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Measuring and gauging instrument
4. Measurement of Surfaces
5. Inspection Principles
6. Advanced Measurement and
Inspection Techniques
1. Measurement
2. Metrology
3. Measuring and gauging
Instruments
7.
8. Measurement
Procedure in which an unknown quantity is compared to a known standard, using an
accepted and consistent system of units is known as measurement.
The measurement may involve a simple linear rule to scale the length of a part
Or it may require a sophisticated measurement of force versus deflection during a
tension test
Measurement provides a numerical value of the quantity of interest, within certain
limits of accuracy and precision
9.
10. Metrology
Defined as the science of measurement.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Concerned with seven fundamental
quantities (standard units shown in
parentheses):
Length (meter)
Mass (kilogram)
Time (second)
Electric current (ampere)
Temperature (degree Kelvin)
Light intensity (candela)
Matter (mole)
From these basic quantities, most
other physical quantities are derived,
such as:
Area
Volume
Velocity and acceleration
Force
Electric voltage
Heat energy
Manufacturing Metrology
In manufacturing metrology, we are usually concerned with measuring a length
quantity of a part or product
Length and width
Depth
Diameter
Straightness, flatness, and roundness, etc.
Surface roughness
Key Terms in Measurement
Basic size: The theoretical absolute perfect dimension, without any consideration of
limits or tolerances.
Limits: The maximum and minimum allowable dimensions, above and below the
basic size.
Tolerance: The permissible variation in the size of the part; shows the permissible
variation above and below the basic size.
Clearance: The difference in size between mating parts where the outside dimension
of the shaft is smaller than the internal dimension of the hole.
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Allowance: The intentional difference in the dimensions of mating parts, or the
minimum clearance that can be allowed between parts. It provides different classes
of fits.
Fits
The eight classes of fits are recognized by the ANSI;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Loose fit; large allowance
Free fit; liberal allowance
Medium fit; medium allowance
Snug fit; zero allowance
Wringing fit; zero to negative
allowance
9.
10.
6. Tight fit; slight negative
allowance
7. Medium force fit; negative
allowance
8. Heavy force and shrink fit;
considerable negative allowance
Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy - degree to which a measured value agrees with the true value of the
quantity of interest.
A measurement procedure is accurate when it is absent of systematic errors
Systematic errors - positive or negative deviations from true value that are
consistent from one measurement to the next
Precision - degree of repeatability in the measurement process.
Good precision means that random errors in the measurement procedure are
minimized
11.
12.
Accuracy versus precision in measurement:
a) High accuracy but low precision;
b) Low accuracy but high precision; and
c) High accuracy and high precision.
13.
14. Two
Dominant Systems of Units
Two systems of units have evolved into predominance in the world:
1. U.S. customary system (U.S.C.S.)
2. SI (for System International units) - the metric system
3.
4. Measuring Instruments and Gages
Conventional measuring instruments and gages include:
Precision gage blocks
Measuring instruments for linear dimensions
Comparative instruments
Fixed gages
Angular measurements
Precision Gage Blocks
The standards against which other dimensional measuring instruments and
gages are compared
Usually square or rectangular blocks
Surfaces are finished to be dimensionally accurate and parallel to several
millionths of an inch and are polished to a mirror finish
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Precision gage blocks are available in certain standard sizes or in sets, the latter
containing a variety of different sized blocks
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Measurement of Linear Dimensions
Measuring instruments are divided into two types:
Graduated measuring devices include a set of markings on a linear or angular
scale to which the object's feature of interest can be compared for measurement
Non-graduated measuring devices have no scale and are used to compare
dimensions or to transfer a dimension for measurement by a graduated device
Calipers
Micrometer
Figure-1: External micrometer, standard
one-inch size with digital.
Figure-2: Two sizes of
outside calipers.
Mechanical Gages: Dial Indicators
Mechanical gages are designed to mechanically magnify the deviation to
permit observation
and
Most common instrument in this category is the dial indicator, which converts
amplifies the linear movement of a contact pointer into rotation of a dial
The dial is graduated in small units such as 0.01 mm or 0.001 inch
Applications: measuring straightness, flatness, parallelism, squareness,
roundness, and runout
Dial Indicator
Figure 3: Dial indicator: front view
shows dial and graduated face; back
view shows rear of instrument with
cover plate removed.
Dial Indicator to Measure Runout
Figure 4: Dial
indicator setup to measure runout; as part is
rotated about its center, variations in outside surface
Electronic Gages
Family of measuring and gaging instruments based on transducers capable of
converting a linear displacement into an electrical signal
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Electrical signal is amplified and transformed into suitable data format such as a
digital readout
Applications of electronic gages have grown rapidly in recent years, driven by
advances in microprocessor technology
They are gradually replacing many of the conventional measuring and gaging
devices
GO/NO-GO gages
Snap Gage
So-called because one gage limit
allows the part to be inserted while the other limit
does not
GO limit - used to check the dimension at its
maximum material condition
This is the minimum size for an
internal feature such as a hole
It is the maximum size for an external
feature such as an outside diameter
NO-GO limit - used to inspect the minimum
material condition of the dimension in
question
Figure 5: Snap gage for measuring
diameter of a part; difference in height
of GO and NO-GO gage buttons is
exaggerated.
Measurement of Surfaces
Two parameters of interest:
Surface texture - geometry of the surface, commonly measured as surface
roughness
Surface roughness - small, finely-spaced deviations from the nominal
surface determined by material and process that formed the surface
Surface integrity - deals with the material characteristics immediately beneath
the surface and the changes to this subsurface that resulted from the processes
that created it
Measuring Instruments
Ruler
A ruler is used to measure lengths from a
few cm up to 1 m. A metre rule has an accuracy of
0.1 cm (i.e. 1 mm).
Precautions to be taken when
using a ruler:
a) Ensure that the object is in
contact with the ruler to avoid
inaccurate readings.
b) Avoid parallax errors.
Error = 0.1
Parallax errors in measurement
arise as a result of taking a reading, with the eye of the observer in the wrong
position with respect to the scale of the ruler.
Figure shows the correct position of
the eye when reading the scale
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c)
Avoid zero and end errors.
The ends of a ruler, which may be worn
out, are a source of errors in measurement.
Thus it is advisable to use the division mark
`1' of the scale as the zero point when
taking a measurement.
Length of the block, l =3.2cm-1.0cm
= 2.2 cm
Vernier Caliper
Lengths smaller than 1 mm can be
measured with the help of an instrument
called a vernier caliper.
A vernier caliper is used to measure an
object with dimensions up to 12 cm with
an accuracy of 0.01 cm.
Fig: Vernier
Caliper
There are two pairs of jaws; one is
designed to measure linear dimensions and external diameters
while the other is to measure internal diameters.
To measure with a vernier caliper, slide the
vernier scale along the main scale until the
object is held firmly between the jaws of the
caliper (Figure). The subsequent steps are as
follows:
o
The reading on the main scale is
determined with reference to the `0'
mark on the vernier scale. The
reading to be taken on the main scale
is the mark preceding the Figure 1.10
shows that the '0' mark on the
vernier scale lies between 3.2 cm
and 3.3 cm. The reading to be taken
on the main scale is 3.2 cm (the `0'
mark on the vernier scale acts as a pointer).
The reading to be taken on the vernier scale is indicated by the mark on the
vernier scale which is exactly in line or coincides with any main scale division line.
Figure 1.10 shows that the fourth mark on the vernier scale is exactly in line with
a mark on the main scale. Thus the second decimal reading of the measurement
is:
Vernier scale reading = 4 x 0.01 cm = 0.04 cm
The reading of the vernier caliper is
the result of the addition of the
reading on the main scale to the
reading on the vernier scale.
Caliper reading = Main scale
Reading + Vernier scale reading
Thus the reading of the vernier
caliper in Figure is
3.2 + 0.04 = 3.24 cm
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A vernier caliper has a zero error if the `0' mark on the main
scale is not in line with the '0' mark on the vernier scale when the
jaws of the caliper are fully closed.
i. Positive zero error
Zero error = +0.04 cm.
ii. Negative zero error
Zero error = -0.02 cm.
Micrometer Screw Gauge
A micrometer screw gauge is used
to measure small lengths ranging between
0.10 mm and 25.00 mm.
This instrument can be used to measure
diameters of wires and thicknesses of steel plates to an accuracy of 0.01 mm.
The micrometer scale comprises a main scale marked on the sleeve and a scale marked
on the thimble called the thimble scale.
The difference between one division on the
upper scale and one division on the lower scale is 0.5
mm. The thimble scale is subdivided into 50 equal
divisions. When the thimble is rotated through one complete turn, (i.e. 360) the gap
between the anvil and the spindle increases by 0.50 mm.
This means that one division on the thimble scale is
mm.
When taking a reading, the
thimble is turned until the object is
gripped very gently between the anvil
and the spindle. The ratchet knob is then
turned until a `click' sound is heard. The
ratchet knob is used to prevent the user
from exerting undue pressure. The grip
on the object must not be excessive as
this will affect the accuracy of the reading.
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5 mm
50
= 0.01
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Readings on the micrometer are taken as follows:
The last graduation showing on the main scale indicates
position between 2.0 mm and 2.5 mm. Thus the reading on
the main scale is read as 2.0 mm.
The reading on the thimble scale is the point where
the horizontal reference line of the main scale is in
line with the graduation mark on the thimble scale
Figure 1.15(b) shows this to be the 22nd mark on the
thimble scale, thus giving a reading of 22 x 0.01 mm
= 0.22 mm.
The reading of the micrometer screw gauge is the sum of the main scale reading and
the thimble scale reading which is:
2.0 + 0.22 =2.22 mm
Positive zero error
In Figure, the horizontal reference line in the main
scale is in line with the 4th division mark, on the positive
side of the `0' mark, on the thimble scale. The error of
+0.04 mm must be subtracted from all readings taken.
Zero error = +0.04 mm
Negative zero error
In Figure, the horizontal reference line on the
main scale is in line with the 3rd division mark, below
the `0' mark of the thimble scale.
Zero error = -0.03 mm
Inspection
Procedure in which a part or product feature, such as a dimension, is
examined to determine whether or not it conforms to design specification
Many inspections rely on measurement techniques, while others use gaging
methods
Gaging determines simply whether the part characteristic meets or does not meet
the design specification
Gaging is usually faster than measuring, but not much information is provided about
feature of interest
Types of Inspection
Inspection involves the use of measurement and gaging techniques to determine
whether a product, its components, subassemblies, or materials conform to design
specifications
Inspections divide into two types:
1. Inspection by variables product or part dimensions of interest are measured
by the appropriate measuring instruments
2. Inspection by attributes product or part dimensions are gaged to determine
whether or not they are within tolerance limits
Manual Inspection
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Sampling Inspection
When sampling inspection is used, the number of parts in the sample is usually
small compared to the quantity of parts produced
Sample size may be 1% of production run
Because not all of the items in the population are measured, there is a risk in
any sampling procedure that defective parts will slip through
The risk can be reduced by taking a larger sample size
Fact is that less than 100% good quality must be tolerated as the price
of using sampling
100% Inspection
Inspection procedures are often performed manually
The work is boring and monotonous, yet the need for precision and accuracy is
high
Hours may be required to measure the important dimensions of only one part
Because of the time and cost of manual inspection, statistical sampling
procedures are often used to reduce the need to inspect every part
Theoretically, the only way to achieve 100% good quality is by 100% inspection.
All defects are screened and only good quality parts are passed.
Definition of Non Destructive Testing
The use of noninvasive techniques is to determine the integrity of a material,
component or structure or quantitatively measure some characteristic of an
object, i.e., Inspect or measure without doing harm.
When NDE Methods are used?
To
To
To
To
To
To
assist in product development
screen or sort incoming materials
monitor, improve or control manufacturing processes
verify proper processing such as heat treating
verify proper assembly
inspect for in-service damage
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Common Application of NDT
Inspection of Raw Products
Inspection Following Secondary Processing
In-Services Damage Inspection
Advanced Technologies in Inspection
Substitutes for manual measuring and gaging techniques in modern
manufacturing
Usually faster and more reliable than manual inspection
Include contact and non-contact sensing methods:
1. Coordinate measuring machines
2. Lasers
3. Machine vision
4. Other non-contact techniques
Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)
the
Measuring machine consisting of a contact probe and a mechanism to position
probe in three-dimensions relative to surfaces and features of a work part:
The probe is fastened to a structure that allows movement relative to the part
Part is fixture on worktable connected to structure
The location coordinates of the probe can be accurately recorded as it contacts the
part surface to obtain part geometry data
CMM Probes
Modern "touch-trigger" probes with sensitive electrical contact that signals
when the probe is deflected from neutral position in the slightest amount
On contact, the coordinate positions are recorded by the CMM controller,
adjusting for over travel and probe size
CMM Advantages
Higher productivity - a CMM can perform complex inspection procedures in
much less time than traditional manual methods
Greater inherent accuracy and precision than conventional methods
Reduced human error
Versatility - a CMM is a general purpose machine that can be used to inspect a
variety of part configurations
Measurements with Lasers
Laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
Lasers for measurement are low-power gas lasers that emit light in the visible
range
Laser light beam is:
Highly monochromatic - the light has a single wave length
Highly collimated - the light rays are parallel
These properties have motivated many applications in measurement and
inspection
Scanning Laser Systems
Laser beam deflected by a rotating mirror to sweeps a beam of light past an
object
Photo detector on far side of the object senses the light beam during its sweep
except for the short time while it is interrupted by the object
This time period can be measured quickly with great accuracy
A microprocessor system measures the time interruption related to the size of
the object in the path of the laser, and converts it to a linear dimension
Figure: Scanning laser system for measuring diameter of cylindrical
work part; time of interruption of light beam is proportional to
diameter D.
