THE

SELF-EMPLOYED
TRANSLATORS
GUIDE
Dr Wolfgang Frick

THE SELF-EMPLOYED TRANSLATORS GUIDE

Dr Wolfgang Frick

The Self-Employed Translators Guide

(first edition 2008)
Cover designed by Harley Valerius
First published 2009
Text copyright 2008 National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
The opinions expressed in this book are those of the author and are purely of an advisory nature. NAATI takes no
responsibility for how users of this book may rely on the information provided.
DISCLAIMER
All reasonable care has been taken in compiling this guide. It is intended for translators who are setting up their own business
at home. It guides readers through some basic steps and warns them of pitfalls. The occasional repetition serves to reinforce
a point made earlier. Experienced translators who have been in business for a while may still be able to gather some useful
information from this guide. It does not claim to have answers for all the situations translators may encounter during their
career.
Helpful suggestions on how to improve this publication will be welcomed by NAATI for it is acknowledged that every first
edition has room for improvement.
Information contained in this guide is current at the date of publication, however with technology moving at a rapid pace
the guide will require updating from time to time.
Readers are advised that NAATI and the contributors and writers of this publication will therefore not be held liable for
any commercial decision readers may take, based solely on the grounds of advice offered in this guide. Any decisions and/or
actions taken by translators will always remain their own responsibility. In case of doubt regarding the content of this guide
or the advice given in it, translators are advised to consult additional sources, confer with their peers or seek help from
professional associations, such as AUSIT and others.
Where this guide contains information from outside sources, these have been duly acknowledged and NAATIs thanks go to
the contributors.
Lastly, please note that this guide was written in the main for Australian-based translators.

About the Author

Dr. Wolfgang Frick enjoyed a 33 year airline career before becoming a university lecturer and understands the need for plain
language when trying to get a message across successfully. He has been associated with the interpreting/translating profession
for over 50 years as an active language practitioner. He has lectured on the topic of interpreting and translating at tertiary
level for twenty years and is a frequent workshop presenter for NAATI.
Dr. Frick is a native speaker of German, but is equally at home in English, French, Italian, Spanish, Arabic, Russian, Chinese,
Indonesian and Malay. He was educated at secondary and tertiary level in Austria, the U.S.A., Australia, Egypt, China and
Indonesia.
He was the former Head of Department for the Interpreting/Translating degree program at Edith Cowan University, and
until recently was a lecturer for the School of Language and Literature at Edith Cowan and Murdoch Universities.
He has also held the position of Chair of NAATI Board position twice, most recently in the 2001 2003 period and was the
inaugural Chair when NAATI was first established.
Dr Frick continues to be involved with NAATI via the Regional Advisory Committee.

Contents
Introduction

Chapter 1 - Prerequisites for Translators

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6

3
3
4
5
5
5

Fluency in at Least Two Languages

Academic Qualifications
NAATI Accreditation
Observation of the Professional Code of Ethics
Membership of a Professional Association/Society/Institute
Awareness of Translators Rights and Obligations

Chapter 2 - Language, Cross-cultural and Special Skills

2.1 Language and Translation Skills in both Source and Target Language
2.2 Cross-cultural Knowledge and Skills
2.3 A Good General Knowledge
2.4 Detailed Knowledge in Areas of Specialisation (e.g. Medicine, Law, Science, Technology, et al)

9
9
11
11
11

Chapter 3 - Other Skill Requirements

3.1 Keyboard and Computer Skills
3.2 Methodology Skills
3.3 Time Management (Prioritising) Skills
3.4 Communication and Public Relations Skills
3.5 Research Skills (Library Skills and Net-surfing Skills)
3.6 Proofreading Skills
3.7 Accounting Skills
3.8 Marketing Skills

15
15
16
16
17
17
18
18
19

Chapter 4 - Equipment and Helpful Tools

4.1 PC or Laptop with ADSL (Broadband Internet Connection), E-mail and Fax Facilities
4.2 Laser Printer
4.3 Flatbed Scanner
4.4 Photocopier
4.5 Fax Machine
4.6 Fixed Telephone Line and/or Mobile Phone
4.7 Magnifying Glass or Plastic Magnifying Sheets
4.8 Old Fashioned Golf Ball Typewriter for Completion of Non-electronic Forms
4.9 CAT, TM, Localisation, Word Count and Code-Converter Software Tools
4.10 Translation Management and Accounting Software
4.11 Anti-virus, Spyware and Malware Protection Software
4.12 Voice Input or Dictation Software and Voice Readers
4.13 Translation Templates

23
23
23
23
24
24
24
25
25
25
27
27
27
27

Chapter 5 - Dictionaries
5.1 Monolingual Dictionaries in your Working Languages
5.2 Thesauruses in your Working Languages
5.3 Bi-lingual Dictionaries in Working Languages
5.4 Specialised Bi-lingual Dictionaries in the Languages and Subject Areas in which you

Undertake Translation e.g. Medical, Legal, Technical Dictionaries
5.5 Computer-based Dictionaries
5.6 Web-based Online Dictionaries
5.7 Hand-held Electronic Dictionaries

29
29
29
29

Chapter 6 - Reference Tools

6.1 A Well Indexed World Atlas
6.2 One or Several Encyclopaedias in your Working Languages
6.3 Subject-related Reference Books and Materials

33
33
33
33

Chapter 7 - Requirements for Working from Home via the Internet

7.1 Adequate Computer Resident Anti-virus, Anti-spyware and Anti-malware, Ad-aware,

Firewall and General Internet Security Protection
7.2 An Optional Personal Website or Work-related E-mail Address
7.3 A Reliable Internet Service Provider (ISP)
7.4 Local and International Internet-based Clientele
7.5 Secure Electronic Payment and Banking Facilities
7.6 Essential Work-related Computer Software

35

Chapter 8 - Machine Translation (MT)

8.1 The Concept
8.2 Available Tools

39
39
39

Chapter 9 - Areas of Specialisation

9.1 Medical Translation
9.2 Technical - Scientific Translation
9.3 Legal Translation
9.4 Literary Translation
9.5 Business (Commercial) Translation
9.6 Interpreting

41
41
41
41
42
43
44

29
29
30
30

35
35
36
36
36
36

Contents
Appendices

47

Index:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)

Model Contract (by Courtesy of ATA)

Sample Cost Estimate, Charges Calculation and Securing the Job
Sample Invoice
Glossary of Acronyms and Other Terms
Bibliography of Print Materials Relating to Translation
Bibliography of Internet Resources
CAT Tools Available for Download from the Internet
Translation Agencies Offering Work on the Internet
e-Pay via the Internet
Dictionaries and Glossaries Available on the Internet
Logical Steps in Tackling a Translation
Useful Conversion Tables
Large Numbers
Roman Numerals
Important Measurements

48
52
53
54
56
58
59
59
59
60
60
60
60
61
61

Introduction
In this our present 21st century, a considerable number of translators all over the world are working from home. This
often means that translators are not contracted to work solely for a single company or organisation, but that they are able
to choose their clients. Self-employed translators, who operate a small home-based business, need to provide their own
equipment, dictionaries and reference materials and take full responsibility for managing their own business affairs. This
means that they will need to advertise their services and special skills as a translator in the languages in which they hold
educational qualifications or in which they are accredited by the relevant national accreditation or licensing authority. In
Australia the accreditation authority is NAATI.
Translators also frequently choose to belong to professional associations, societies or institutes, which have been established
in many countries around the world, in order to regulate, promote and advocate for the translating profession. In Australia,
Australian Institute of Interpreters and Translators Incorporated (AUSIT) operates in all states and territories. Translators
pledge to abide by a Code of Ethics, promulgated by these professional associations and can turn to these associations when
seeking help, advice or the resolution of disputes.
Translators who are selfemployed and manage their own accounts are advised to take out professional insurance cover
(sometimes available through the professional associations). In Australia translators may also obtain an Australian Business
Number (ABN). This is an 11 digit identification number, which is used by businesses dealing with other businesses. You are
well advised to register for an ABN to put on your invoices, as businesses, which owe you money, may otherwise withhold
46.5% under Pay As you Go (PAYG) taxation of the payment to you. It is true that registering for an ABN is not compulsory,
but consider the above and furthermore the fact that businesses with a turnover of $50,000 require an ABN so they can
register for Goods and Service Tax (GST), in order to claim GST credits for the GST component, paid on goods or services
for their business.
If you undertake translations as an employee of a company or if you are a small freelancer or self-funded retiree, you may not
need an ABN. You will simply continue to use your tax file number when reporting your annual income to the Australian
Taxation Office (ATO). The matter of GST in turn is a complex one and cannot be covered in this guide. You must therefore
inform yourself thoroughly by visiting the website of the ATO under the URL [Link] and taking your own
professional advice. There you will also find detailed information on the ABN and can find information pertaining to your
personal circumstances
The majority of modern translators work with personal computers that are linked to the Internet. Translators are therefore
able to register their names and qualifications with translation agencies worldwide. Sometimes a small fee may be payable for
a service, which allows translators to bid for any translation work on offer on these websites.
For translators in Australia, the time difference between both Europe and the United States works to their advantage and
makes them more competitive in the global market place. However, rates of pay for translators are often considerably lower
in overseas countries.
This brief guide attempts to point translators wishing to establish a home-based business in the right direction. It makes no
claim to be a panacea or to answer every question translators may have. However, it will tell self-employed translators about
some of the essential equipment and steps required in setting up a translation business at home. It is hoped that the hints
given in the following chapters may therefore prove beneficial to self-employed translators and will encourage them to widen
their horizon by undertaking further professional training and personal research with the help of the Internet. The World
Wide Web will assist translators with their endeavour of keeping up-to-date with the many neologisms of the ever changing
languages and introduce them to some of the new technology applying to the field of translation.

CHAPTER ONE
PREREQUISITES

CHAPTER 1 - Prerequisites
1.1 Fluency in at Least Two Languages
In order to work as a professional translator one needs to be absolutely fluent in at least two languages. Fluency in the case
of translators relates to written rather than oral language skills. Thus, vocabulary, spelling and grammar rules are required
to be near perfect in both the source and target language. The language from which one translates is generally referred to as
the Source Language (SL). The language into which one translates is known as the Target Language (TL). Translators must
possess excellent written skills in the target language, the target text needing to reflect the original style of the material in the
source language.
Fluency in a language requires translators to fully comprehend the source language text that is to be translated both at the
level of content (what the text is all about) and at the linguistic level (semantics, syntactic structures, grammatical features,
such as noun cases, correct verb tenses, etc). Many people working as translators hold at least a bachelors (e.g. BA) degree in
the target language and quite a number also have Masters (e.g. MA) and Doctor of Philosophy (e.g. PhD) degrees. However,
academic qualifications and mere bilingualism alone are not necessarily enough to make a good translator.
Translation requires training, extensive practice and dedication to the job. Translators who overestimate their linguistic and
translating skills are likely to produce inferior translations. They will most likely be unsuccessful in securing repeat work and
will therefore not last long in the translation business. It must be mentioned however, that at times, individuals who lack
patience working as translators may in fact make good interpreters. The two skills, although similar, require different abilities
and training. The guide will include a short paragraph on interpreting under point (f) of the areas of specialisation chapter
(page 49).
It is very important that translators, who do not hold formal academic or other qualifications in translating, undergo skills
training. This not only applies to language skills, but more and more to computer literacy and the thorough knowledge of
computer-aided translation (CAT) tools. Translator training in Australia is available at some TAFE colleges and universities
in all states and territories and in an abridged format in regular workshops run by NAATI and the professional associations
such as AUSIT, WAITI and others.
For Australian translators who hold no formal accreditation and seek to gain it by means of sitting a test, NAATI runs test
preparation workshops in all states and territories which focus preparing for the test and, to a limited extent, on translation
skills and the code of ethics.
It is advisable to attend one of these workshops prior to sitting the NAATI professional translator test which, when successfully
completed, will lead to accreditation as a professional translator.
The NAATI website ([Link]) or the NAATI state and territory offices can provide prospective test candidates with
detailed information about test preparation workshops, requirements and fees. Other countries around the world provide
similar testing and accreditation facilities and readers of this guide, who live outside Australia, may wish to conduct a web
search in order to find the required information relating to their own country.
1.2 Academic Qualifications
In Australia and in many countries around the globe tertiary institutions run special degree, diploma or graduate diploma
courses for the training of translators. These courses generally lead to academic qualifications in translating or applied
linguistics. You can check such course availability on the Internet by simply searching under translator courses or translator
training and will find up to 100 web pages listing such training courses. Some institutions even offer diplomas for Internetbased translator training courses. These need to be carefully checked for their quality and recognition in the country in which
translators wish to practice.
Individuals who join translator training courses at the basic level are mostly bilinguals who already possess advanced language
skills in two or more languages, or students who have completed a bachelors degree or advanced diploma course in language
studies or who have studied a Language Other Than English (LOTE) to an advanced level at a TAFE college.


Translator training courses in Australia, which have NAATI approval, are listed on the NAATI web site. University and TAFE
courses, approved by NAATI, generally administer end of course tests that are equivalent to the translator tests administered
by NAATI. In some instances the final course examinations undertaken by students after completion of their university or
TAFE courses in Australia may even exceed the NAATI requirements as to their degree of difficulty and therefore prepare
candidates well for a future career as translators. A successful pass in training courses, which are NAATI accredited, may lead
to automatic NAATI accreditation, without having to sit an additional NAATI translator test. If intending to undertake such
translator training courses, prospective enrollees should first enquire with the relevant educational establishments, in order
to ascertain, whether NAATI accreditation at a given level is available upon completion of such a training course. NAATIapproved courses are listed on the NAATI website.
To become an efficient translator, some formal language training and ongoing practice are required. Practicing translators
will usually maintain their language skills, update their general knowledge and acquire new skills, by attending workshops
and by reading books specialising in translation (see references in appendix). Any new skills acquired will most likely focus
to a greater extent on the efficient use of the latest computer-based software tools used by translators working for the
growing localisation industry (this means, inter alia, the marketing of local products and services in the local market places
worldwide) . The chapters on computer-aided translations (CAT) tools and machine translations (MT) discuss a number
of software programs with which translators need to become familiar, if they wish to work on and via the Internet. More
information can also be found on subject specific web sites and their hot links.
1.3 NAATI Accreditation
NAATI accreditation, as already mentioned, is acquired by one of three methods. The first is by successfully passing a NAATI
test at the professional translator level. Successful candidates are then issued with a NAATI accreditation certificate as a
translator in the given language(s) at the given direction (from or into English). This is valid for the period endorsed on it.
Proof of continued professional practice may be required before any such accreditation can be renewed.
Aspiring translators, who feel confident enough to sit for a NAATI translator test, should undertake some formal training
or at least peruse the translations made available in the sample test kits that can be purchased from regional NAATI state
offices, together with the latest copy of the Candidates Manual. Failure rates in NAATI tests are relatively high, as candidates
sitting for tests frequently tend to overestimate their translation skills. As already mentioned, translation skills differ greatly
from mere bilingual skills and not every bilingual person automatically makes a good translator without having undergone
adequate training and translation practice.
The second method of accreditation is by successfully completing a NAATI approved course, as mentioned under the
previous heading.
The third method of accreditation entails the possible recognition of overseas qualifications in translation studies. These
must first be assessed and approved by NAATI. Proof of fluency in English and translation experience also need to be
proven by persons seeking NAATI recognition of overseas qualifications. It needs mentioning, however, that not all overseas
qualifications automatically qualify for recognition and aspiring translators, who find themselves in these circumstances, still
have to undergo NAATI testing, in order to receive accreditation as professional translators seeking to practice in Australia.
Government authorities, for which translators plan to work, generally require proof of
NAATI accreditation at the professional level frequently demand that translations bear the translators NAATI stamp which
contains the NAATI accreditation number.
In this context it is worth mentioning that countries such as Great Britain, Canada, the United States and most European
countries have their own systems of accrediting and/or licensing translators. Details may be gained from the relevant Institute
of Translation and Interpreting (ITI), American Translators Association (ATA) etc web sites.
Translators working on the Internet will generally have to comply with the individual regulations of the country and
agency for which the translations are needed. This may not be unduly demanding but the translator will need to know the
requirements. Requirements can be clarified by conducting an Internet search or by discussing the issue with the Internet
client for whom a specific translation is undertaken.


Web-based translation companies frequently require translators to undergo further testing and to provide testimonials when
listing their names for job allocations. Be aware that this may be a prerequisite before you are allowed to bid for any of the
translation jobs that are listed on the web sites of those translation companies (a few of them are listed in the appendix in
order to get you started).
1.4 Observation of the Professional Code of Ethics
As with any profession, translators also need to abide by a professional code of ethics.
Professional translator associations around the world publish their individual codes of ethics and expect members to strictly
abide by them. In Australia, the largest professional translator/interpreter association/society is AUSIT. A compilation of
the various Australian codes of ethics has been published by NAATI and may be purchased from a NAATI state or territory
office. The addresses are listed in the local phone directory and on the NAATI web site.
Some of the major points in a code of ethics for translators are: accuracy, confidentiality, competence, impartiality, conflict
of interest and professional conduct.
All of those points are self-evident as translators must work accurately. They may neither add to a given text, nor may
they leave out anything which is contained in the source language text. All work that translators undertake must remain
confidential.
Whatever knowledge translators gain from a given text must not be shared with any third party, unless one is compelled to
do so by law. Similarly, where a conflict of interest exists it must be fully disclosed to the client or the translation rejected for
this reason. Lastly, professional conduct means, inter alia, that translators should treat colleagues with respect and fairness
and not malign them or make unjustified criticism of their work.
1.5 Membership of a Professional Association/Society/Institute
Translators may choose to become members of their local translator association, society or institute. In Australia AUSIT
is currently the only society with a nation-wide representation and membership. It, like other organisations that represent
translators in Australia and around the world, promulgates its own Code of Ethics by which members must abide. AUSIT
also conducts training courses to keep translators up-to-date about the changing work environment, the latest technology
relating to translation, professional, legal and other issues. AUSIT recommends commensurate rates that translators may
wish to charge for their work, it monitors the ethical conduct of its members and, if within its powers, tries to intercede in
disputes pertaining to the translation industry. AUSIT also liaises with NAATI on testing and accreditation issues and seeks
to promote translation as a recognised profession in Australia. Other organisations representing translators in this country
(e.g. WAITI, PAIT et al.) and overseas, have similar, if not identical, aims to those of AUSIT.
1.6 Awareness of Translators Rights and Obligations
Copyright issues:
Translators and interpreters in Australia and elsewhere in the world have certain rights and obligations. One of these rights
is to have ones intellectual work recognised. A translation constitutes intellectual property and is thus encompassed by
intellectual property rights. These rights, if not otherwise agreed upon or contracted, remain with the translator.
However, translators cannot simply go ahead and translate a literary or other text without first obtaining the authors and/or
the publishers consent (i.e. the consent of the holder of the copyright for the original work).
Be warned, the issue of copyright is a contentious one when it comes to translations that are to be published. Translators
who think that they are the holders of copyright of their translation may find that in a majority of cases, the client who
commissioned the translation retains the copyright for both the original and the translated text. Some sources argue that
translators are remunerated for their translation work and cannot use or market a completed translation in any other way.
Self-employed translators are therefore advised to carefully study their translation contracts and to discuss the issue of
translation copyright with their clients.


They may request that their name as translator be mentioned on the title page, as is common with book publications. Under
no circumstances should you enter into formal disputes over copyright without further advice. Litigation is expensive and
generally futile, so you are urged to always err on the side of caution.
The obligation to translate accurately
Translators are under obligation to always translate accurately. They must not deliberately leave out any information (words),
nor are they permitted to deliberately add anything to a translated text which is not contained in the source language original
text.
Whilst this is already a requirement, as stipulated in the Code of Ethics under accuracy, the deliberate distortion of meaning
could expose translators to various forms of litigation. In Australia clients may seek redress and financial compensation
under the provisions of the law of tort relating to duty of care, neglect and misrepresentation. If a document which is to be
used or presented in a court of law appears to have been deliberately mistranslated, perjury may have been committed. This
is a criminal offence punishable by law, which may result in imprisonment. Given the above facts, it is most important that
translators are meticulous in every aspect of their translation work.
The obligation to exercise proper duty of care
As hinted above, translators also owe their clients a duty of care, in the same manner as doctors owe a duty of care to
their patients. This means that the client deserves to receive an accurate translation which has been carefully proof read
to ascertain that it is free from errors. If a timeline has been agreed upon, then punctuality too is vital. A translation
promised to the client for a certain day and hour must reach the client precisely at that [Link] translators fail to
exercise proper duty of care, they may run the risk of being sued (civil proceedings) by their client. This means that a
client could seek compensation for financial losses incurred due to the translation arriving late or lacking in quality
(e.g. many spelling and punctuation errors, due to poor proofreading or the lack thereof), thus making it unpublishable.
Negligence
If translators fail to exercise proper duty of care they may be accused of gross professional negligence and in this case too,
a client may seek financial compensation under the law of tort, for any losses incurred. Translators must therefore practice
time management skills and train themselves to work with maximum accuracy at all times.
Misrepresentation
Translators should always ensure that they first view the text to be translated before they contract to undertake the translation
assignment. The reason for this is that not all translators are competent in all areas of specialised translation. Thus, a medical
or legal translator may be out of their depth with a technical/scientific translation and vice versa. To accept the technical text
and then deliver a far from satisfactory translation means that the translators involved have misrepresented their translation
skills. This too falls under the law of tort and can expose translators to legal action against them instigated by their client
under tort. Here again, the client may seek compensation for the fact that for example, the translation of the operating
instructions for a certain piece of machinery was not accurate enough to allow for the safe operation of that machinery. The
translator has therefore misrepresented the skill level.
Contract Issues
It is always advisable to have some form of agreement or formal contract with a client before undertaking a translation.
Depending on the type of client, the contract may be one formulated by the translator, which the client signs or a contract
prepared by the client, which the translator signs. Both types of contracts contain elements that are legally binding on both
parties. Legal remedies can be sought through civil proceedings in a relevant court, under the relevant provisions of the law
of contract.
Realise that contracts can be both oral and in writing. Where no fee or payment for the translation has been agreed upon, a
vital element is missing in your contract and arguably such an agreement does not constitute a valid contract.
Thus, translators could be in breach of contract if they did not deliver an important translation on time. A breach of contract
occurs where one or several of the conditions agreed upon in the contract have not been met by one of the parties to the


contract. Clients, who in turn signed a translators contract can also be in breach of contract on a number of points. A sample
translators contract can be found in the appendix and translators are strongly advised to study it carefully and use it as a
basis for drawing up their own contracts relevant to their particular needs.
Please be aware that once translators hand over a completed translation without any adequate surety, (either a watertight
contract or an up-front monetary deposit for the translation work to be carried out) they will find it very difficult to obtain
or enforce payment for their many hours of work. A translation is the most perishable commodity. It cannot be stored for
resale at a later date or resold to another buyer, even at a discount. It is simply a unique product, destined for the one buyer,
namely the client who commissioned the translation in the first place.
Translators who do not protect their interests, or who fall for such schemes as the provision of a 20 page sample translation
to an unknown internet client, are not savvy enough to operate their own business successfully. Similar scams on the Internet
that await trusty, unwary translators, often laud a translators qualifications and skills, which were found on the translators
personal website. Often scam e-mails to the translator promise considerable, well-remunerated translation work. These e-mails
may even ask a translator to complete a sham contract, which requests the translators banking or credit card details, so that
regular and speedy payments can be made. The trusting translator, who has failed to thoroughly check the credentials of the
fictitious client or bogus agency, may well find that not all that glistens is gold. A hefty credit card debit suddenly appearing
from a seemingly unknown source may have you guessing and will cause inconvenient hassles with your bank. If something
sounds too good to be true, it usually is not true. Most reputable clients and agencies will disclose all their details, which you
should then check carefully, before submitting your personal details.
The moral of this tale is that even a seemingly fantastic offer and watertight contract need careful consideration and checking.
Translators are a vulnerable group of professionals who are as yet not adequately protected, unless they take out professional
insurance cover at possibly forbiddingly high premiums. Be warned those premiums may often well exceed the amount a
self-employed translator could be expected to earn in a whole year when working from home.
All the foregone warnings are not meant to discourage you from setting up your own home-based business.
They are simply issued to alert you of the many hidden traps into which translators may fall, if they are unaware
of them.

CHAPTER TWO
LANGUAGE,
CROSS-CULTURAL
AND SPECIFIC SKILLS

CHAPTER 2 - Language, Cross-Cultural and Special Skills

2.1 Language and Translation Skills in both Source and Target Language
Translators require native fluency in both the source and target language. This means that they will constantly use both
languages and are thus familiar with any language changes, which occur on a regular basis. Languages are a living thing.
They do not stand still or become fossilised. Therefore, translators who do not use both languages in their written form
on a regular basis may find that they are no longer up-to-date with the many neologisms (new words) that enter a language
almost daily. Who, only a generation ago, would ever have heard of a mobile phone, also known as cell phone in the U.S.
and some other countries and as handy in the German-speaking countries? The word to send an SMS message on a mobile
phone has even generated a new verb in the German language, namely simsen (SMSing). This goes to illustrate how necessary
it is to keep language skills up-to-date. Nowadays, with the aid of the Internet, this represents no major obstacle, as one can
read newspapers on line in all of the worlds most commonly used languages. This is, in fact, a highly recommended way for
maintaining and brushing up your language and cross-cultural skills.
A question that is frequently being asked about translation is, whether bilingual people automatically make good translators
as well? This question can only be answered with an emphatic no. People and their skills do differ. Some people have the
gift of the gab and good public relations skills and they may prefer to work as interpreters, rather than be sitting over many
reference books in front of a computer working as translators. If that is you, then you should read the short notes about
interpreting included in this guide.
Translation Methodology
For the benefit of readers of all skills levels, I will briefly describe the way in which translators may wish to tackle a translation
job.
1.

When accepting a text for translation, translators must carefully read the text to be translated in order to fully
understand the content and meaning of the source language text.

2.

Translators must also ensure that they comprehend the semantic meaning and grammatical structures of the source
language text (these include syntax, verb tenses, punctuation etc.)

3.

Given that 1 and 2 present no difficulty to the translator, the translator may proceed with the transfer of meaning into
the target language. Some linguists use the term of re-encoding. If we use this terminology, then points 1 and 2 would
involve a decoding process, whilst 3 involves the re-encoding of both the inherent meaning and grammatical structures
of the source language text in the target language. N.B. While this sounds very simple, it can present real problems
at times, especially when one translates from languages whose grammatical structures differ greatly from those of the
target language. In this context one only has to think of verb tenses or elements of time and space (e.g. in English and
Chinese.)

4.

During the next step, translators will carefully check the target language (TL) text for accuracy. This is to ensure that all
the meaning has been correctly transferred to the target language (TL) and that no omissions from the source language
(SL) text or additions to the target language (TL) text are evident. Some checking/researching of specialist terms may
be necessary.
Yet another step involves additional proofreading. This serves to ensure that spelling and grammar are accurate and
that the translated text reads as if it had originally been written in the target language. This means that the TL text is
not recognisable as a translation which may occur due to Source Language Interference (SLI). This will at times become
evident in your initial draft translations. Source language interference (SLI) is characterised by certain language-specific
features, such as idiomatic expressions, metaphors, similes or grammatical structures of the source language being
unwittingly transferred into the target language.
Source language interference (SLI) is characterised by certain language-specific features, such as idiomatic expressions,
metaphors, similes or grammatical structures of the source language being unwittingly transferred into the target
language. For example, in English, when we are hungry, we may say I am ravenous orI am so hungry, I could eat


a horse or I am famished. A translator who translates similar expressions from another language may unwittingly
translate literally, without affecting a cultural transfer. An example of this would be, I am hungry as a bear from the
German ich haben einen Baerenhunger or I am hungry as a wolf from Italianfame dun lupo orFrench faim
dun loup. These examples perhaps best illustrate one particular type of source language interference.
Other examples are transfers of syntactical structuresfrom Source to Target Language. For instance the Chinese
sentence rendered in pinyin phoneticswo zuotian lai is inadvertently transferred into I yesterday came, which of
course reflects the wrong syntax in English.
Tenses too can at times cause source language interference (SLI). All readers would have read copies of user manuals
that come with kitchen appliances, cameras, cars etc that have been manufactured in a non-English-speaking country.
Such manuals abound with source language interference and can best illustrate what the writer is trying to explain
above.
5.

An example of source language interference (SLI) that is frequently spotted in translations is the transfer of infinitive
constructions from German into English, instead of adopting the use of the gerund, which is required in English.
Translators from Asian languages find it difficult to determine whether a direct or indirect article precedes the noun
in English. The article is therefore simply left out, which makes the English text difficult to understand. Careful proof
reading and editing of all your translations will help locating and eliminating such errors. Engaging another person as
a proof reader can also prove to be helpful.

6.

Lastly, once you are certain that your translation is error free and as polished as can be you will submit it to your client
expecting to be paid for the work. At this stage most translators will undertake a word count, either of the source or
target language text, depending on the clients requirements and your agreement.
Whilst translators would in most cases prefer a target language word count, clients generally demand that translation
charges be assessed on the word count of the source language text that was originally supplied for the translation. In the
case of character based languages, this will require clarification with your client as it could disadvantage you greatly.
If a source language text can be read into the computer memory by scanning, for instance, one may simply open the
file under the Microsoft Word version installed on the computer, go into the tools menu and click on word count. The
word count arrived at (provided it is not a character-based script) is then simply multiplied with the charge a translator
applies per hundred words. The sum is then divided by 100 in order to arrive at the relevant charge. Where GST or
VAT taxes need to be added, if you are not solely a sub-contractor, this must be shown separately on your invoice (refer
to the sample invoice shown in the appendix).
Please note that translators may be applying bulk rates, where they are handling a large translation, such as a book.
In this case it is customary to estimate the time it will take to translate a 500 page book with an average of 300 words
per page. Translators may then equate the hourly cost (e.g. $40 per hour) to their translation capacity (e.g. 3 pages =
900 words per hour). Daily hours of work are 5-6. Translating can be a very fatiguing task and very few translators can
work 8 hours straight. Thus, in this example a translator would need 167 hours to complete the task and would earn
$6680.
Working at a pace of 5 hours per day, this task would take 33 days to complete. Some clients may even impose
tighter deadlines upon you. Therefore, let me issue a warning to the uninitiated. If you commit yourself to a tight
deadline, you are bound to come unstuck in one way or another. Firstly, you are fully committed and cannot accept
other translation work. This could mean that you may perhaps be alienating some of your other regular clients.
Secondly, you must always allow for any unforeseen circumstances, such as health problems, family commitments,
computer crashes, research delays and the like. Therefore, tight deadlines agreed upon can lead to problems. Be realistic
and say that you can, at best, work 3 hours per day on this large project. Check if your client will accept a 60+ day
deadline and if so, include this in your contract so that there can be no disputes after the event. If you complete the
translation earlier than contracted, your client will of course be pleased and may offer you more business. In order to
protect yourself it is therefore always best to give the worst case scenario. The timeframe you are allowing for the task
10

must be commensurate with your skills level and your anticipated overall workload. When projecting your timeline
do not forget that proofreading with large jobs is a very time consuming task. In addition, when translating a literary
text you must also ensure that you are competent of faithfully transferring stylistic and other features inherent in the
authors original work.
Thus, given all the facts, even a 60+ day deadline may put you under considerable pressure. However, no two translators
are alike in their work habits and this guideline may therefore not apply to you fully. Nonetheless, it will serve as a
warning not to overestimate your translating capacity. If you have accepted a translation, proceed methodically and
follow the logical steps, reiterated in the appendix (refer to Translation Steps). There may be time when you consider
collaboration
2.2 Cross-cultural Knowledge and Skills
Another vital requirement for selfemployed translators is a sound cross-cultural knowledge of both the source and target
language cultures. Language teachers often focus solely on language teaching and forget to teach students about the culture
of the country or countries whose language they teach. This cross-cultural understanding also means that translators need to
find target language equivalents for language specific idiomatic expressions, proverbs, metaphors, similes and more.
The Chinese expression he wears a green hat would make no sense if translated too literally into English. The translator
must understand the cultural meaning of this expression and will seek to transfer its actual meaning of his wife is cheating
on him into the target language. When rendered into German, the translator would no doubt choose to write sie setzt ihm
Hrner auf which in turn retranslates as she is putting horns on his head. Italians too use the same idiomatic expression.
Being very hungry on the other hand can involve different animals in various languages. The Germans speak of having the
appetite of a bear, the English of a raven, the French and Italians of a wolf. Here again, the translator must adapt the
translation to the correct expression used in the target language culture.
As can be seen from the above examples, translators must be able to demonstrate an intimate knowledge of the cultural
aspects of language in order to correctly transfer source language meaning into the target language.
2.3 A Good General Knowledge
Translators who are not working in specialised areas, such as law, health, and commerce need to have a broad general
knowledge across a wide range of subjects. A translator may have to translate a financial report or a company balance sheet
one day, while the next day the same translator may have to translate the operating manual for a special piece of mining
equipment. Frequently, translators may even come across errors in the source language text, e.g. an amount or a date which
has been wrongly transposed. In each case, the translator needs to clarify the perceived error with the client or the translation
agency. Translators cannot take it upon themselves to make corrections to a source language text no matter how obvious
the detected error may be. Remember, a translator must faithfully translate everything contained in the source language text
without adding, deleting or changing anything. Translators are not responsible for errors contained in the source language
texts supplied to them for translation. However, the duty of care owed to their client requires them to point out such errors
detected in the source language text.
If translators find that despite their broad general knowledge they cannot cope with an assigned translation they should
immediately advise their client and seek to withdraw from the contract. They can of course suggest to their client that a
colleague, who is highly competent in undertaking translation in the specific subject area, take over the translation. In this
way translators continue to maintain a good working relationship with a particular client or agency.
2.4 Detailed Knowledge in Areas of Specialisation (e.g. Medicine, Law, Science, Technology, et al.)
Translators who wish to specialise in a certain area such as medicine, law, science and technology must have a well-founded
knowledge in that specialised field and possess the necessary vocabulary in both the source and target language.
A medical translator needs to be familiar with how the human body, its organs, skeletal and nervous systems function. In
addition, they need to be familiar with the medical and pharmacological terminology in both the source and target language.
Ideally, such translators will already have a special interest in the given subject area, which therefore acts as an incentive for
undertaking additional bilingual studies and research in the specialised field.
11

In addition, specialised translators will have at their fingertips a collection of subject specific dictionaries and reference
materials, as well as access to the Internet. There are some translator training courses at tertiary institutions around the
world which have courses that will allow translators to focus on one of the above-mentioned subject areas. Many translators,
however, undertake their own private studies and research in order to qualify in the chosen area of specialisation.
Accuracy in the translation of specialised texts is absolutely vital. Medical reports, legal documents or scientific papers must
not contain any errors. The consequences of an inaccurate translation could have disastrous effects. Specialised translators
even more so than the general translators require an eye for detail, work with the utmost degree of accuracy and possess the
ability to extract the appropriate target language terminology from the reference materials available to them.
As our world gets smaller and smaller, thanks to sophisticated communication tools, the need for standardised terminology
across languages increases and large organisations, companies (e.g. Microsoft), government institutions and world bodies such
as the United Nations (UN), European Union (EU), World Trade Organisation (WTO) and the Association of South East
Asian Nations (ASEAN) create their own terminology lists or term banks.
Internationally, translation-oriented terminography can be accessed via the Internet and has been allocated the international
standard ISO 12616.
If translators still have difficulty in finding a semantic equivalent for a specific term, simply because that term has not yet
been added to a term bank or dictionary, parallel reading on the Internet will assist the translator in finding an equivalent
term in the target language. Parallel reading simply means reading about a specific souce language subject or a given product
in the target language on the Internet. Using a search engine, the translator will be able to locate a product, for instance,
which is described in the target language. The translator can thus extract any required target language terms that are required
for the translation at hand.
Translators will often find that even the latest edition of a dictionary, be it in print or electronic format, cannot keep up
with modern terminology, which is created on an almost daily basis. It is therefore prudent that translators, who work in a
specialised field, keep track of new words by entering them into their own computer-based terminology bank, as soon as they
come across them.
Often a hand-held electronic dictionary will prove very useful. This allows translators to look up words and even enter new
words. An electronic dictionary can easily be carried around and can be accessed when a computer or printed dictionary are
not available.

12

13

CHAPTER THREE
OTHER SKILL
REQUIREMENTS

14

CHAPTER 3 - Other Skill Requirements

3.1 Keyboard and Computer Skills
Translators need to be computer literate and familiar with Microsoft Office Tools, such as Word, Excel and PowerPoint.
Other software programs with which translators frequently come in contact are Adobe Acrobat and the various Internet
browsers and e-mail programs. Make sure that you can work with all these programs. Most programs are self-explanatory and
incorporate a help mode, generally represented by a question mark in the top right-hand corner of the computer screen.
Translators, when receiving a source language text for translation, usually need to adhere to the source language formatting
of the text when typing the translation.
This is particularly important when translating certificates, e.g. school and university certificates, employment certificates,
medical reports, account statements and more. It allows a monolingual person that is reading your translation to compare
the layout of the original document with that of the translated document. It may be that the translator has to recreate a form
if this has only been supplied in scanned or faxed form.
This generally avoids any queries on the part of the client. Translators worldwide work with modern computers, word processors
and other computer programs. They use templates for repetitive translations of documents, such as birth certificates. These
templates are set out to extract the vital information from a source language document and generally satisfy a clients or
authoritys needs, unless a word for word translation is requested. By vital information we mean the extraction of the birth
date, instead of the whole convoluted text which may read: in the year of Our Lord onethousandeighthundredandninetyeig
ht on the sixth Sabbath of the month of the wholesome month of September, being the 19th day of this harvest month, was
born a female child to the married couple
Personal computers facilitate the handling of translations, they allow for the direct importation of the source language text
supplied by the client. If the source language text happens to be in Microsoft Word .doc format already, it requires no
conversion and the translator may proceed with the translation by entering the target language text directly beneath or above
the source language text. The next step consists of deleting the source language text, after carefully comparing the translated
sentence with the source language original in order to ensure accuracy. It bears mentioning, however, that translators should
always work with a copy of the source language text, after first saving the original source language text to the computer hard
disk or an external storage device. This allows them to refer back to the original text at any time.
Translators are expected to master cutting, pasting and formatting skills when working with Microsoft Word software. Some
countries may produce their own language-specific software; however, all programs are now compatible with Microsoft Word,
thus allowing the importation of non-Roman alphabet characters into a document. This enables translators to complete the
required word processing tasks.
Translators who need to produce translations in a number of languages which do not use the Roman alphabet can either
download the required font types in their working languages from the Microsoft web site or purchase specially developed
word processing software (such as Universal World) that features keyboards in the non alphabet-based languages. Translators
who possess poor keyboard skills or do not know how to touch type can teach themselves by downloading a suitable touchtyping program from the Internet. Those translators, who simply need to increase their typing speed, will find similar
downloadable programs on the Internet or at their local computer software shop.
Translators, who are in need of improving their general computing skills can attend special courses at colleges or universities.
They can also be taught to use any of those programs in which they require advanced computing skills e.g. Outlook Express,
Excel, PowerPoint, Adobe Acrobat, Photoshop and others. Most younger translators are already highly computer literate and
have been exposed to many of the said computer programs during their primary, secondary and tertiary education.
Translators may also need to familiarise themselves with desktop publishing programs and data formats, such as HTML and
SGML. They may need to learn about computer-aided translation tools, localisation tools, terminology administration tools
amongst others, as advanced translation technology progresses rapidly.
Computer-aided translation tools and their functions will be discussed in a subsequent chapter.
15

3.2 Methodology Skills

Although methodology, i.e. the manner of methodically undertaking a translation step by step, may differ from translator to
translator, it is important that translators adapt a methodical approach to their work. Ways of tackling a given translation
have already been suggested in the translation skills chapter and have been reiterated in the appendix.
However, with the advent of more and more computer-aided translation facilities abounding in cyber space the methodology
translators apply will doubtlessly change in the not too distant future.
It is for this reason that modern translators need to also familiarise themselves with the functions and capabilities of
computer-aided translation tools, translation memory, terminology banks, machine translation and many others.
3.3 Time Management (Prioritising) Skills
Time is money is an old adage. Translators are under constant time pressure and time management is therefore essential.
We live in the communication age, where modern communication tools allow for faster and more efficient communication,
than was possible only a short time ago. Todays translators work with and on the Internet to a large extent and web-based
companies and translation agencies put time pressure on them.
No longer is it the translators who determine how long a translation may take, but rather the clients, who fax or e-mail
translations requesting a return within a stipulated period of time. Time pressures mean that translators require a high
degree of self-discipline and, above all, time-management skills. They will need to prioritise their work in order to meet the
tight deadlines set and will increasingly need to work with computer-aided translation) tools and client specific translation
memories. While such tools may act as time-savers, the opposite may also prove to be the case, if translators do not completely
familiarise themselves with all the useful, often complex, but not absolutely necessary functions of these CAT tools.
Translators whose business grows to the extent that they start their own translation service or translation agency will find that
time management becomes even more essential for them. If the agency is run by a single person, who also performs a large
amount of the translation work, the following advice may prove to be useful.
Agency staff will find that most of the morning and part of the afternoon is taken up with phone calls and client liaison. At
the same time, new translation jobs arrive via fax and e-mail. Completed jobs need to be invoiced and sent off to clients and
detailed records need to be kept on the movement and processing of each job.
How then is it possible for a single person to perform all these duties alone and at once? The answer to this question is that
it is not possible, unless, of course, strict time and job management strategies are applied.
Self-employed translators will find that they may have some spare time in the early morning, prior to the opening of
corporate offices and again in the late afternoon, when most company offices are closing for the day.
Here is one possible way of making good use of this spare time.
The morning hours are best used for completing job invoices, updating accounts and preparing completed translations and
invoices for mailing to the clients.
The processing of translations and the above actions must be carefully recorded, either in a desktop logbook or on a
computer spreadsheet. Computer-based templates may be used for the completing of invoices, whereby it needs mentioning
that some computer-resident accounting programs can self-generate client invoices, provided the necessary information is
accessible to the program.
Once the described morning tasks are completed, the phone will start ringing and the fax machine and e-mail client will
spit out new jobs. Time permitting, these new jobs should be entered in the logbook (spreadsheet) immediately and the time
recorded when they are outsourced to qualified/accredited translators.

16

Subcontracting translators must be told how much they will be paid for the translation forwarded to them. This task is best
carried out in the late afternoon or perhaps after office closure (in the case of agencies). By following the described, or a
similar work pattern, self-employed translators, who also run an agency, will be able to cope. The self-employed translators
own translation work may well have to be done before and after office hours.
While translators will wok in different ways, attention to work management and organisation are fundamental to a successful
business.
3.4 Communication and Public Relations Skills
Self-employed translators need to be good communicators, who generally undertake their own public relations work, advertising
their services in the yellow pages of the phone book, in the NAATI translator directory and on the many translator websites
of the Internet. They need to negotiate with clients on the telephone and by e-mail and need to be polite and well-informed
about the many varied tasks freelance translators are required to perform. If they promise to complete a translation by a
certain deadline, they must absolutely adhere to it, if they do not want to lose their clients.
Many translators decide to create their own web page on which they advertise their services and solicit business. Translators
are their own public relations agents and the prompt answering of all written, telephone and e-mail enquiries that are received
is a prime requirement of good public relations. Never argue with a client. With difficult clients use the, yes, but approach,
in order not to lose their business e.g. yes, I can see your point, but or: I tend to agree with you except for or: Yes,
from where you are, it looks like that, but may I explain that in fact , etc.
Always be careful not to make rash statements or to give promises you cannot keep. Do not allow yourself to be cornered by
a client by agreeing to a tight deadline, which you know you are unlikely to meet. Do realise that there will always be some
unforeseen events that crop up. It is better, therefore, that you surprise a client with an early delivery of a translation, rather
than making excuses regarding a delay, which you had not anticipated. Remember, a self-employed translator runs a small
business and happy clients will remain your clients. An unhappy client will be your worst public relations enemy, whilst a
happy client will do the public relations and advertising for you, when recommending you to other people. It is only good
publicity that you seek!
Also, make sure that your regular clients are familiar with the rates you charge. Charges are generally made for 100 words
or characters, translated from the source language. Some web-based agencies may request quotes per word, while others may
require specific quotes to be given in either Euro or U.S. dollars. In these cases, Australianbased translators need to consider
the ever fluctuating exchange rates and must not short change themselves when quoting.
The chapter on accounting will deal with the assessment of charges and the manner in which you invoice your clients and
keep track of their payments. Banking and taxation matters will be touched upon briefly.
3.5 Research Skills (Library Skills and Net-surfing Skills)
Although translators need excellent language, cross-cultural skills and general knowledge skills, their specialised knowledge in
certain areas may be limited, for they cannot be jacks of all trades. It is for this reason that translators need to possess good
research skills. Whilst in the past, libraries and personal reference materials provided the answers to most questions, it is now
largely the Internet to which translators turn for help.
With the advances in technology your mobile 3G iPhone or Blackberry device too can also assist you in the research task
by calling up the respective website on the Internet with the help of search engines, such as Google and others. This allows
translators to simply enter a key word, and the web browser will take them to a dedicated website, where they can find the
required information displayed on screen, ready to be downloaded and saved on your PC hard drive or mobile device for
future reference.
If translators are unfamiliar with a certain subject, which forms part of their translation assignment, they are also able to find
subject-related texts on the Internet for parallel reading in both the source and target language. Translators, who are required
to translate patent specifications about a modern piece of machinery, can thus gain a clearer picture about how a certain
machine is constructed and how it operates.
17

By being able to undertake such background reading on the Internet, translators can familiarise themselves with the technical
terms in both the source and target languages and at the same time compile a computer-based terminology list. This can
be achieved by simply creating a table with two columns and as many lines as required and then sort each column in
alphabetical order in turn, thus creating two separate alphabetical glossaries. One will be in the source language and the
other in the target language. This method, of course, works only with languages based on the Roman alphabet. If this seems
to be too tedious a task, then translators will find that many bilingual and multi-lingual glossaries can already be found on
websites, such as that of Microsoft and Eurodictautom.
With skilful web browsing many other useful subject-specific glossaries can be found for free downloading to your PC.
A great number of specialised language dictionaries are also available on the Web that makes the task of translating less
cumbersome.
3.6 Proofreading Skills
Once translators have completed a translation, they should immediately check for any omissions that may have occurred
during the transfer from the source language text to the target language. The translated text is best left aside for some 24
hours, if the translator has the time. The reason for this, as explained earlier, is the fact that even very experienced translators
will have to cope with source language interference.
This occurs, when source language grammar patterns and idioms are accidentally transferred into the target language. By
proofreading a translated text the following day, translators should imagine that the text, when read in the target language,
should in fact read as if it had originally been written in that language. In this way, source language interference is easier to
detect, for the translated text may in fact not read like an original source language text and translators will thus be able to
pick up elements of source language interference. These may consist of wrong semantic choice, grammatical errors such as
incorrect tense or syntax and unidiomatic use of the target language etc. The errors, so detected, can be instantly corrected, if
proofreading has been undertaken on the PCs monitor screen. Some translators, however, due to eyesight problems, caused
by the glare of the computer screen, find it difficult to proofread texts on screen and prefer to have a hard copy in front of
them.
If this occurs, translators proceed by simply highlighting any spelling or specific source language interference errors with a
coloured pen or highlighter. They then undertake the required on-screen corrections by referring to the corrected hard copy
of the translated text. When working with a word processor, recurring errors can be easily located on screen using Microsoft
Words find function. One example of this would be, if a certain spelling error or a juxtaposed number or date, which
incorrectly appears in the translation, requires correction. Another example would be, if a certain word or technical term
is used on a number of occasions in the text and has to be replaced by a more appropriate term during the proofreading
process.
Punctuation errors also need correcting during the proofing process. Be warned however, that the use of a spell checker alone
may prove to be a trap. The reason for this is that the spell checker will not pick up errors regarding the plural of nouns or
the use of wrong verb tenses. Nonetheless, translators will find, that the more proofreading they undertake, the more skilled
they become. A proof reader must read every single word the way it was actually typed and not the way one assumes it should
read in a given context. Polishing translations can be a very time-consuming task and it is therefore advisable to work with
maximum accuracy during the original translation process. This is achievable by simply editing the translation after every
translated sentence or paragraph (checking for omissions, spelling and grammatical errors etc. and making the corrections
immediately).
3.7 Accounting Skills
To keep strict records and accounts is vital for translators. There are, of course, translators, who undertake translation after
translation, which they then promptly e-mail or post off to their clients. Such translators often claim that they find no time
to do their accounts. They shun record-keeping or accounting and live in the hope that their clients will eventually put a
cheque in the mail. In other words, they leave it to their clients to worry about payment. Ask yourself, if you might be one
of these charitable translators?
Even though you may be working from home as a freelance translator, you are still required to keep strict records for taxation
18

purposes. Translators working from home may in fact be eligible to deduct the costs for a home office and furnishings and
any translation related expenses, such as stationery, computers, printers, fax machines, telephone and other related expenses,
all solely incurred for the earning of an income derived from translation activities. For the purpose of record-keeping you can
use a simple spreadsheet or an accounting program such as Quicken or QuickBooks. The Australian Taxation Office (ATO)
also offers free downloadable software (e-Record).
If you have had no prior experience in record keeping or accountancy, it is suggested that you start by invoicing your clients
in the following manner.
Firstly, you need to assess your charges. This, as mentioned previously, is done by means of a word count. Let us assume you
use a target language word count. This is easily obtainable by clicking first on your tools menu at the top of your task bar
in the version of your Microsoft Word program and then on word count. If you have quoted your client a per word rate,
you will simply multiply the number of words by this rate. If in turn you have quoted a rate per 100 words, you will need
to divide the final sum by 100 to arrive at the correct amount you need to charge. If you are registered for GST (or VAT in
Britain), you must add this amount to your charges under a separate column. In this regard it may be remarked that few if
any freelance translators in Australia would exceed the 50K income mark that would require GST registration and paying
provisional tax on a monthly or quarterly basis.
As regards your business letterheads and invoices, you may wish to produce your own templates, or you can use one of the
many already provided on your PC by Microsoft or by the accounting program installed on it. The idea is to keep your
invoice simple. Therefore, the template shown in the appendix may give you some idea as to how to design your own invoice
format. Most accounting packages do this easily.
3.8 Marketing Skills
Translators, who work privately from home, need to let others know that they are available to undertake translation work.
This can be achieved in a number of ways and may very well be referred to as advertising or marketing your skills. One of the
cheapest ways to draw attention to your services is to add your name to a number of translator lists found on the Internet.
For instance, in Australia if you are already a NAATI-accredited translator you are offered the opportunity to have your name
listed in the electronic NAATI directory, which is frequently referred to by clients seeking translators who are situated in a
certain state, town and suburb. A small administration fee is charged by NAATI for this useful and recommended listing
service. Members of AUSIT (the Australian Institute of Interpreters and Translators) may also have their details listed on its
translator/interpreter listing online.
If you seek to register your name with other translation-related organisations you can simply type into your search engine
the words translation agencies or translators wanted and then proceed to selecting the one that appeals to you from their
webpage content. Some of these agencies may charge you a small annual or once only membership fee that will allow you to
bid for jobs that are listed on their web pages in the language in which you are NAATI accredited. Bidding simply means that
you register your interest to undertake a given translation task by quoting the fee you intend to charge. Australian rates are
generally quoted per hundred words and may currently vary from 15 to 20 dollars plus, whilst rates in Europe are generally
quoted per word and vary from as little as 5 cents to 15 cents. The U.S.A. and Canada also generally quote per word. The
cheapest rates are offered by translators in the former Eastern block countries and in China. When marketing your services,
indicate your turnaround rate per job (the time taken to complete a translation from receiving to delivering it). Deadlines are
frequently imposed by agencies and clients and you must make sure that you can meet them, when bidding for a job. Payment
for your work is usually made by electronic transfer to your nominated account, such as e-pay. You need to ensure that you
are registered for this service and that all your virus and Malware protections are up-to-date. Also be very cautious as to
whom you entrust any personal information, account and banking details. White collar crime on the Internet is rampant and
generally hits those people who do not adequately protect themselves and their computers.
Added exposure to the public is of course possible and in recent years, quite a number of translators have opted to set up their
own web sites on the Internet, in order to market their skills and services to the whole world. Given the easy availability of
web page authoring software, this no longer presents a problem for translators who may have no HTML program knowledge
or skills.

19

It is simply a matter of following the prompts that appear on the authoring software and clicking on the relevant buttons.
You can even import a recent photograph of yourself and post a short CV, if you wish to do so.
Most important, however, is that you list your NAATI-accredited languages and the language direction and subject areas,
software programs and computer languages (encodings) that you are familiar with and can handle. It is important that you
state your qualifications and accreditations accurately, as failing to do so may bring you in conflict with the professions code
of ethics and even the law. Under the law of tort you could easily be accused of misrepresentation and a client could take
legal action against you. (Refer to the paragraph on translators rights and obligations).
If you have your own webpage, which will generally be hosted by your ISP, you must of course be connected to the Internet
on a permanent basis via an ADSL (broadband) connection. For this, you do not need a separate telephone line. The line
splitter installed on your telephone line and the modem will take care of that and will allow you to make and receive private
phone calls on your fixed line, while working on the Internet at the same time. Once ultra-fast broadband connections (ADSL
2 and beyond) become available it is recommended that you aim at setting up your own website, in order to increase your
exposure and boost business.
It is not advisable (nor permissible) to undertake targeted e-mailing to web addresses of hundreds of prospective clients. This
practice, known as spamming (or spam mail), has been outlawed in most countries. You will find that once your name is
listed on a number of translation sites, you will receive an adequate number of translations that will keep you busy. (Ensure
first of all that you will be paid as well!) Once you have provided clients with a number of satisfactory translations, you will
find that they may wish to contact you directly for any future work. Many of the agencies, listed on the World Wide Web,
make their money from annual membership fees and from accepting advertising (i.e. featuring banner advertising on their
websites). Thus, clients will most likely pay you directly via e-pay or by other means, without you or your client having to
involve the respective agency, let alone having to pay commission to it.

20

21

CHAPTER FOUR
EQUIPMENT AND
HELPFUL TOOLS

22

CHAPTER 4 - Equipment and Helpful Tools

4.1 PC or Laptop with ADSL (Broadband Internet Connection), E-mail and Fax Facilities
It goes without saying that translators in the 21st century require up-to-date PCs and/or laptops, which are capable of accessing
a high speed ADSL (broadband) Internet connection via a compatible modem or wireless connection. Thus, a personal
computer or a laptop computer with wireless capability is connected to the Internet 24 hours a day, while your phone/fax
line remains open for inbound and outbound telephone and fax calls.
Most PCs and laptops feature built-in fax facilities, so that owning a separate fax machine is optional. The e-mail programs
which translators use vary. Outlook Express is an e-mail client that comes with most modern PCs that use Microsoft
operating systems. It allows for the sending and receiving of e-mail messages with file attachments. The program should be
monitored by an up-to-date virus checker, in order to protect your computer hard drive from unwanted and often malicious
viruses. Be aware that virus protection alone is not always enough nowadays and you will also need protection against spyware
and malware, which are equally capable of doing harm to the disk operating system on your PC and which are capable of
de-activating your firewall and anti-virus protection programs. In order to protect yourself against these eventualities and to
allow you to restore our system to a healthy state, you require either a computer with a system restore facility, (generally
found under help and support), called up from the menu by first mouse-clicking the start button on your computer or
special software program, such as Symantecs latest Norton Internet Security Software. A number of other well-known security
and system repair software programs available on the market also provide system repair or go back facilities, which will
enable you to restore your computer to a point in time, at which it was still healthy and without bugs.
There is nothing more frustrating for translators, who work to a tight deadline, than having to spend hours trying to remove
a virus or malware intruder, which immobilises part of the computers operating system. Although readers may already be
familiar with some of the above facts, they cannot be emphasised enough for translators, who are contemplating setting-up
a small translation business at home.
4.2 Laser Printer
Modern Laser printers operate at high speed, printing 16 or more pages per minute. They come as colour or monochromatic
printers and can operate in the ink safe mode, thus reducing toner usage. All printers can be connected to your computer.
Laser printers deliver clean print copies for your clients needs and are superior to inkjet printers. When upgrading from your
inkjet to a laser printer, do not forget to first install the printer driver on your home computer. Printer drivers for both new
or older inkjet and laser printers that you may wish to connect to your computer and for which you can no longer find the
installation disk (or where the latter can no longer be read by your new computers operating system), can be downloaded
from the manufacturers website, directly to your PC. You will need to install the downloaded .exe file on your hard drive,
in order to allow your new (or old) printer to read the print commands, issued to it by your PC. Having performed all the
necessary operations, you are now ready to print out on line glossaries, jobs e-mailed to your for translation and of course
translated texts for proofreading, hard-copy-faxing, mailing out to clients or filing.
4.3 Flatbed Scanner
A flatbed scanner connected to your PC is another handy tool to have available. It works on its own, in the same manner as
a photocopier, once a given document is placed face down on the glass. The prompts appearing on the computer screen are
activated by a simple mouse click. All scanners come with the appropriate software, which, like printer software needs to be
installed on the hard drive of your PC first.
Translators can scan translation pages in any readable print format for storage on the hard drive or CD-ROM. If you need
to refer to the file, it is preferable to first convert it to the Microsoft Word .doc format. The advantage of this is that once a
backup copy is retained, the document can be imported into a computer-aided translation tool, or into your word processor.
Now, translating line by line beneath or alongside the source language text is possible. This can be achieved by simply having
the source language text, either on a parallel screen, as is the case with some computer-aided translation tools, or right above
the translated text. This allows for either overtyping of the source language original text, or if the latter is left on screen, for an
instant check for omissions, stylistic anomalies, semantic choice and idiom, grammatical and formatting errors and more. In
regard to scanned documents, the author has found that very old birth certificates, hand-written in faded ink, can be digitally
enhanced (enlarged and made darker) with the aid of your PCs photo or text editing program. You will find by proceeding
23

in this manner, documents become easier to read. Photo copiers can also perform similar or identical tasks.
If you need to transfer coats of arms, emblems, letter heads or photographs that have not been supplied to you in digital
format, e.g. as e-mail attachment or other, then this too will be possible by means of a high quality scanner. You may need
to experiment, until you are fully adept with all the functions, which your scanner and its associated software program can
perform.
4.4 Photocopier
A photocopier represents another handy tool for translators. If your fax machine does not double up as a photocopier, and
if you require a large number of copies of a given document, then a photocopier is indispensable. Black and white copiers
can be purchased fairly cheaply second hand, as technology advances and most companies acquire colour copiers. You may
ask, why a photocopier? The answer is simple. Not all documents, which a translator receives for translation, come as email attachments. Some translation work is still derived from documents arriving by mail, and it is therefore important to
first make copies of the documents, which are to be translated. This will allow translators to check back, in case of alleged
translation errors, or if the translations you mail back to a client, are lost in the post. It is therefore advisable to use
registered mail, where original documents are involved.
Photocopiers can also enlarge, lighten or darken documents, to make them more readable. This is a frequent requirement,
when you are sent handwritten documents, such as birth certificates, issued a long time ago. Frequently barely readable
documents are sent to translators by agencies and clients. After photocopying and enhancing such a documents readability,
it will be possible to translate it.
4.5 Fax Machine
Translators require modern communication tools, which include a reliable fax machine or computer-based fax facility. This
allows for the transmission of documents from a client or agency to the translator and vice versa. The fax machine is generally
used, where the transmission of documents is required, which are not available in an electronic format (e.g. old birth and
marriage certificates, school and university diplomas, transcripts and the like). Where a translation, which resides on your
computers hard drive, has to be faxed back to a client, you can use your computers built-in fax device. This saves you having
to first print out a hard copy of the translated text for the purpose of feeding it through your fax machine.
4.6 Fixed Telephone Line and/or Mobile Phone
Translators generally possess both a fixed line telephone and a mobile telephone. The fixed line is generally required in order
to connect a broadband modem.
Frequently, translators whilst working on a translation at home, have to consult with their client or the agency that sent
them the job. In these cases a portable home phone, which can be taken into any room or a mobile phone will come in very
handy. Translators can simply sit in front of their computer screen, whilst using the phone to clarify any translation issue or
cross-cultural transfer problem with a client or translation agency
Translators who need to be mobile, work with laptops that have a wireless Internet connection. This enables them to take their
laptop computer with them wherever they go and allows them to work on the spot e.g. in a library, where many bilingual and
specialised dictionaries and other reference books are on hand, which translators may not have in their personal home library.
Nowadays most airlines offer laptop and Internet connections on board their aircraft. You may therefore never have to miss
out on a translation job because you are not at home or are travelling by air. Just take your laptop and smart phone.
Mobile phone technology already allows for the sending and receiving of e-mails, SMS text messages and sound files.
Some mobile phones also feature web browsers, word processors, etc. Soon, even the laptop may be superfluous to the
modern translator on the move. Given these advances in technology, part-time translators will be able to undertake their
communications and translation work on a train or bus, whilst commuting to their full-time job.
Do I hear you say that the same modern communication tools can already handle the machine translation of simple
sentences? This is in fact quite true, but as you will read in the chapter on machine translation, human translators will still
be needed for some time.
24

4.7 Magnifying Glass or Plastic Magnifying Sheets

Both the above mentioned devices are indispensable for translators. Frequently, clients will submit documents, which are
faded or which, after having been faxed, are barely readable with the naked eye. Some magnification is therefore required.
As already said, magnification by means of a scanning device or image editor is, of course, possible on the computer
and may render a document legible. However, if you are not near a scanner or photocopier to enhance and enlarge your
translation text, then simply go and purchase a strong magnifying glass with a built-in light and start deciphering those hard
to read documents. A client of mine was once overheard saying: why should I supply translators with a legible document,
when its their job to decipher the document and produce a meaningful translation. Thats what I am paying them for.
Even in our age of enlightenment such a way of thinking among the public still prevails in relation to translators. When
perusing unreadable scripts translators you should be able to perceive the many problems the well-known French Egyptologist
Champollion encountered while trying to decipher ancient the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs.
4.8 Old Fashioned Golf Ball Typewriter for Completion of Non-electronic Forms
If your translation practice predates the computer age, you will probably still have a typewriter hidden away in a back
room somewhere. Dont throw it out yet. Whilst a museum may pay you some money for it one day, it will still come in
handy when you need to type a translation on a form or template. Sometimes it is possible to scan the forms. You may find
however, that the formats of some forms are generally such, that scanning them into the computer for easier completion
creates problems. When this occurs, you will be able to put your old-fashioned typewriter to good use. Only highly skilled
computer buffs are able to type in the questionnaire answers on a blank page of Microsoft Word in perfect alignment with
the form to be completed, which they then run through their laser printer. Try it, if you are not frustrated enough yet with
fighting your computer on a daily basis!
4.9 CAT, TM, Localisation, Word Count and Code-converter Software Tools
Translators, who regularly undertake routine translations of birth, marriage, and death certificates, school reports and other
documents, will find that the task is repetitive and the format is generally the same in the source language. Translators,
who do not own a computer-aided translation (CAT) tool, can prepare their own templates in Microsoft Word and store
them on their computers. When another translation of the same type arrives at a translators home office, the translator will
immediately recognise the format and remember that a template has already been stored on the computer.
It is therefore quite a simple matter to call up the relevant template (or locate it with the assistance of Google desktop search)
and insert the translated details in the relevant spaces. The completed document is now ready for printout and mailing, or
e-mailing to the client.
A useful tool to assist translators in repetitive tasks is the so-called TM or translation memory, which may be part of CAT
software that you already own, or which can be purchased by freelance translators. It has the great capacity to instantly
identify words or text segments that have been previously translated. This can save translators repetitive work and will help
speed up translations considerably. As not all home-based, self-employed translators are flush with money, there is the already
mentioned cheaper and simpler way of retrieving this information by means of Google and Microsoft freely downloadable
desktop search programs, which allow you to simply type in key words or a phrase. The document/s in which the words or
the phrase appear will be found by the desktop search engine and the relevant reference displayed on your web browser. You
can then simply double click on the relevant file, which will open either under Word or Adobe Acrobat and allow you to
apply the standard cut and paste routine. Often, only a few words have to be altered to adapt the text to the required new
translation.
If you do not have the fairly costly Adobe Acrobat program installed on your computer, you can download a free copy of
Acrobat Reader. This will open all pdf documents and render them readable. You can save them to your hard disk and then
use a PDF converter (freely downloadable software), in order to turn a pdf formatted document into a Microsoft word doc
file document for the purpose of translating and printing it.
Translators, who work on a full-time basis and who have the capacity to earn lots of money, will generally invest in more
sophisticated translation tools, such as CAT tools. Such tools under their various names have become very popular with
translators and are generally mandatory when contracting work on the web for large international companies which become
25

your clients. It is common in Europe and the USA that some web-based translation agencies with whom you are contracting
translation work, insist on the use of a specific CAT tool, installed on your computer.
The most commonly used of these tools are Wordfast (free of charge), Workbench, TRADOS/SDLX, Dja Vu, RC WinTrans,
Smartlink, Cats Cradle, Euroscript, UniLex, OmegaT, MetaTexis, Passolo, Multicorpora, TransSuite 2000, J-CAT, IBM-CAT
tool, Across and others.
Wordfast is quite popular and links to machine translation packages. It works on both PC and Mac computers and integrates
with MS-Word. It allows for a direct translation from such Microsoft programs such as MS Word, Excel, PowerPoint and
Access It is also set up so that it can link up with external and computer-based dictionaries and glossaries and it comes with
a large enduser Manual.
Like most CAT tools, it requires some time to master and use as they are not for the faint-hearted, the impatient, or anyone,
who become easily frustrated with steep learning curves. However, CAT tools are very useful tools for the truly professional
translator. Those translators, who have decided to download and purchase one of the mentioned CAT tools, will find a
number of discussion forums available on the web. There, you can post any translation-related questions and will receive a
number of very quick and helpful replies from translators around the world. Similar help is available on these forums, if
you have a technical question. As the URL frequently changes, it will be best for you to use your favourite search engine
to locate the discussion group, which is best suited to your own needs. CAT editor programs allow you to work with both
source and target language (translation) texts at the same time, thus making the transfer across languages a relatively simple
process by means of alignment. Most CAT tools have their own translation memory (TM) and allow access to web-based or
computerbased dictionaries and terminology banks, including your personal terminology files.
Should you be called upon to work with computer animation, it is essential that you first learn about the configuration or
interface between the various formats and the CAT tool you are using. Dj Vu can handle most formats including Word,
RTF, HTML, plain text and will cope with Page Maker, Frame Maker, PowerPoint, Quark Express, and Olifant. Most
programs are constantly updated, such as the popular TRADOS/SDXL. Among the currently available CAT tools, ECCO by
PrimaTrans Software is one tool which some translators praise.
Please note that new programs are constantly being developed and you will need to surf the web and ensure that you always
have the very latest program versions installed on your computer. If you cannot afford to update your software regularly, you
may be left behind when competing against web-based translators worldwide.
Surf the Internet to find out all about CAT tools and their many functions. Then make up your own mind about which tool,
if any, best suits your needs, your computer skills and above all your financial means. The cost of CAT tools varies from
hundreds of Australian dollars up to two thousand dollars.
Download trial versions, if available, and explore the many features of the highly popular TRADOS Translators Workbench,
Wordfast, TagEditro, MultiTerm, WinAlign, S-Tagger and others. Have a look at MetaTexis, which is able to read and write
TRADOS and Wordfast encoded documents and could be cheaper. Similis too is a software programme that appears to
be somewhat more user-friendly for translators, who are not absolute computer wizards. It is used by some educational
institutions around the world.
Do not confuse CAT tools with MT, which will be discussed later.
If you are only dealing with general run of the mill translations, you may not need a highly sophisticated, costly and difficult
to use CAT tool. However, if you are both a translator and highly computer literate, you can carve out a niche market for
yourself, by tackling more challenging translation projects that entail graphic interface and localisation work. If you translate
a lot of web page content, have a look at and download CatsCradle, which functions as a web-page editor that will assist you
with page layouts and various codes, such as HTML, hidden text and more.
If localisation is frequently required, then consider Rainbow, Album, Horizon, or Olifant (a TM editor), which are generally
available as freeware from ENLASSO. They are well worth looking at and spending some time in learning their useful
functions. LTC Organiser 4.70 is highly praised by professional translators in the U.K. It comprises an automatic file analysis
feature, which can be used with DOC, PDF, HTML, RTF, PPT, TXT, and XLS files.
26

Rainbow offers RC and Script filters, text update and Rewriting utilities. Album on the other hand serves to enhance and
correct the Windows Clipboard utility for use with non-system codes. Unicode can be entered by its code and an URL may
be converted to an internationalised URL supporting non-system characters. Horizon works in conjunction with Rainbow.
It is a Windows application that will allow translators to compare source language and target language documents. Olifant
serves as a TM tool, i.e. as a translation memory editor. Note that it supports TM formats such as Wordfast, Trados, TMX
and others. Word count tools, useful for job quotes and invoicing tasks, will be discussed in the next chapter.

4.10 Translation Management and Accounting Software
As mentioned previously, not all translators require specialised word count or sophisticated translation management and
accounting software, which, if not available as free download from the Internet, will prove to be costly and at times,
superfluous. It all depends on your volume of work as a self-employed translator, working from home. Of course, even small
operators will need to keep detailed account records for taxation purposes; however, they may not require a sophisticated
accounting software program, in order to manage their business affairs.
A software program, known as Word Count, is one of a number of freely downloadable word counting tools that may be of
help to translators. It handles word, character and line count and is useful for the issuing of quotes and invoices. Translation
Follow-up is another program, which assists translators with record keeping and receivables. Any Count 6.0 features multiple
interface enhancements and handles a large number of word count formats, such as: CHM, HLP, SDW, SDC, SDD, XC, SXW,
SXI, ODT, ODS, ODP. RTF, DOC, WPD, XLS, PPT, PPS, PDF, CSV, HTMA, HTML, XML, MIF, TXT, ZIP, ODT, SDW,
SXW, ODS, SDC,SXC, ODP, SDD, SXI, HLP, CHM. As always, the choice of software that you find useful is yours and yours
alone. Surf the Internet and check out the programs mentioned and many others. Most software companies will allow a free
download for short trial periods.
4.11 Anti-virus, Spyware and Malware Protection Software
Whilst it was argued previously that you will need to choose the software programs that best suit your needs, it is important
to realise, however, that you should never be without up-to-date anti-virus, spyware and malware protection. You will need to
download program updates for your computer on a daily basis, for you cannot transmit a translated document containing
a virus to clients. It would be the last time that you had any business from them. On the other hand, their computers are
not immune from viruses either and it is therefore important that you undertake inbound anti-virus screening of all e-mails
as well. No doubt, you will also be familiar with spyware and malware defence programs that can safeguard your computer
against identity and password theft and the influx of malicious code through an unprotected computer port. This can make
your system malfunction to the extent that you lose vital files or crash your hard disk.
4.12 Voice Input or Dictation Software and Voice Readers
If you are not the worlds best and fastest typist, you may wish to invest in a good voice-input program. Such a program
allows you to dictate the translated text to your computer via a microphone. After first training the program to your voice,
the accuracy of input varies from 75-90%. This means that you still have some editing to do. There are quite a number of
programs on the market. Some commonly used tools for English are Naturally Speaking by Dragon Systems and Via Voice
by IBM. Equally handy are freely downloadable voice readers, which will read your translation back to you. You may then
be able to simply listen to the voice reader and pick up any errors that may need correcting. Mind you, if 100% accuracy is
required, which is the case for all translations, youd better rely on your eyes. From the above mentioned software you may
gain an idea where modern technology is taking us. What is still in its infancy today may very well be perfect tomorrow.
4.13 Translation Templates
Translation templates are great time-savers. A template is simply the required format in which a translation has to be
submitted to an authority, e.g. the traffic authorities. The latter may require that the translation be delivered in extract form
which contains only the information required by the licensing authority. The requirements may vary from state to state in
Australia. The same goes for the translation of marriage, birth and death certificates.
Once a translator knows the required format, this can be stored as a blank template on the computer, thus allowing the
translator to simply call up the template for every new translation and to simply fill in the details extracted from the source
language. If on the other hand the source language format is acceptable, then this too can be stored as a blank template in
the target language. This is frequently the case with Police Clearance Certificates from certain countries.
27

CHAPTER FIVE
DICTIONARIES

28

CHAPTER 5 - Dictionaries
5.1 Monolingual Dictionaries in your Working Languages
Monolingual dictionaries are a useful reference tool as they allow the translator to check both the spelling and meaning of a
given word. A professional translator will most likely work with computer-based dictionaries, however, the old print versions
that sit on a bookshelf are still very useful.
5.2 Thesauruses in your Working Languages
Thesauruses are dictionaries that feature synonyms of every word and thus offer translators alternative semantic choices.
This is really important, for translating does tax the human brain and the equivalent meaning in the target language will not
always spring to mind or, if it does, the translators Sprachgefhl (feeling for the language) will tell the translator that the
selection is just not right. The thesaurus will assist the translator in finding precisely the right word that conveys an accurate
meaning in the target language.
5.3 Bilingual Dictionaries in Working Languages
It is quite obvious that every translator requires bilingual dictionaries, which allow translators to look up words of equivalent
meaning in the target language. If that equivalent meaning, given by a dictionary, does not appear to be right, a translator
may use a thesaurus for selecting the appropriate target language word. Many bilingual dictionaries are already available in
electronic format and can be purchased as software or downloaded to your PC from the relevant Internet site. A computerbased dictionary is certainly a great time saver and can often be active on a split screen, or be called-up from the menu bar
on your computer for immediate consultation.
5.4 Specialised Bilingual Dictionaries in the Languages and Subject Areas in which you Undertake
Translations, e.g. Medical, Legal, Technical Dictionaries
Ordinary bilingual dictionaries are of little use to translators, who specialise in specific subject areas, such as medicine, law,
science and technology and others. To undertake specialised translations, you may well have to invest in a collection of subject
specific bilingual dictionaries. In addition to that, many translators also work with monolingual specialised dictionaries,
which explain special terminology (e.g. medical terms) in greater detail. The same, of course, applies to other specialised areas,
such as law, science and technology.
It is also important that medical translators have a good knowledge of the human body and its functions and know about
the most common diseases that affect it. A legal translator must have an understanding of the difference between criminal
and civil law as well as the various tiers of the local court hierarchy in both the source and target language country. British
law and European law differ considerably and without understanding the underlying legal principles, a mere bilingual legal
dictionary will be of little help as it may lead to unfortunate mistranslations.
5.5 Computer-based Dictionaries
Uploading an electronic dictionary on to your hard disk drive or onto a USB memory stick proves very useful. It allows you
to access the dictionary with a mouse click or, depending on your software, by simply highlighting the word whose meaning
in the target language you need to look up. If you have a 19 or 22 inch flat screen monitor you can have the dictionary
running alongside the text you are translating, providing it has been e-mailed to you and is therefore on screen already.
Using computer-based dictionaries does not make your dictionary library obsolete for it is often necessary to refer to more
than one source of information to find the right target language equivalent meaning. One source of language dictionaries
that is currently free for downloading is LingoPad. Its dictionaries are comprehensive and up-to-date and you can toggle
between languages and multiple dictionaries. There are of course a number of other sources on the Internet that allow for
dictionary downloads in a number of languages, but be warned, many of these dictionaries are not comprehensive enough to
serve a professional translator well. These comments are not meant to criticise or belittle the great amount of work that has
gone into compiling these reference sources, they are merely there to save you time hunting aimlessly through innumerable
internet sites.

29

5.6 Web-based Online Dictionaries

In addition to downloadable dictionaries, the Internet is home to many excellent web-based bilingual and multilingual
dictionaries. Here too a translator can spend many hours searching for the most comprehensive dictionary, only to almost
give up the search in frustration. When undertaking this type of search for your language pair go to the university sites
first. Many universities offer excellent online dictionaries, glossaries and acronym lists that are regularly updated. If you are
searching for technical, medical, legal dictionaries or others, spell this out in your search, otherwise your search engine will
simply take you to the many sites that offer non-subject-specific dictionaries and glossaries.
While undertaking a translation you can keep the dictionary webpage active in the background. This allows for the looking
up of unknown words immediately by simply toggling between the translation (e.g. word document) and the dictionary. After
entering the word you are looking for in the space provided, a multiple choice of answers will frequently appear on your
screen. Ensure that you select the word that best fits the original meaning.
Online dictionaries are an indispensable tool for the modern translator.
5.7 Hand-held Electronic Dictionaries
Hand-held electronic dictionaries prove popular for people on the move and usually feature a network cable. This allows
them to be linked to your home PC for the download of personal glossaries in your specialised translation area they can be
updated regularly. They are available from foreign language bookshops and also on the web. Simply search under electronic
dictionaries or electronic translators and then click on the URL that meets your needs.

30

31

CHAPTER SIX
REFERENCE TOOLS

32

CHAPTER 6 - Reference Tools

6.1 A Well Indexed World Atlas
A well-indexed world atlas is a necessary tool for any self-employed translator, who does not wish to visit the library or go
on the Internet every time a place name in a birth or marriage certificate that has to be translated is barely readable. In some
instances even the country of birth is in doubt and in our small world, where people change their domicile frequently and
even migrate to the farthest corner of the world, it is vital for translators to have accurate geographical data at their fingertips.
The Times World Atlas contains a detailed alphabetical index. It is still among the best publications available in print.
The electronic version of the Microsoft Auto Route Express of Europe allows translators to find the most remote village on
that continent. Of course, the Internet is an equally valuable source of information in this day and age and anyone with a
broadband connection and a fast search engine, can quickly obtain the sought after information.
There is one word of warning though, for the over-zealous translator. The Internet will produce so-called information
overload and you may spend more time locating the right URL from which to extract the information, than you would by
simply perusing your Atlas in its print version or electronic format.
6.2 One or Several Encyclopaedias in your Working Languages
The same applies to owning and using encyclopaedias, as was outlined in the previous paragraph about the atlas as a reference
tool. Encyclopaedias allow us to gather information on a given subject with which we are not too familiar or it will permit
us to verify certain facts of which we are not certain. Many modern print encyclopaedias in English and other languages are
already available in an electronic desktop version and can be easily accessed and searched.
As with dictionaries, you will find that you can get subject specific encyclopaedias, such as the American Van Nostrand Scientific
Encyclopaedia or the one volume Columbia Encyclopaedia, which offers the biographical details of many individuals, both
dead and alive. Modern computers frequently come with resident encyclopaedias, such as Encarta, Britannica or Oxford. All
of these provide useful reference tools for translators, who are generally required to be multi-skilled. For detailed background
reading on a specific subject translators will, however, still need to consult specialised literature or web references.
6.3 Subject-related Reference Books and Materials
As previously mentioned, translators working in specialised areas, such as medicine, law, science and technology, etc. will
generally build up a specialised reference library consisting of monolingual and bilingual dictionaries and reference books on
the subject. Greys Anatomy, a standard work on the human body, which depicts every bone, muscle and organ, provides an
excellent reference tool for medical translators. The same can be said, of course, for reference works in the other subject areas.
However, modern translators do no longer have to build up large personal libraries at considerable cost to them, for surfing
the World Wide Web will usually enable translators, to find the information they seek on a given topic. There are also CDROM and DVD libraries in many fields, which provide specialised and graphic information to modern translators.

33

CHAPTER SEVEN
REQUIREMENTS FOR
WORKING FROM HOME
VIA THE INTERNET

34

CHAPTER 7 - Requirements for Working from Home via the Internet

A reliable Internet connection is a major requirement for translators. This can be either via ADSL broadband (available in
most residential areas) or via dial-up modem. A dial-up Internet connection can be rather slow and tedious, but may prove
adequate for some translators with low volume Internet traffic.
Those working with large files and graphic interface e.g. in the area of software localisation, DVD and film dubbing, voiceovers etc. will definitely require a broadband connection. Dubbing software is also essential, if you plan to work in this area.
Many localisation companies for whom you may come to work, have their own dubbing and allied software, which they may
allow you to download free of charge. Other important requirements for your personal computer are:
7.1 Adequate Computer Resident Anti-virus, Anti-spyware and Anti-malware, Ad-Aware, Firewall and
General Internet Security Protection
No translator can afford to access the Internet without being adequately protected against viruses, spyware, malware and
Ad-Aware. Most of you will know of malicious programs designed to invade your computer without being detected, unless
you have adequate protective software installed. There is a multitude of anti-virus software and Internet Security programs
available, among them Norton and McAfee. The same goes for spyware, malware and Ad-Aware watch and removal programs.
If you have windows XP, Windows 2000 or the Vista operating system installed on your computer, you can to some degree
rely on the Microsoft provided security features that come with your computer. Update reminders appear on a regular basis
upon connection to the net. You can then choose to enable the update feature to re-enforce your firewall, virus, malware and
spyware protection. It is best to seek advice from either your internet service provider or your computer sales shop, about
how best to protect your computer or laptop.
Please note: Some freely downloadable programs on the Internet, which promise to protect your computer, may in fact
harm it. Therefore, always carefully check what you download. Virus scan your downloads first and, if in doubt, consult with
a computer expert.
Translators, who have a broadband modem installed, may find that they will benefit from its built-in security features, which
serve to hide the computers identity and thus protect its ports from malicious attacks and intrusions by hackers. If they have
several computers installed in their home, a wireless router will allow them to share their broadband connections will all the
other computers. Software programs however, are usually licensed for use on one computer only.
7.2 An Optional Personal Website or Work-Related E-mail Address
When surfing the net, you may be surprised to find that many self-employed translators already have a personal website,
generally hosted by their internet service provider. This allows prospective clients direct access to that website and increases
the chances to secure work via the internet. Again, make sure that you first negotiate how and when you will be paid, before
sending off your translations into the wild blue yonder, never to be paid and not being able to find out who hides behind
an e-mail address. Web fraud is rampant, so please be warned! However, forewarned is forearmed and many translators make
a healthy living by working via the Internet, harvesting translation work from their website on an almost daily basis.
If you are thinking of setting up your own personal website, there are a number of special software programs available, which
allow individuals who are not versed in HTML programming, to set up their own website with just a few mouse clicks. When
setting up your own webpage, keep it simple and dont visually overload it. Use large, bold lettering that can easily be read
and allow for hot links to detailed information, which you wish your prospective clients to read. If you have any problems
in setting up your own web page, you will find that there are also specialised companies that will design and set up your
webpage for a specified charge. Therefore, consider your available funds and proceed from there.
No doubt, most translators already have a reliable e-mail client and one or more e-mail addresses. I would however suggest
that you keep your personal e-mail separate from your business e-mail and create a designated e-mail account for your
translation business.
Well, if you are not doing all these things already, you must be excited to get started. Read on, you may find a few more
hints in the following notes.
35

7.3 A Reliable Internet Service Provider (ISP)

There is nothing more frustrating than having an Internet connection that keeps dropping out in the middle of an important
e-mail transmission or web-surfing session. Make sure therefore, that your Internet Service Provider (ISP) is reliable and has a
good reputation and reasonable charges. In Australia the computer magazines APC (Australian Personal Computer) and PC
User publish regular surveys comparing the services and charges of the most widely known Internet Service Providers.
Select the one closest to you and then investigate the various services they offer, by visiting their website. Once you have made
you choice, you can select either a dial-up or an ADSL account. You may very well opt for the latter, which is only slightly
dearer, but offers speedier downloads and uploads on the web, as well as built-in modem security, protecting you computer
from unwanted intruders (hackers). Remember, choosing a reliable ISP will keep both you and your clients happy.
7.4 A Local and International Internet-based Clientele
Once your name or business is listed with several translation agencies overseas and with NAATI (if you are a NAATI
accredited translator in Australia), you will find that work will chase you, rather than you having to chase it. Of course, some
languages are in greater demand than others and therefore, it will depend largely on what you have to offer. On the other
hand, remember, it pays to advertise. Therefore, put your name on as many free lists on the web as appears feasible. Simply
type in the word translation agencies in your search engine and you will be surprised what comes up. If you are going to set
up your own web page, you should refer to it in your listings. For a small fee you can also purchase banner advertising on
translation web sites. Good luck! Surprise yourself!
7.5 Secure Electronic Payment and Banking Facilities
When working on the Internet and dealing with clients, be they translation agencies or business clients, you will be asked,
after first establishing the bona fide of these contacts, what your banking details are for the purpose of electronic payment. As
already mentioned, you need to be extremely cautious here. Therefore, it is wise to investigate all the secure payment options
that are available to you in your area. As things are changing so rapidly in this field, this guide cannot offer you advice on
this. It is best to always discuss this issue both with your bank and client, always opting for the safest way, of course. E-pay
and PayPal are web-based electronic payment systems often suggested by web-based translation agencies. Proceed with caution
when giving out personal details, such as banking information.

7.6 Essential Work-related Computer Software
I have already mentioned the various security programs you need to have installed on your computer.
In addition to them, you will need one or several reliable, properly configured web browsers, for accessing the Internet. Some
individuals choose to block pop-ups, whilst others find them less disturbing and at times quite useful. Again, this is a matter
of personal choice and you can configure your computer accordingly.
Most important for you is a reliable word processor, and most translators use Microsoft Words latest available version. The
easiest translation format in MW is the .doc format. It allows for formatting and editing according to the requirements
of your client. However, if clients require print-ready copies of documents in the pdf or another format, then it will most
likely be necessary, to first convert the translated documents to the requested .pdf format used by Adobe-Acrobat. This
program may be beyond your budget, but a free Adobe-Acrobat Reader can be downloaded from the Acrobat website. A pdf
encoded document cannot be edited in Word and the file must first be converted to a .doc file first by means of the freely
downloadable pdf converter. If you need to change the format back doc to pdf format, as hinted above, you will need to
purchase the required software. Converters can be purchased on line and downloaded against payment. After payment has
been received by the software seller, an unlock key will be sent to your e-mail address, which allows you to unlock and activate
the purchased software program on your personal computer.
Some translators, who are not good proofreaders, may wish to install a voice reader on their computer. Fully synthesised
voice readers usually cost around fifty to eighty dollars, plus postage. They can also be downloaded via a high speed internet
connection. These voice readers will stumble over a misspelt word or allow you to pick up a wrong tense, an awkward
phrasing (style) in your translation and still more, while listening to your translation being read out.

36

A spell-checker for your working languages is essential. Spell-checkers are generally available for download from microsoft.
com or may be purchased or downloaded freely from certain websites. University websites in your target language country
are usually an excellent source for finding web-based dictionaries, spell-checkers, as well as grammar resources. Many hotlinks,
provided by these websites, will also prove to be useful to translators.
A reliable e-mail program, which allows for the management of files, is essential. Outlook Express by Microsoft is commonly
used though most web browsers host their own e-mail clients, with reasonable storage facilities. This means that you do not
clog up your computers memory with mail files that could be stored elsewhere e.g. an external drive or message stick etc.
Whilst talking about storage, please remember to always back up your translation files on a CD-ROM disk or on a computer
external drive, to avoid total loss in case of a system outing or computer crash.
Software that you consider as must have can be numerous and it again depends entirely on your personal requirements
and choice. Translators should at least have the latest version of Microsoft Office, PowerPoint and Excel installed on their
computers.

37

CHAPTER EIGHT
MACHINE
TRANSLATION (MT)

38

CHAPTER 8 - Machine Translation (MT)

8.1

The Concept

We have already discussed CAT tools, which make the work of modern translators easier. Machine Translation (MT),
however, is a different kettle of fish but is precisely what the term says. The machine, namely the computer takes over the task
of translating from human translators and has been around since the days of reel type computers and has occupied computer
linguists as far back as the 1950s. It may, one day take over the task of translating from human translators. Currently, whilst
a useful tool to the non-linguist or to persons unable to speak another language, MT has not proven to be very useful to
the translation profession itself, for the output still requires considerable pre and post editing of the translated text. People
unable to speak another language use MT to get the general gist of what a text is all about in another language and can, if
the task demands it, engage a human translator to undertake the translation, if it is required. MT is currently used mainly as
an information gathering device by individuals and proves very useful when surfing the World Wide Web.

Large government and international organisations on the other hand have found that if their documents are written in plain
English, MT can save them considerable time and the output does not need much post-editing, which is time consuming and
costly. Simple grammatical structures and short sentences can be handled quite well by MT systems though long, convoluted
legal documents and abstract language still require human translators. There is, of course, a famous joke circulating that
dates back to the last century. It tells of a company, which had developed an MT system and was keen to sell it to the worlds
superpowers. It was said, it could translate simply anything. Well then, said one of the prospective clients. If that is so,
why not put in a few simple words and see what comes out of your clever machine. I suggest you put in the widely-known
saying out of sight, out of mind. The sales team trying to market their wonderful new MT computer punched the words
onto the tape to be fed into the reel type computer and one could hear the large reels turning as the system laboured to come
up with the translation. Finally, the moment had come and the proud manager of the sales team, without looking at the
translation, handed over the result to the prospective client, saying: Here you are, Sir, this is the printout of the translation.
The prospective client glancing at the printout started laughing and read the result to the assembled management team, which
had patiently awaited the result. The translation, ladies and gentlemen read invisible idiot.

8.2
Available Tools
There are quite a number of MT tools that can be downloaded from the Internet for use on your own PC such as Stystran,
Transit Satellite PE, Word Translator and Language Master. Just type machine translation into your search engine and then
evaluate the available programs for yourself and download the freeware or purchasable software that will suit your individual
needs.

39

CHAPTER NINE
AREAS OF
SPECIALISATION

40

CHAPTER 9 - Areas of Specialisation

9.1

Medical Translation

This is a specialised field of translation that requires a very good understanding of the workings of the human body, its diseases
and cures, modern medical technology and its application, hospital emergency and surgical procedures, pharmaceuticals and
their applications, and others. Translators working in this field must have the relevant background in human biology and
must be totally familiar with medical terminology in both the source and target language. A mistranslation of a medical
diagnosis or report can have dire consequences for a patient. An example illustrating this is the term angina, which in
Italian, simply refers to an inflamed throat, whilst in English it generally relates to angina pectoris, a serious heart condition.
Therefore, beware of false friends. These are similar sounding words across languages whose meaning differs greatly. Always
consult your medical dictionaries in both the source and target language and a copy of Greys Anatomy or its equivalent.
In case of doubt, you should consult with either a peer or with a medical practitioner or nurse, competent in both the
relevant discipline and language. Medical translation can be both challenging and rewarding. With Australia being one of the
leading nations in the development of new pharmaceutical products, new vaccines, new surgical procedures (e.g. skin grafts),
translators specialising in medical translation should have a bright and secure future.
Self-employed translators, who have the relevant qualifications and who specialise in medical translation, may consider
advertising their services in medical journals or register their name with hospitals, the medical board, health insurance
companies and on the Internet.
9.2 Technical Scientific Translation
Translators working in this field also require a good general knowledge and a background in science and may find opportunities
to work across all disciplines of science and technology, be it chemistry, physics, astronomy, agricultural science, engineering,
etc. They are frequently called upon to translate patents and patent specifications, e.g. for a new technical device that has
just been invented and requires world-wide patent registration. Sometimes translations of scientific journal articles, doctoral
theses and operating manuals for complex pieces of machinery may be required. Without a good understanding of how to
read engineering blue prints and technical drawings, frequently attached to the texts to be translated, translators may find
that they cannot render captions accurately in the target language. Without some background in chemistry, even if only at
high school level, the translation of simple chemical processes may present a problem. Thus, translators working in this area
frequently have to undertake the necessary background research and parallel reading in both source and target language, in
order to gain a full understanding of the subject matter. As with medical translations, there must be no guessing and in case
of doubt a phone call to a professional person seeking an explanation, may be necessary and warranted. Mostly, however, it
will be possible to find the answers on the World Wide Web or with the help of online translator discussion groups. Once
a question concerning a difficult term or a whole sentence or paragraph is posted to such a discussion group, answers keep
pouring in very quickly. Of course, it will be necessary to carefully select the one answer that hits the nail on the head and
is absolutely accurate. A copy of a scientific encyclopedia at home, such as Van Nostrands Scientific Encyclopedia, can save
a lot of web surfing time, when seeking answers. Nobody can claim that research materials and translation aids required
by professional translators are cheap, however, they are an essential requirement, if translators are to produce accurate and
meaningful translations, which will satisfy their clients and also, in order to build the necessary reputation as a qualified
translator in the chosen area of specialisation.
9.3 Legal Translation
Translators, who choose to specialise in legal translations, require a basic knowledge of the court system in Australia and
the various areas of the law. They also need to become familiar with legal procedures and the relevant legal terminology.
Glossaries, which cover most of the legal terms, required by legal translators, as well as specialised dictionaries can be accessed
on the Internet.
The Australian court system has the following court structure from the lowest to the highest court.
a)
Magistrates Court or often referred to as the Court of Petty Sessions
b) District Court sitting as the next highest court, either as a court of first instance, a Family Court or a Court of
Appeal.
c)
Supreme Court which tries important cases and hears cases on appeal from the District Court
d) High Court which is the highest court in the land to hear cases on appeal and no further appeals are possible
41

e)
f)

beyond its jurisdiction. The appeal to the Privy Council in London was removed many years ago, in order to affirm
the independence of the Australian judiciary.
Constitutional Court. Constitutional matters only will be adjudicated by this court
Various tribunals and the Commonwealth ombudsman also form part of the Australian legal system. All the above
courts and tribunals avail themselves of translation services from time to time.

The Australian legal system is based on principles of equality before the law and principles of access and equity. Legal
translators are highly skilled linguists. They need to understand and decipher the frequently convoluted and archaic legal
jargon that may be contained in a legal brief or the judgement of a court. In addition, legal translators must also be familiar
with the legal system in the target language country, where a legal principle on which a judgement (verdict) is based in
Australia, may not exist. Translators, unlike interpreters, do not generally appear in a court of law, unless summoned to swear
an affidavit in regard to a translation or to appear as a material witness.
To recap: translators, like their interpreter counterparts, are required to have a:

comprehensive knowledge of the legal systems of both the source and target language countries

knowledge of both civil and criminal law and its various special areas, such as family law, contract law, law of torts
and more

knowledge of legal terminology and legal language as a whole

knowledge of the structure and administration of the courts and their protocol

detailed knowledge of the court procedures and the meaning of judgements

skill in using the correct legal jargon in the target language. This may differ greatly from that of the source
language.
The work of translators also extends to the translation of evidence, court documents, transcripts of police interviews,
solicitors correspondence, and transcripts of whole laws and international agreements, promulgated by the federal and local
governments, which are required to be understood by non-English speakers.
In a case where evidence has been translated that refers to an indictable offence, translators will be directed to swear an affidavit,
which states that they are fluent in both the source language and English and competent to undertake the translation. Once
the matter goes to court, the translation may be tabled as evidence and the translator becomes a material witness and may
be summoned to appear in Court as a witness for the prosecution or defence, as the case may be.
There are of course many other legal issues, which may involve translators. This short outline is only intended to point out
some of the essential requirements for translators. Should you decide to specialise in legal translation, you will need to acquire
both the correct legal language and terminology in both the SL and TL.
9.4 Literary Translation
Literary translation, also referred to as literature translation, is a true art. It requires a special breed of translators, who love
literature (fiction and poetry). Literary translators must first read the whole book or poem, which they are called upon to
translate. This is so they can familiarise themselves with the genre and individual style of the author, which has to be mirrored
in the translation. Some translators find this difficult to achieve and will unintentionally impose their own style upon the
translation, thus frequently failing to convey to the target language readers the original authors true spiritual makeup, i.e.
the true emotions expressed in a specific novel, short story or poem.
Australia in recent years has produced several best-selling authors, some of whom had their works translated into many
languages other than English, and some have even formed the basis for movie scripts, resulting in successful films. Apart
from book translation, the translation of subtitles for countries in which the original film language is not understood,
presents a further challenge to translators.
Thus, SBS has a team of translators and subtitlers working for it who produce English language translations and subtitles
for foreign movies being shown on Australian television. Subtitling is a special art which requires that text lines are kept to
a minimum on screen, (28 characters per line) allowing the viewer to quickly read what the actors are saying. This may result
in material having to be shortened for subtitling purposes.
42

Translators planning to translate poetry into other languages may find that they frequently have to sacrifice meaning for the
sake of rhyme or vice-versa. Thus, many translations these days merely transfer the meaning of the original poem. Rhyme
and meter are totally ignored.
Remuneration for translating literary works generally entails bulk rates. For example a whole book translated and proof read
may fetch far less than a much shorter business translation. It is up to you to carefully estimate the amount of time you
will take for carrying out the translation and then ask yourself how much you should earn per hour (e.g. $40). If you have
estimated 100 hours for instance, then you will know that the remuneration you should negotiate is $4000. Please note that
times and amounts are given as a guideline only and have little bearing on what the actual translation rates charged are or
may be around the world.
9.5 Business (Commercial) Translation
Commercial or business translators must acquire the necessary vocabulary used in banking, finance, export trade, shipping,
transport, mining, manufacturing, engineering, food, clothing, computer technology and other related fields. Let us briefly
look at some of the fields in which business (commercial) translators find employment
Australia is a vibrant nation and a major exporting country and over the years Australian business has come to recognise the
fact that in order to compete successfully in the international market, product labelling and product descriptions need to be
translated into the language of the Language Other Than English (LOTE) target markets. Business correspondence too, as a
common courtesy, is now frequently translated into the trading partners languages. Web sites of Australian companies can
now also be accessed in LOTE and therefore score more hits for prospective exporters.
Banks and stock markets trade across national borders and have a world-wide clientele as do the international stock
markets.
International transport companies, such as airlines and shipping companies and postal authorities, all require the services
of skilled linguists in order to operate efficiently. In Australia, however, the myth still prevails that any migrant, who has
just arrived from a certain overseas country and whose language is suddenly in demand, can automatically function as a
qualified translator. We all know that this is not so, and translators often have to point out this misconception to an illinformed public. One major reason for the confused public is the mass media, which do not distinguish between translating
and interpreting. They will invariably write or say that the translator said, when in fact translators merely transfer written
meaning from one language into another.
Commercial translators must work very accurately, for a simple mistake can have far-reaching consequences. Of course, this
applies equally to most other areas of translation, except perhaps to literary translation, which was discussed in the previous
chapter.
Commercial translators are also frequently called upon to undertake translations of government documents and publications
(e.g. Centrelink, Medicare et al.). They are also engaged by the media to translate the news (e.g. web-based news bulletins) into
a number of target languages.
Translators are also needed for the translation of advertisements into other languages. This is a particularly challenging task,
as cross-cultural factors must be considered in addition to the language factors. The translators may then find that rather
than merely transferring language, they are required to be advertising copywriters and cross-cultural consultants and be
unequipped and unremunerated for both. To illustrate this, one may recall a story about a class of Chinese translation
students who, some years ago before pampered pets, such as dogs and cats, were allowed back onto the streets of Chinese
cities, were given a magazine clipping featuring an advertisement for cat food.
They burst out laughing in disbelief, saying: cats are there to catch mice and rats; we dont feed them or keep them inside
our houses! An ad like that would never take in China! However, times change and now in the 21st century, pampered pets
are back on the streets of Shanghai and Beijing.
Yes, tempora mutantur et nos mutamur in illis (times change and we with them). How true this ancient Latin saying is, for
translators too must move with the changing times and learn to adapt to both new language and technology. Commercial and
43

technical translators are generally the ones, who have to adapt first to all the rapid changes. They are constantly updating their
vocabulary as neologisms appear for new products, new methods of transport, new technology and communication devices
etc. Commercial translators always find plenty of translation work for which they can tender on the net.
The geographical position of Australia works to their advantage and they can capitalise on it. So why not inform yourself
by visiting the websites of some of the international translation companies. In order to be eligible to view regular job offers
and to be allowed to participate in the bidding process, some of these translation agencies charge a modest fee, which you
will recoup after your first assignment. You may also be able to find out in which manner the commercial organisation will
pay you (e.g. e-pay) etc.
9.6 Interpreting
This guide is not intended for Interpreters, however, one needs to briefly pay tribute to this ancient and honourable
profession. Interpreters, as we know, transfer the meaning of the spoken word from one language into another, yet in the
mass media they are frequently referred to as translators. The latter term progressively seems to cover both translators and
interpreters, mainly because the media are often confused as to what the specific duties of interpreters entail.
In Australia, community interpreters are very much in demand. They interpret mainly for non-English speaking members of
the migrant communities in such areas as health, law, education, social services, etc. They are generally referred to as dialogue
interpreters.
Somewhat less work exists for consecutive and simultaneous interpreters.
The latter often work in courts of law and as conference interpreters at international meetings and conferences. Their
remuneration is by the hour and they are generally booked in advance. If told about the assignment (e.g. conference topic)
in advance, they can prepare themselves well, by studying specialised glossaries and frequently recurring clichs, used by
conference speakers. Interpreters are frequently needed to interpret at business meetings and social events, such as hosted
dinners and sightseeing tours, group seminars, international exhibitions, factory and mine site inspections, negotiations
between business partners and more.
Interpreters need to be well educated, possessing an extensive general knowledge. They also require considerable training
and practical experience. Currently, telephone interpreting in Australia is common as is interpreting at video conference
sessions.
Interpreting via Internet voice connections is still in its infancy, but may in a few short years from now allow interpreters to
work from home via video/voice links.
Quite a number of helpful handbooks have been written on the various forms of interpreting. A quick look at the NAATI
website or an Internet search will point you to those publications, which will assist you, should you plan to embark on a
professional interpreter career.

44

45

APPENDICES

46

Appendices
Index:
a) Model Contract (by courtesy of ATA see footnote)
b) Sample Cost Estimate and Charges Calculation
c) Sample Invoice
d) Glossary of Acronyms and Other Terms
e) Bibliography of Books and Articles on Translation
f) CAT Tools Available for Download from the Internet
g) Translation Agencies Offering Work on the Internet
h) e-pay via the Internet
i) Glossaries Available on the Internet
j) Logical Steps in Tackling a Translation
k) Model Contract (by Courtesy of ATA see footnote)
l) Useful Conversion Tables

47

a)

Model Contract (by Courtesy of ATA see footnote)

Model Contract for Translators by courtesy of the American Translators Association

TRANSLATION AGREEMENT
Date of this Agreement:
of
(Translator)
Translators Name

Translators Address

and
of
(Client)
Clients Name

Clients Address

hereby agree as follows:

1. Description of services. Translator, as an independent contractor, will provide the following service(s) [Identify item(s) to
be translated and the particular service(s) to be performed]:

Scheduled completion date is:

Translator shall make every effort to complete service(s) by the above date but shall not be responsible for delays in completion
caused by events beyond Translators control.
Method of delivery:
Format of delivery:
2. Fee for services. Client agrees to pay $

as Translators fee for the above service(s).

Payment is due as follows:

The due dates for payment of fees and costs under this Agreement shall be the date(s) specified in this Agreement, provided
that if no date is specified, the due date shall be the date of Translators billing for the fees or costs. Any payments for fees or
costs not received by Translator within
days of the due date will be deemed late and shall be subject to a
%
per month late charge. Client agrees to be responsible for Translators costs in collecting late payments due from Client,
including reasonable attorneys fees.

48

3. Cancellation or withdrawal by Client. If Client cancels or withdraws any portion of the item(s) described in paragraph 1
above prior to Translators completion of the service(s), then, in consideration of Translators scheduling and/or performing
said service(s) Client shall pay Translator the portion of the above fee represented by the percentage of total service(s)
performed, but in any event not less than
% of said fee.
4. Additional fees. Additional fees will be payable, to be calculated as provided below, in the event the following additional
services are required: (a) investigation, inquiry, or research beyond that normal to a routine translation is required because
of ambiguities in the item(s) to be translated; (b) additional services are required because Client makes changes in the item(s)
to be translated after the signing of this Agreement; and (c) Translator is requested to make changes in the translation after
delivery of the translation, because of Clients preferences as to style or vocabulary, and such changes are not required for
accuracy. Such additional fees will be calculated as follows:

5. Additional costs. Client shall reimburse Translator for necessary out-of-pocket expenses incurred by Translator that are
not a normal part of routine translation procedure, such as overnight document delivery service requested by Client, long
distance telephone and telefax expenses to clarify document ambiguity, etc.
6. Clients review of translation. Upon receipt of the translation from Translator, Client shall promptly review it, and
within 30 days after receipt shall notify Translator of any requested corrections or changes. Translator shall correct, at no
cost to Client, any errors made by Translator.
7. Confidentiality. All knowledge and information expressly identified by Client in writing as confidential which Translator
acquires during the term of this Agreement regarding the business and products of Client shall be maintained in confidentiality
by Translator and, except as expressly authorized by Client in writing, shall not be divulged or published by Translator and
shall not be authorized by Translator to be divulged or published by others. Confidential information for purposes of this
paragraph shall not include the following:
a. Information which is or becomes available to the general public, provided the disclosure of such information did
not result from a breach by Translator of this paragraph.
b. Terminological glossary entries compiled by Translator in the course of Translators performance of the translation
service(s) under this Agreement; provided, however, that Client and Translator may agree in writing that, upon payment
by Client to Translator of an agreed-upon fee, such terminological glossary entries shall be the property of Client and
shall be covered by the confidentiality provisions of this paragraph.

8. Translation is property of client, copyright. Upon Clients completion of all payments provided herein, the
translation of the item(s) described in paragraph 1 above shall be the property of Client. Translator has no obligation to
take any steps to protect any copyright, trademark or other right of Client with respect to the translation, except as may be
expressly otherwise provided in this Agreement. Notwithstanding the foregoing, Translator shall have the right to retain file
copies of the item(s) to be translated and of the translation, subject to the provisions of paragraph 7 above.
9. Indemnification and hold-harmless by Client. Client agrees to indemnify and hold Translator harmless from any
and all losses, claims, damages, expenses or liabilities (including reasonable attorneys fees) which Translator may incur based
on information, representations, reports, data or product specifications furnished, prepared or approved by Client for use by
Translator in the work performed under this Agreement.

49

10. Changes by others. Translator shall have no responsibility whatever as to any changes in the translation made by
persons other than Translator.
11. Governing law. This Agreement shall be governed by the laws of the State of
12. Additional provisions. [Add all additional provisions required by the parties.]

13. Complete agreement. This is the complete agreement of the parties as to the subject matter hereof. Any changes in this
Agreement must be in writing signed by both parties. This Agreement becomes a binding contract only upon signature by
both parties and the delivery of fully signed copies to each party.
Translator:
Client:

American Translators Association - Translation Agreement - July 1991 ed.

50

IMPORTANT NOTICE
THIS CONTRACT FORM OR GUIDE IS GENERAL IN NATURE AND IS NOT INTENDED TO PRESCRIBE THE
USE OF ANY TERMS AND CONDITIONS HEREIN. THE ISSUANCE OF THIS FORM DOES NOT RESTRICT
IN ANY RESPECT ANY MEMBER OR NON-MEMBER FROM CONTRACTING FOR SERVICE ON TERMS
AND CONDITIONS DIFFERENT FROM THOSE SET FORTH HEREIN. THE USE OF ANY PORTION OF
THIS FORM OF AGREEMENT IS STRICTLY VOLUNTARY, AND IS THE SOLE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE
CONTRACTING PARTIES.
NEITHER THE AMERICAN TRANSLATORS ASSOCIATION NOR ITS MEMBERS ASSUME ANY
RESPONSIBILITY OR LIABILITY, WHETHER BASED ON WARRANTY, CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, PRODUCT LIABILITY OR OTHERWISE, WITH RESPECT TO THE USE OF THIS CONTRACT
FORM. THE AMERICAN TRANSLATORS ASSOCIATION AND ITS MEMBERS MAKE NO WARRANTY,
EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, WITH REGARD TO THE LEGALITY OR ENFORCEABILITY OF THIS FORM OF
AGREEMENT.
AMERICAN TRANSLATORS ASSOCIATION
225 Reinekers Lane, Suite 590
Alexandria, VA 22314
Phone: (703) 683-6100; Fax: (703) 683-6122
E-mail: ata@[Link]
Note: This sample contract has been included by courtesy of the American Translators Association.
It is subject to amendments and changes without prior notice and is only a suggested model contract. For any updated
version and/or other information about ATA, please visit their website under [Link] [Link].
Some contracts that you will conclude with your clients need not be of the same complexity. While oral contracts are also
legal and binding as long as they include a consideration (payment of money for translation services rendered), it is always
wise to have a written contract or at least written confirmation from your client that includes all the vital elements of a
contract (in accordance with the law of contract).
In case of a dispute you will have that contract or agreement to fall back on. In case of any complex contracts or legal issues,
you should always consult a legal advisor.
Warning!
The above information is solely intended for the purpose of pointing you in the right direction. It does not constitute legal
advice and you will need to inform yourself thoroughly, before drawing up or signing any contract.
If you wish to have a standard contract drawn up that suits most of your needs and that will stand up in a court of law, ask
your solicitor to draw it up on your behalf.
Note that a disclaimer appended to the end of a translation may discourage litigation. It does not absolve you from exercising
proper duty of care owed to your clients. Do not misrepresent your level of skill and do not be negligent in your work. A
translator delivering good work can count on repeat business!

51

b)

Sample Cost Estimate, Charges Calculation and Securing the Job

Most clients will want to know, how much they are likely to be charged for the contracted translation. Some clients, of
course, will simply shop around and will not give you an immediate go ahead to proceed with a translation, although you
have supplied them with a cost estimate and timeline. A simple method of arriving at a cost estimate of a given translation
is as follows:
Let us assume, for the sake of simplicity, that a translation consists of ten typed pages of text, with standard line spacing. A
standard typed page will generally contain approximately 300+ words per page. However, this may depend on the font type,
the paragraph spacing at the top and bottom, as well as left and right page margins.
Your first step therefore consists of counting the words on each of the first three lines of the text, adding them together and
dividing the total by three. E.g. the first line contains 16 words, the second line 14 words and the third line 18 words. These
add up to 48 words in total, divided by three = 16. Thus, for the purpose of estimating costs we simply assume that there are
an average of 16 words on every line of all ten pages.
We will therefore count the total number of lines on the first page and find that they add up to 20 lines. 20 lines x 16 words
= 320 words per page. If all 10 pages have the same page layout and the same number of lines (you note this by quickly
glancing at each of them), you will arrive at a total word count of 3200 words.
Now, if we assume that your charges amount to $20 per hundred words, then you simply multiply the word count by 20 and
divide by 100. Thus, you can advise your client that the cost estimate for the translation is approximately $640.
To this, your client may reply: thank you, I will get back to you! You may take this to mean that the client is going to shop
around and will probably never get back to you. If, on the other hand the answer is: this sounds reasonable, you may take
this to mean that you are most likely going to get the job. Therefore, you simply reply: I have some spare time, right now,
so would you like me to go ahead with the job? This puts your client on the spot and the client can only answer with yes,
or no. Make sure you write down your clients contact details and agree upon a deadline for the delivery of the completed
translation.
At this point you also need to discuss payment. The job you have quoted for is for a self-employed translator working from
home, a reasonably big and well-paid job. Therefore, you cannot simply put it in the mail and hope to be paid for it. Unless
you know your client well, the chances are that you may never be paid for it. Too many translators lament the fact that they
were too trusting. Therefore, ask for cash in advance or have the completed translation collected against payment in full
or mail it off upon receipt of a bank cheque or money order in the mail or after an electronic fund transfer to your bank
account. If this seems rather rigid to you, please consider that a translation has no resale value and cannot be sold to anyone
else, even at a discount price. If you do not receive payment it is your precious time that was wasted and, after all, time is
money!
How then, do you assess the final cost of the completed translation? You may have agreed with your client to base your
charges on a target language count, (easily obtainable from your word document); you will enter that amount on your invoice
and then proceed as shown on the sample invoice in the appendix. This means that you will add on any supplementary
charges, such as urgency surcharges, charges for registered mail, swearing of an affidavit, production of multiple copies, etc.
Good luck, you are on your own from here on!

52

c)

Sample Invoice (fictitious)

To
Space Age Tools Pty. Ltd.
6 Hugenot Avenue
Benningsfield
WA 9710



I N V O I C E

James C. Chitterbuck
Translator
Mayflower Court
Overflow
NSW 2734
Tel.: (02) 9999999
Fax: (02) 9999995
ABN 0000000000

28/02/11

Date: 28-02-2011
Ref: Your ref. 122096/Px/kf of 26-02-11 refers.
Translation text received by e-mail / fax on 26-02-11 at 14.05.
Completed translation returned to you by email on 27-02-11 at 16:11
To translation of
1 patent specification. Total number of words 300 at 20/100

$ 60.00

Supplying of translation on CD/ROM disk

Allowance for fax/e-mail transmission

Urgency surcharge of 50% applies

$ 30.00

Swearing of affidavit at $ 25.--

Second opinion on other translators translation

Subtotal:
GST if applicable

$ 90.00
$ 9.00

Total Amount of Invoice:

$ 99.00

Waiver: Whilst great care has been taken to render and accurate, faithful and complete translation
of the text supplied by you, such translation is undertaken on the explicit understanding that the
translator will not accept responsibility nor be held liable under either contract or tort for any alleged
translation errors and/or accidental omissions in regard to the translation invoiced above or for any
commercial decisions you may base upon such translation. In case of doubt, the original text must be
consulted.

53

d)

Glossary of Acronyms and Other Terms*

ABN

Australian Business Number

ADSL

Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line

AUSIT

Australian Society for Interpreters and Translators

CAT

Computer Aided Translation

CHM

Change Mode

CSV

Common Services Verbs (interface)

DOC

Microsoft Word Document Format

DOS

Disk Operating System

GLOBALISATION

Linguistic, cultural, technical adaptation of products, services and marketing strategies to

fit local markets worldwide

HLP

.help (file name extension)

HTMA

Hypertext Markup Architecture

HTML

Hypertext Markup Language

INTERNATIONALISATION

Adaption of a product (software) for worldwide use

ISP

Internet Service Provider

LISA

Localisation Industrial Standards Association

LOCALISATION

Linguistic and cultural adaptation of a product to local markets

LOTE

Language(s) Other Than English

MALWARE

harmful accidentally downloaded computer code which is designed to harm your computer

MAHT

Machine Assisted Human Translation

MIF

Management Information Format

MS

Microsoft

MT

Machine Translation

NAATI

National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters Ltd.

ODP

Open Distributed Processing

ODS

Open Data Services

ODT

Open Data Transfer

54

PC

Personal Computer

PDF

Portable Document File (format)

PPS

Point to Point Service

PPT

Point to Point

RTF

Rich Text Format

SBS

Special Broadcasting Service or Small Business Server

SDC

Super Density Cluster or Source Data Cluster

SDD

Super Density Document or Subscriber Data Document

SDXL

Structured Data Exchange Language

SGML

Structured General Markup Language

SL

Source Language

SLI

Source Language Interference

SPYWARE

Accidentally downloaded computer code, which tries to read your hard disk and spy on
your computer activities without your permission.

TAFE

Tertiary and Further Education Colleges

TL

Target Language

TM

Translation Memory

TMS

Terminology Management Systems

TXT

File encoding as simple TEXT file

URL

Uniform Resource Locator

WAITI

West Australian Institute for Translators and Interpreters

WPD

Word Perfect Document

WWW

World Wide Web (Internet)

XML

Extensible Markup Language

XSL

Extensible Stylesheet Language

ZIP

Refers to compressed files

*Not all computing acronyms in this guide referring to file transfer protocols have been explained above. If you require their
transcribed meaning, which is mostly of little concern to translators, explanations may be found on the World Wide Web on
one of the websites dealing with computer acronyms.
55

e)

Bibliography of Print Materials Relating to Translation

(in alphabetical order)
Alcaraz Enrique and Hughes Brian, 2002, Legal Translation Explained
St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.
Austermhl Frank, 2001, Electronic Tools for Translators,
St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.
Boise-Beier and Holman Michael, editors, 1999, The Practices of Literary
Translation, St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.
Cockerill Hiroko, 2006, Style & Narrative in Translations
St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.
de Linde Zoe and Kay Neil, 1999, The Semiotics of Subtitling
St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.
Dias-Cintas and Remael Aline, 2006, Audiovisual Translation: Subtitling,
St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.
Esselink Bert, 1998, A Practical Guide to Software Localization,
John Benjamins,
Gambie Yves, 2003, Screen Translation,
St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.
Hermans Theo, editor, 2006, Translating Others (Volumes 1&2),
St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.
Jin Di, 2003, Literary Translation,
St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.
Katan David, 2004, Translating Cultures,
St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.
Kay Martin, 1997, The Proper Place of Men and Machines in Language Translation, Machine Translation, 13:3-23
Kelly Dorothy, 2005, A Handbook for Translator Trainers,
St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.
Larsen Mildred, editor, 1998, Meaning-based Translation: A Guide to
cross-language Equivalence, Lanham, Maryland
Maier Carol, editor, 2000, Evaluation and Translation,
St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.
Mayoral Asensio Roberto, 2003, Translating Official Documents,
St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.
Montalt Vincent and Gonzales Davies Maria, 2006, Medical Translation Step
by Step, St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.

56

Mossop Brian, 2006, Revising and Editing for Translators,

St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.
Nord Christiane, 1997, Translating as a Purposeful Activity,
St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.
Robinson Douglas, compiler, 2002, Western Translation Theory,
St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.
Tymoczka Maria, 2006, Enlarging Translation, Empowering Translators,
St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.
Van Coillie and Walter P. Verschueren, editors, 2006, Childrens Literature in
Translation, St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.
Vandaele Jeroen, 2002, Translating Humour,
St Jerome Publishing Ltd., Manchester, U.K.

57

f)

Bibliography of Internet Resources

This has been intentionally left blank so that individual translators can include their own resources. Many of the Internet
resources keep changing frequently and require constant updating.

58

g)

CAT Tools Available for Download from the Internet

Every existing CAT tool is purchasable and downloadable via the Internet. The costs vary greatly. Unless your business
warrants the expense of purchasing one of the more sophisticated and widely used CAT tools (described in an earlier chapter)
via the Internet, you may be able to look for freely downloadable Freeware or Shareware Programs. New programs are being
developed all the time and it would be presumptuous to recommend one program over another, for it is largely a matter of
personal need and the capacity of individual translators to come to grips with the often difficult to learn CAT tool functions.
Many of them require some concept of the internal workings of computers and presuppose that you are comfortable with
constant mouse clicking when importing, transferring, exporting, filing and encoding etc. text segments.
Much work needs to be done by program designers to make CAT tools truly user-friendly. However, if you have the time to
learn the many superb functions of the most frequently used CAT tools, you will ultimately save yourself a lot of time and
above all repeat translations of identical and similar text.
Translatum, the Greek Translation Portal, is one of many Internet sources that offer an excellent summary of CAT tools,
their prices and uses. A visit to their website is recommended below:
[Link]
An equally good summary of Translation Tools and Resources appears on the website of [Link]
[Link] and on a number of websites compiled by the major translation agencies and several universities
around the world.
h)

Translation Agencies Offering Work on the Internet

The following are but a very few of the major Internet-listed translation agencies which offer work to translators, who are
prepared to undertake work via the Internet and who may be required to pay an annual membership fee to share in the
various facilities and privileges open to members. The listing of the agencies is at random and has no bearing on their
ranking. It serves simply to save translators time in surfing the net and it must be pointed out that translators will deal with
any of the listed agencies at their own risk and that neither the author nor publisher will be responsible for any dealings
translators have with the listed agencies.
[Link]
-
[Link]
-
[Link]
-
[Link]
-
[Link]
-
[Link]
-
[Link]
-
[Link]
-
[Link]
-
[Link]
-
[Link]
-
[Link]
There are countless others that may simply be found with the aid of your search engine by typing in such search terms as
translators wanted translation agencies web translations etc.
i)

e-Pay via the Internet

Translators expect to be paid for their work and in order to be paid regularly and from anywhere in the world it may be
necessary to open an account with e-pay or PayPal on the Internet. It will be the responsibility of translators to declare and
pay tax in their country of residence of any revenue earned on or via the Internet. As always, great caution needs to be
exercised when giving personal account details or credit card numbers to other parties on the Internet. Above all, you need
to ensure that your malware and spyware defences are up-to-date and activated and that the lock on your browser appears to
confirm that your communication is encoded and cannot be easily read by hackers.
59

j)

Dictionaries and Glossaries Available on the Internet

The Internet features numerous dictionaries for all language pairs and ample specialised glossaries. You merely need to type
into your favourite search engine the type of dictionary and/or glossary you are after and you will find an impressive choice.
After using some of the dictionaries available on the net, you will find out for yourself, which of them best suit your needs
and which of them (or which specialised glossaries) contain all the specific vocabulary you require for your translation
assignment.
k)

Logical Steps in Tackling a Translation

At the very beginning assess the text you have been given to determine if you are capable of translating it according to your
skill level as a translator. If it is within the scope of your ability, agree to the terms and conditions as outlined by a contract,
before starting. Recapitulating the recommended steps you should follow after accepting a text for translation:
1. Read the text to become completely familiar with the subject by undertaking research on the Internet and with the
help of specialised material, parallel reading, the compiling of glossaries etc.
2. Decode and extract the textual meaning (once it is fully understood)
3. Analyse semantic and grammatical difficulties
4. Commence the transfer of meaning from the source into the target language by working as accurately as possible and
by observing source language interference and false friends (words that sound similar in the two languages, but have
a different meaning). For this process, many modern translators use translation software, which is also known by the
name of CAT (computer aided translation) tools. (Do not confuse this with machine translation, referred to as MT).
5. Re-encode the meaning in the target languages semantics and grammatical features, heeding cross-cultural
dimensions
6. Carefully proofread the text ensuring that you have produced a faithful, accurate translation, which can be read
fluently in the target language.
7. Supply the client with a ready copy of the translated text and present the invoice, which is based on either the source
or target language word count.
8. Ensure that a declaration is made about the accuracy of the translation, giving the date and appending your NAATI
number and stamp. Many government departments require the translation to have an official NAATI stamp. Note
that translations sent by e-mail do not carry an original stamp.
9. If a document translation is not personally delivered, send it by registered mail or express post, which can be traced
should it go missing. Always keep copies in case your translation goes missing in transit!
l)

Useful Conversion Tables

Large numbers
Nomenclature in:

USA

BRITAIN/EU COUNTRIES

ZEROS

million

million

billion

milliard

trillion

billion

12

quadrillion

1,000 billion

15

quintillion

trillion

18

Note that 1,000 is written as 1.000 in most European languages. Also observe the different conventions when typing decimal
numbers. Australians use a full stop and speak of 0.6 (zero point six), other countries use 0,6 and call it (zero comma six).
Similar anomalies may apply to the reading of fractions, as is the case with Chinese. It is vital that translators follow the
correct cultural conventions in the target language text.
60

Roman Numerals
Translating or transcribing Roman numerals does present the occasional difficulty when dealing with higher numbers.
Here are the most important Roman numerals and their equivalents.
I
1

II
2

III
3

IV
4

V
5

VI
6

VII
7

VIII
8

IX
9

X
10

XI
11

XII
12

XIX
19

XX
20

XXX
30

XL
40

L
50

LX
60

XC
90

C
100

CX
110

CC
200

CD
400

DC

CM

500

600

900

1,000

5,000

10,000

50,000

100,000

500,000

1 Million

Important Measurements
Units of measurement are too numerous to be listed in this guide. They generally entail:
units of length
units of area
units of volume
units of capacity (liquid and dry)
units of weight
units of speed
units of temperature
All conversions can be found on the Internet. It is important that the norm that exists in the TL country is strictly observed.
Thus it is hardly useful to send land measurements in chains and rods to a prospective buyer in a European country where
these measurements are totally unknown and will need to be cited in the appropriate metric measurements.

61