back books (14x7x10 cm).

3.3 FUSION SENSOR

The new sensor system introduced by Fujitsu Ten Ltd. and Honda through
their PATH

program includes millimeter wave radar linked to a 640x480 pixel stereo

camera with a

40 degree viewing angle. These two parts work together to track the car
from the non-

moving objects. While RADAR target is the car’s rear bumper, the stereo
camera is

constantly captures all objects in its field of view.

Figg3.3 A prototype of a car with fusion sensor arrangement
 Fig 3.3.Block diagram of sensing and controlling process

The image processor measures the distances to the objects through

triangulation

method. This method includes an algorithm based on the detection of the

vertical edges

and distance.Incorporating both the 16-degree field of view of radar and 40-
degree field

of view of camera enhances the performance in tight curves.

4. SPACE OF MANEUVERABILITY AND STOPPING DISTANCE

The space of maneuverability is the space required by the driver to
maneuver a vehicle.

An average driver uses larger sideways acceleration while vehicle speed is

low. If the

curve radius of a possible trajectory is ‘r’ for a given velocity ‘v’ and
sideways

acceleration ‘ay’ ,then

r= / ay [2].so to get the required ‘r’ ,when ‘v’ is low, ‘ay’ is

also to be low

correspondingly.

The stopping distance is given by, Ds = .5 u /ax + td u, where ‘u’ is the initial
speed ‘td’

is the time taken by the system to receive and process the sensor data and
‘ax’ is the

acceleration of the vehicle .the figure shows the detection of edges of the
preceding

vehicles.
 Fig 4.Detection of vehicle edges by the fusion sensor

5. CONTROLLER
The controller translates the situation into appropriate actions through brake
and

pedal and throttle control actions. Depending on the present traffic situation,
two types

of controls are possible.

1. Speed control

2. Headway control

If there is no vehicle presently in front, then the speed is controlled about a

set point just

as in conventional cruise control. But in order to keep a safe distance

between the
vehicle s, the headway control is required.

5.1 ARTIFICIAL COGNITION

The conversion of raw information from sensors to control actions by the two
steps:-

1. Analyzing the traffic conditions

2. Deciding on a particular situation

The controller translates the desired situation into appropriate control action
through

brake and throttle actuation. The controller concept is simplified in the flow-
diagram:

Fig 8.Flow diagram of controlling proces

5.2EXAMPLE OF ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROLLER (MOTOROLA ACC)

The Motorola ACC constitutes a DSP module having MGT5200 which provides
a

multiply accumulator.
 The sensor data such as Radar information, that from camera and
an IR

sensor are processed in it, to generate the input data for the controller
modules like

HC12 and MPC565.

Fig5.2. Motorola ACC

5.2.1 MPC565

It is a throttle controller or an engine speed controller. It consists of the

following

features

1. SRAM (1MB to10 MB)

2. FLASH 1MB
3. EEPROM (4KB to 32 KB)

4. Real time clock

5. 4 x UART interfaces

6. 3 X CAN interfaces

7. 64-bit floating point unit.

The MPC 565 can be programmed to generate the control signals according
to the

sensor data.

‘The Phycore-MPC 565 developers’ are available to program and develop the
desired

controller.

The throttle valve is actuated and the air intake is controlled so the
requirement of fuel

for the right proportion with the air also increases. So more fuel is injected
and engine

speed is changed.

5.2.2 HC12

68HC12 has 2 8-bit accumulators A and B (referred to as a single 16-bit

accumulator,

D, when A & B are cascaded so as to allow for operations involving 16 bits), 2

16-bit

registers X and Y, a 16-bit program counter, a 16-bit stack pointer and an 8

bit condition

code register..

The 68HC12 (6812 or HC12 for short) is a 16-bit microcontroller family from
freescale
semiconductor. Originally introduced in the mid 1990s, the architecture isThe
HC12 is a

breaking controller which receives data from the wheel speed sensors and
from the

DSP module. It generates the braking control signal.

5.2.3 CAN (Control Area Network) BUS

CAN BUS is the network established between microcontrollers. It is a2-wire,

half-

duplex, high speed network for high speed high speed applications with short

messages. It can theoretically link up to 2032 devices on a network. But

today the

practical limit is 110 devices. It offers high speed communication rate up to

1Mbits per

second and allows real time control. .Each module in the ACC connected to
the CAN is

called ‘a node’. All are acting as transceivers.

The CAN bus carries data to and from all nodes and provides quicker control
transfer to

each module.The actuator used for throttle control is a solenoid actuator.

The signal

through the coil can push or pull the plunger

6. COOPERATIVE ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL

[CACC]
Though conventional ACC and SACC are still expensive novelties, the next
generation

called Cooperative ACC is already being tested. While ACC can respond to
the

difference between its own behavior and that of the preceding vehicle, the
CACC
system allows the vehicles to communicate and to work together to avoid
collision.

Partners of Advanced Transit Highways (PATH) –a program of California

Department of

Transportation and University of California with companies like Honda

conducted an

experiment in which three test vehicles used a communication protocol in

which the

lead car can broadcast information about its speed, acceleration ,breaking
capacity to

the rest of the groups in every 20ms. PATH is dedicated to develop systems
that allow

cars to set up platoons of vehicles in which the cars communicate with each
other by

exchanging signals using protocols like Bluetooth.

6.1 MAIN POSTULATIONS ABOUT CACC:

1. In CACC mode, the preceding vehicles can communicate actively with the
following s

Vehicle So that their speed can be coordinated with each other.

2. Because communication is quicker, more reliable and responsive

compared to

autonomous sensing as in ACC.

3. Because braking rates, breaking capacity and other important information

about the

vehicles can be exchanged, safer and closer vehicle traffic is possible.

Figg6 .Under CACC, both the leading and following vehicles are
electronically “tied” to a

virtul reference vehicle, as well as to each other.

 7. ADVANTAGES
1. The driver is relieved from the task of careful acceleration, deceleration
and braking in

congested traffics.

2. A highly responsive traffic system that adjusts itself to avoid accidents can
be

developed.

3. Since the breaking and acceleration are done in a systematic way, the fuel
efficiency

of the vehicle is increased.

DISADVANTAGES
1. A cheap version is not yet realized.

2. A high market penetration is required if a society of intelligent vehicles is

to be

formed.

3. Encourages the driver to become careless. It can lead to severe accidents

if the

system is malfunctioning.

4. The ACC systems yet evolved enable vehicles to cooperate with the other
vehicles

and hence do not respond directly to the traffic signals.

 8. CONCLUSION
The accidents caused by automobiles are injuring lakhs of people every year.
The

safety measures starting from air bags and seat belts have now reached to
ACC, SACC

and CACC systems. The researchers of Intelligent Vehicles Initiative in USA

and the

Ertico program of Europe are working on technologies that may ultimately

lead to

vehicles that are wrapped in a cocoon of sensors with a 360 –degree view of
their

surroundings. It will probably take decades, but car accidents may eventually
become

as rare as plane accidents are now, even though the road laws will have to
be changed,

upto an extent since the non-human part of the vehicle controlling will
become

predominant.
 9. REFERENCES
1. Willie D. Jones, “Keeping cars from crashing.” , IEEE Spectrum September
2001.

2. P.Venhovens, K. Naab and B. Adiprasto, “Stop And Go Cruise Control”,

International

Journal of Automotive Technology, Vol.1, No.2, 2000.

3. Martin D. Adams, “Co axial range Measurement-Current trends for Mobile

robotic

Applications”, IEEE Sensors journal, Vol.2, no.1 Feb.2002.

4. http:// path.Berkeley.edu

5. Merril I.Skolnik, “Introduction to RADAR Systems.”Tata Mc Grawhill edition

2001.