What is risk based inspection (RBI)?

TWI Frequently asked questions

by John Wintle
The inspection of plant and machinery has traditionally been based on prescriptive industry practices, backed up by health & safety legislation. The type of
equipment has determined inspection frequency, methods employed and locations examined - with little consideration given to its age, specific duty or likely
condition. Increased operational experience and a greater appreciation of the hazards are now leading some parts of industry to adopt a more informed approach
to inspection planning, targeting the inspection required to reduce the risk as low as reasonably practicable.
Risk based inspection is the process of developing an inspection plan based on knowledge of the risk of failure of the equipment. The essential element is a risk
analysis. This is the combination of an assessment of the likelihood (probability) of failure due to damage, deterioration or degradation with an assessment of the
consequences of such failure.
The information gained from this process is used to identify (a) the type and rate of damage that may potentially be present and (b) the equipment or locations
where failure would give rise to danger of different degrees. Higher risk equipment may have active damage mechanisms or high consequences of failure, or a
combination of the two. A suitable inspection scheme is then planned to increase confidence about the equipment's current and future condition, taking account
of the potential damage mechanisms and the reliability of the inspection techniques used.
Risk based inspection may be applied in any industry, but there has been most interest from the power and petrochemical sectors. The UK Health and Safety
Executive has published a report on best practice for risk based inspection asa part of plant integrity management. [1] In 2000, the European Commission launched
the project RIMAP to develop risk based inspection and maintenance procedures for European Industry.[2] The American Petroleum Institute has published
guidance for risk based inspection relevant to refineries. [3]
Industry sees RBI as a means of using inspection resources more effectively which can result in economic benefits from extended run lengths or from the use of
advanced NDT or non-invasive schemes. Regulatory pressure will ensure that the process of RBI is carried out rigorously so that non-prescriptive inspection
decisions are based on adequate information and expertise. For some equipment with very high failure consequences, an approach to assuring safety based only
on RBI may not be tenable.

Modern industrial asset maintenance and inspection concepts require

reliable and accurate inspection techniques. New developments in modern
NDT have resulted in a range of screening tools and enhanced mapping
techniques, which enable reliable condition assessment during the
operational phase of installations. In service inspections allow on stream
condition assessment of equipment before planned shutdowns. NDT data is
applied to optimise off stream inspection intervals and aim maintenance
effort to where it is required most. The result is reduced downtime and
increased availability of installations.
Non destructive inspection of process installations
Introduction
Modern maintenance concepts, such as Total Productive
Maintenance (TPM) and reliability centred maintenance
(RCM), demand maximum use of installations at minimum
costs, without compromising on safety. The role of nondestructive inspections becomes more and more important for
condition assessment to optimise maintenance management.
NDT is required during and after construction as well as in
Fig 1:
the user phase of installations in oil and gas production,
petrochemical industry, power generation, food processing industry or other types
of production plants.

Condition assessment
Instead of corrective breakdown maintenance or time based preventive programs,
many owners of installation turn to condition based approaches [1]. Maintenance
effort should be aimed at those parts, where it is required most. Condition
assessment of the actual piece of equipment provides adequate data to optimise
maintenance planning. Action can be taken immediately where needed or
postponed where possible.
Inspection planning
Most inspection regimes are not in line with the maintenance
requirements, but based on fixed inspection intervals
prescribed by governmental regulations. Duration of these
intervals is mostly determined historically or based on
generic rules for certain types of equipment. These criteria
may not always be optimal for a specific installation.
Operational integrity of installations should be judged on
more individual basis.
Fig 2: off shore production
"On stream" inspections can be conducted in service to
platform
provide information about the actual condition of the object.
Off stream inspection can be based on the actual condition of the moment and
interval duration may be made flexible.
In view of condition monitoring programs, it is necessary to establish the baseline
condition of any installation. This may be done at any moment in time, but should
preferably be implemented directly after construction. In an early stage, one should
consider using a type of inspection, which may be applied in an equal fashion in a
later stage during service time. Periodic condition assessment allows trending and
prediction of the remaining time-to-failure (MTTF). Operational lifetime extension
may be agreed upon with authorities and increased plant availability is the result.
Risk Based Inspection
Inspection planning itself may be optimised to obtain maximum result from
as little effort as possible. A study of applied construction and process
materials, degradation mechanisms, inspection history and operational
conditions allows risk assessment for each individual piece of equipment.
Inspection activity is then prioritised based on a number of operational
parameters, e.g. operation pressure and temperature, consequential loss,
personnel safety, environmental damage etc. Risk assessment for each
individual asset leads to a risk based inspection (RBI) approach.
In Service Inspection(ISI)
Preferably, NDT shall be performed before a planned shutdown, while the
equipment is in service. Ample time is then available to plan the necessary
maintenance work long before the actual shutdown takes place. Since the

inspection work has been done before shutdown and the maintenance work
is well planned, total downtime for the installation is reduced.
NDT requirements
Lifetime calculation models may predict the remaining service time of any
asset. These calculations require input data provided by the assets' history
and available NDT data. The outcome can only be as reliable as the input.
High probability of detection (POD) is required to ensure reliable operation
until the next shutdown and low false call rate (FCR) is desirable to avoid
unnecessary maintenance work. Accurate and highly reliable data result in a
reliable prediction of the remaining service time.
On stream inspection techniques
The number and methods of inspection are always a trade-off between the
minimum requirements for safe operation and the amount of information
needed for optimum maintenance management.
In a baseline inspection, it is important to establish very accurately the zero
condition of a piece of equipment. Therefore, precise methods should be
applied, mostly in an off line situation. Dedicated techniques are available
for full off stream inspection.
On the other side, ISI are faced with limitations such as access restrictions,
high temperatures etc. Most on stream methods are considered screening
tools, which assess general condition rather than exact defect locations and
dimensions. Qualitative techniques indicate trends in condition deterioration
but cannot deliver exact quantitative information.
Documentation
In signalling (monitoring) inspection, reproducibility is of high importance.
Many conventional ultrasonic methods are performed with hand held probes
and results are presented in hand written reports. The influence of the
particular inspector on the outcome is significant and hardly reproducible.
Mechanised scanning and automated reporting minimise this 'human factor'.
Access restrictions
Many inspection problems are associated with restricted access.
Conventional techniques fail at complex objects or locations that can hardly
be accessed such as inspection of nozzles on vessels, tapered pipes,
pipework under insulation or on sleepers, under reinforcement or repair
patches, etc. New inspection techniques have been developed to fill in the
gap in ancient problem areas.
New materials
Higher operational requirements demand higher performance of

construction materials. Nowadays, high pressure vessels are constructed in

austenic or duplex steels with internal cladding, special weld materials and
buffer layers which are often very difficult to inspect.
Another trend in pipeline construction is the use of glass fibre reinforced
plastics (GRP). Conventional inspection methods are restricted by the
material structure and alternative techniques should be applied.
High temperature measurements
On stream measurements are often faced with high process temperatures.
Elevated temperature measurement imposes additional requirements on the
inspection equipment. Special ultrasonic probes and couplants are applied
for thickness measurements up to 350C. Non - contact methods may even
go up to higher temperatures.
Degradation phenomena
During service time of installations many known degradation mechanisms
threaten the condition of the equipment and eventually cause failures.
Several phenomena are known to cause problems in the service phase of
equipment. Depending on type of equipment, materials, process parameters,
service time and external factors, certain types of degradation may occur. It
is desirable to understand these mechanisms and anticipate in an early stage
on possible consequences.
Degradation phenomena may be classified in two groups: mechanical wear
and chemical corrosion. Mechanical wear occurs in equipment under cyclic
mechanical or thermal loads. Depending on its manifestation and the
equipment's function, mechanical wear may be more or less threatening to
the operational reliability. Corrosion manifests itself in several forms [2],
which occur in a certain environment in a single form or in a combination of
corrosion forms. Many forms may have a severe impact on the integrity of
(parts of) process installations.
General corrosion
The most common manifestation of corrosion is a uniform attack, caused by
a chemical or electro-chemical reaction uniformly distributed over the
exposed surface. A combination of a corrosive product and an oxygen
containing environment may start corrosion. Environmental factors such as
temperature, electrochemical potential etc determine the corrosion rate.
Generally, this type of corrosion is of no great concern, since a slow, gradual
loss of material is well predictable and adequate measures may be taken.
Pitting corrosion
Localised corrosion may be a greater threat to installations,
because it may form small pinholes that perforate the
Fig 3: pitting corrosion in a
storage tank floor

material rapidly. Pitting is a result of an anodic reaction process. At an initiation

location, the surface is attacked by a corrosive product (e.g. chloride). Metallic
atoms are dissolved at the surface of the starting pit. The dissolution causes
excessive positive charge in the surface area, which attracts negative chloride ions
to restore electrochemical balance. The chloride ions, again, dissolve new metal
atoms and the reaction becomes self propagating. Within a short time the pit may
penetrate the complete wall thickness. The localised nature of pitting makes it
extremely difficult to detect pits in an early stage.
Weld root erosion/corrosion
Root erosion is a degradation phenomenon, which is often
encountered in flow lines. It is difficult to grind the weld
penetration on the inside of pipelines. The excessive
penetration causes a discontinuity on the surface, which
disturbs the flow pattern. On some metals, the wall is
passivated by an oxide film, which protects the steel from
Fig 4: weld root erosion in
corrosion processes. Turbulence and cavitation affect the
a flow line
region adjacent to the welds and hamper formation of this
passivation layer. Local wash out of wall material at the weld side is the result.
Another form of weld root corrosion is caused by selective corrosion. In many
corrosion resistant alloys or special welding materials, selective leaching may
occur. Removal of the least noble metals results in deterioration of the lattice
structure in alloys (e.g. dezincification in brass components). If the weld material is
more susceptible to corrosion than the base material, wash out of the weld causes
root corrosion and degradation of structural integrity.
Fatigue cracking
Under cyclic mechanical or thermal loads, a component may be subject to
fatigue. This process is caused by repeated stresses just below the yield
point. However, due to stress peaks, microscopic plastic deformations of
material structure occur. Under continuing stresses, these deformations
result in crack initiations. Mechanical fatigue cracking manifests itself as
cracks with preferential orientation perpendicular to the predominant stress
directions. Thermal fatigue cracking results in a random web-like crack
structure.
In combination with a corrosive medium, the fatigue resistance of materials
is reduced. Corroded spots act as initiator of fatigue cracks, which on their
turn corrode fastest at the crack tip. This combined mechanical and chemical
process is called corrosion fatigue.
Stress Corrosion Cracking
Crack formation occurs at location where tensile stresses act on the
component in a specific corrosive environment. High pressure equipment,

mechanical stresses, thermal stresses, remaining stresses from welding

processes etc. may initiate stress cracking. After a while, corrosion products
in cracks act as wedging forces. A preferably hot, aqueous environment in
the presence of oxidizers is an ideal situation where SCC grows rank.
Failing cathodic protection may accelerate the process.
In heavy duty austenitic materials, stress corrosion cracking occurs mainly
along the grain boundaries. This phenomenon, known as intergranular stress
corrosion cracking (IGSCC), manifests itself in the heat affected zone of
nuclear reactor vessels and piping. With increased use of high definition
materials in petrochemical plant work IGSCC may cause problems in
process plants as well.
Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC)
Chemical reactors containing hydrogen may suffer from hydrogen induced
cracking (HIC). In contrast with molecular H2 gas, Hydrogen atoms
penetrate steel reactor walls. Recombination of atoms forms H 2 gas, which
piles up in voids in the metal structure. Internal pressure increases until
blisters build up and cracking occurs. Propagation of cracks occurs often by
transitional cracks between two parallel cracks. This process is known as
stepwise cracking.
Hot Hydrogen Attack
At high temperature, hydrogen atoms react with the metallic atoms to
intermetallic hydrides. This phenomenon is referred to as Hot Hydrogen
Attack, to discriminate from HIC, which merely occurs at lower
temperatures. Formation of methane gas (CH 4) is caused by Hydrogen
reaction with carbides from the metal structure. Besides expansion of the
volume and crack initiation, decarburisation of the steel structure results in
hydrogen embrittlement, which leads to fast deterioration of structural
integrity.
State of the art inspection Techniques
With the upcoming of computer technology and miniaturisation of
equipment, NDT techniques have developed rapidly into modern highly
reliable inspection tools [3]. One of the most important factors is the
increased accuracy and reproducibility of data. Further mechanisation of
inspection techniques improved reliability greatly. One of the main reasons
for this is that full coverage is assured by performing the inspection in a
mechanised fashion. Secondly, the availability of a complete inspection
record greatly improves condition monitoring facilities.
Special UT probes

In the past, specific probes have been designed to solve

known inspection problems. Special focused angle beam
compression wave probes have been developed to inspect
specific depth regions in a weld. The compression wave
concept was introduced by BAM in the early eighties [4].
Dual crystal probe construction and beam focussing
techniques enabled high sensitivity ultrasonic examination of
complex materials, which could not be achieved with
standard shear wave techniques.

Fig 5: various types of

ultrasonic probes

In austenitic or duplex materials, a well known phenomenon is intergranular stress

corrosion cracking (IGSCC). Especially in nuclear component inspection, many
studies have been undertaken to find appropriate methods for IGSCC detection.
For near surface cracks, special creeping wave probes have been developed.
Creeping waves travel just below the surface rather than in it, therefore they
are not influenced by the presence of coupling liquids, and the influence of
surface irregularities. Moreover, since the creeping wave is a compression
wave type, they suffer less from a coarse material structure than shear
waves. Another outstanding example is the development of probes focussed
under cladding crack detection (UCC). The focal range is calculated in the
parent material - cladding transition zone. Cracks initiating from the clad
layer into the parent material may be readily detected by UCC probes.
Mode conversion techniques and combination of functions lead to
minimization of the number of probes required for complete inspection
coverage. Tandem transducers with multiple crystals can be build in one
housing such as the Round Trip Tandem (RTT) probe or special functions
such as Long-Long-Trans (LTT) probes have been developed. Multi crystal
transducers combine a number of tasks in one housing to save space in the
scanner setup and construction costs.
In all cases, it appeared to be of utmost importance that the transducer
parameters are optimized for specific jobs. Once having gained experience
with a certain weld type however, it is possible to establish a "standard
series" of dedicated transducers, with which the inspections can be
performed without excessive lead times. Mechanization of the inspection
improved inspection accuracy and reproducibility.
TOFD
The Time-Of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) technique is an advanced ultrasonic
inspection technique that fulfils a need for reliable inspections. It is a
powerful technique because it can simultaneously detect and size defects.

TOFD provides highly reproducible fingerprints of installation, which

makes TOFD extremely suitable for condition monitoring[5] .
TOFD Weld inspection
The preparation required for a TOFD scan is minimal, which
makes the technique attractive even when only a small
number of welds have to be inspected. TOFD may be applied
during construction, where time constraints exist. TOFD
allows examination directly after welding (up to 200 C)
without hold up of production speed. The acceptance result is
directly available. There is practically no interference in
continuation of nearby construction works for safety reasons
(no radiation shielding etc).

Fi
g 6: TOFD inspection of
process pipework in a
petrochemical plant

Over the past years, the system has been used in a great variety of applications,
ranging from circumferential welds in pipelines (including joints of different wall
thickness and tapered pipes), weld inspection of heavy wall pressure vessels (up to
300 mm wall thickness). Also, the TOFD technique was successfully applied for
inspection of partially filled welds, which are hardly inspectable by any other
technique. Nozzle and flange welds (complex geometry) can be inspected with
prior computer simulation modelling to aid inspection planning and result
evaluation.
On stream inspection with TOFD
In contrast with radiography, for TOFD examination only external access to
the object is required. In the service phase of process installations and
pipework, TOFD may be applied to detect and monitor service induced
defects (stress or fatigue cracks etc). 'Fingerprints' of the object are recorded
during acceptance inspection of welds directly after construction and
periodically every number of years. Initial acceptable defects are monitored
and service induced defects are revealed and progressively monitored.
Critical reactor vessels with heavy wall constructions can only be adequately
inspected by means of TOFD. Other techniques such as high energy
radiography with Cobalt-60 sources or portable betatrons, are faced with
high safety requirements and extremely long examination times. Ultrasonic
meander scanning is often too cumbersome and time consuming. Spherical
gas tanks and steam generator headers may be surveyed for cracks.
Root erosion in flow lines
Selective erosion/corrosion in flow lines may be detected and sized by
regular TOFD inspection. Discrimination between single or two side wash
out is easily achieved from the TOFD images. Long stretches of pipeline
may be inspected rapidly with minimum preparation needed.

Hot Hydrogen Damage detection

Hydrogen embrittlement starts from the internal surface and propagates
slowly through the wall material. It is often difficult to detect due to minor
changes in structure. A TOFD image can display an increased noise level at
the affected location and estimate the degree of attack.
Mapscan
The demand for mechanised ultrasonic wall thickness
measurement is fulfilled with the introduction of the
Mapscan.
Mapscan applies a mechanical link between transducer and
computer to record the thickness data for each predetermined
measurement position. The transducer is scanned manually
over the surface and the thickness readings are stored on disk.
After the scanning is finished, the data are plotted in a wall
thickness map. Each thickness level is colour coded and wall
thinning by corrosion or erosion is readily recognised. High
reproducibility (within 0.3 mm wall loss) enables accurate
monitoring and calculation of corrosion rates. This input is
very important to estimate time-to-failure.

Fig 7: Mapscan image

Fig 8: In service Mapscan

examination

Mapscan is applied on vessels, pipework (bends), tank walls etc, for exact
documentation of corroded regions. It can be applied in service at temperatures up
to 250C. Corrosion phenomena such as general wall thinning, pitting corrosion,
flow accelerated corrosion (FAC), hydrogen induced corrosion (HIC) and hot
hydrogen attack have been revealed successfully by Mapscan.
For its high accuracy, Mapscan is accepted au lieu internal visual inspection
of vessels. Based on the on stream Mapscan results, off stream inspection
interval extension is often accomplished.
P-scan/Bandscan
P-scan
Ultrasonic mapping techniques prove to be very useful in wall thickness
measurement. The same advantages apply for weld
inspections. However, ultrasonic weld inspection is executed
with angle beam transducers and mapping algorithms become
more complex. This problem was solved with the
development of projection scanning (in short 'P-scan').
Dedicated scanners enable 3-dimensional presentation of the Fig 9: P-scan inspection of
a nuclear reactor
inspection object. This technique enabled extreme high
reliability inspection for monitoring of nuclear reactor vessels. Meander scanning

was implemented to comply with existing ultrasonic inspection standards e.g.

ASME, AINSI, etc.
Regression in construction of new nuclear power plants, meant a reduction
in inspection work. Increased inspection requirements in process plants have
accelerated a technology transfer to petrochemical equipment inspections.
Especially for high pressure vessels and stainless steel reactors higher
inspection demands arose.
Enhanced scanning equipment has lead to further automation of ultrasonic
inspections. A spin off of this development is fast mechanised wall thickness
mapping, which in spite of the expensive equipment is economically
attractive due to its high inspection speed.
Bandscan
Mechanised weld inspection greatly improved accuracy and
reproducibility. The development of special purpose probes
and focussing techniques opened new ways of inspection.
Instead of meander scanning with standard shear wave angle
beam probes, the concept of line scanning was implemented
in the Bandscan. A transducer frame on a guided vehicle is
moved parallel to the weld along a band. Any number of
probes can be mounted with different functions.

Fig 10: Bandscan

inspection on a spherical
tank

For weld inspection, the cross section of the weld is subdivided in several depth
zones, each of which is addressed with a combination of probes. Using focusing
techniques, the ultrasonic beam is so narrow at the focal position, that accurate
defect sizing is possible, even though only a single line scan is performed.
Improved inspection speed and direct sizing capability are great advantages for
application of Bandscan rather than meander scanning (P-scan). Especially for
large structures, such as spherical gas tanks, Bandscan is the preferred method.
Later on this concept was motorized for high inspection speed on pipeline girth
welds. Inspection cycles of several minutes in (off shore) pipeline construction can
now be achieved with the widely used "Rotoscan" systems.
For non-routine weld inspection, such as dissimilar metal welds (DMWs),
Bandscan may be equipped with special probes. Joints of carbon steel to
austenitic, duplex or high nickel alloy steel materials can be examined using
optimised probes. Due to the coarse structure of these materials, they can
hardly be inspected using conventional shear wave methods. Compression
wave angle beam probes are capable to penetrate these ultrasonic unfriendly
materials. In applications, where TOFD or shear wave ultrasonic techniques
fail, Bandscan may do the job. In this field, once again, Bandscan has
proven its merits

LORUS (Long Range Ultrasonics)

Service induced defects such as corrosion and cracking tend
to favour locations where access for inspection is limited.
Hidden corrosion is often found with great difficulty or in a
late stage when damage is already done. LORUS has been
developed as a tool for fast screening of regions with limited
access [6]. From a single access point, a range up to one
Fig 11: LORUS scanner on
the external lid of a storage
metre may be examined for corrosion or cracks. Inspection
tank floor.
may be carried out on stream without dismantling, lifting or
opening components, which means substantial savings in shutdown, process
interruptions and/or cleaning time and costs.
Special design, high sensitivity ultrasonic probes are applied to achieve a
considerable inspection range. LORUS measures reflection signals and composes
coherent projection images. Examination results are documented in easy to
understand, colour coded, 2D top view corrosion maps. Corrosion extent is readily
obtained and corrosion growth may be monitored in recurrent inspections
Reflection amplitudes provide qualitative information on corrosion severity but can
not present actual corrosion depth.
Storage Tank Inspection
An upcoming trend is the use of on stream screening techniques to establish
general tank condition. LORUS may be part of a carefully composed on
stream tank inspection package, containing Acoustic Emission corrosion
activity measurement, and mechanised ultrasonic wall thickness mapping.
These complementary techniques provide a firm basis for decision making
in maintenance planning and service time extension for storage tank
operation.
LORUS focuses specifically on the high risk zone of the annular plate,
supporting the tank shell. This region is considered critical, due to high
stresses and failures may lead to large product spills or endanger personnel
and environment. The ultrasonic beam is emitted under the proper angle to
propagate underneath the shell and cover a range up to 1 metre. Projection
images show the area of the annular plate region in top view and form a
permanent document for recurrent inspections. General corrosion as well as
localised pitting corrosion is easily recognised.
Large area screening

Mapping of large objects for corrosion or cracks may be

performed rapidly with projection mapping techniques.
Complete volumetric coverage is achieved by performing
line scanning only. Substantial time saving is achieved
compared to full area scanning methods (e.g. Mapscan).
In many cases, defect orientation may be such that angle
beam inspection is required. Detection of cracks in through
thickness direction demands application of angle beam
probes. Projection images present colour coded defect maps,
with exact defect location and extent. Depth sizing may be by
more quantitative techniques e.g. TOFD, at those locations
indicated on the LORUS maps.
Even locations that cannot be inspected directly
because of access restrictions of pipework, repair
scales, bandages etc, can be examined by means of
LORUS.

Fig 12: A small strip needs

to be prepared for LORUS
inspection of a 2 m wide
area.

Fig 13: 100% area

screening of a large tower

Fig 14: LORUS inspection

of pipe supports

Minimum surface preparation combined with high inspection speed,

essentially provide a rapid and cost effective mapping technique. This
method is extremely suited for mapping of cracking, such as fatigue
cracking with a preferential orientation or randomly orientated SCC, but
also suited for small corrosion pits.
pipe supports
Corrosion under pipe supports or saddles is a major problem area for
inspection. The region between outer pipe surface and support is susceptible
to corrosion due to water ingress. Radiographic or ultrasonic wall thickness
techniques are not applicable because of access limitation. The only option
is lifting the pipe from the support to gain access. However, the condition of
the pipe is the unknown factor and lifting may be a riskful enterprise.
With LORUS, the support region is inspected from the free top surface of
the pipe without the need for lifting. Fast screening of large numbers of
supports is achieved in a minimum of time.
Both pulse-echo and transmission techniques are applied in circumferential
directions to obtain maximum information. In a single scan over the top
surface of the pipe, two probes measure reflection and transmission signals
simultaneously. Reflection signals are used to calculate projection images,
while transmission signals are used to estimate corrosion severity in several
depth classes.

Guided wave pipeline inspection

Screening tools for fast assessment of large parts of installations seem to
have a growing inspection potential. In stead of spot checks, plant users
demand complete 100% inspection coverage of their installations. Where
conventional ultrasonic techniques, based on bulk wave propagation, have a
limited range up to one meter, Lamb waves have the potential of
propagating over much longer distances. In a confined geometry such as a
pipe, guided waves build up, which can travel over tens of meters.
As a screening tool, this technique provides on line information of long
lengths of pipework. Guided waves travel across straight stretches of pipes,
bends, supports, T-joints, etc but cannot pass across flange joints, end
pieces, etc.

Fig 15: Guided wave inspection system

Ring transducers have been developed [7], which can generate waves in a
specific mode, optimal in range and sensitivity.
An extremely long inspection range is achieved for screening of on and
offshore pipework, detection of corrosion under insulation without removing
lagging other than for application of the probes, road crossings and other
hidden penetrations, lined pipework, etc.
Since very low frequencies are applied, the defect sensitivity is limited to
larger areas of (corrosion) wall loss. Welds cause reflection signals at regular
distance, providing reference for sensitivity settings. Internal features in the
weld such as weld root erosion may be discriminated in the reflection signal
by advanced signal processing techniques. In a similar way, guided wave
inspection could discriminate between corroded and unaffected pipes at
locations of supports. The full potential of the technique will become
evident when it is applied more widely.
Conclusions

Advanced ultrasonic techniques show very attractive merits for use on in

service inspections of industrial process plants. Most known degradation
phenomena may be detected, localised and documented using on stream
techniques. Inspection programmes can be optimised to aim optimum effort
at high risk (parts of) equipment. Critical components can be monitored and
defect grow can be followed in time. Reliable operational service of
equipment can be extended until safety limits are attained. The result of an
optimised inspection approach is reduced downtime and maximum
availability of installations. Substantial savings are obtained in inspection
expenses and secondary, much larger savings may be obtained in cutting
operational costs for unneeded maintenance shutdowns.
References
1. Van Ryn, C.F.H., 'Specifying and maintaining (rotating) equipment, an
effective contribution to plant profit.' Maximising Rotating Reliability
Engineering, ImechE Seminar, 1994
2. Fontana, M.G., 'The eight forms of corrosion'. From Corrosion Engineering
by Fontana and Greene, 1967
3. de Raad, J.A., 'Developments and evaluation of modern NDT techniques
and their application, an overview', ImechE/EEMUA/Safed Seminar, 1997
4. Dijkstra, F.H. and Walte, F. 'Ultrasonic Probes for Special Purposes, types,
applications and experiences' ASME Pressure Vessel and Piping Conference,
1991
5. Bouma, T. and de Raad, J.A., 'Time-Of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD), a reliable
technique for detection and sizing of defects, 5 th European welding week,
1995.
6. Hoppenbrouwers, M.B. and de Raad, J.A. 'Long Range Ultrasonics for
corrosion detection on hard-to- access locations', 7 th European Conference
on Non Destructive Testing, 1998
7. Guided Ultrasonics Ltd, 'GUL wavemaker 16' brochure, 1999
[Link] - info@[Link]
/DB:Article /DT:tutor /AU:Hoppenbrouwers_M /IN:RTD /CN:NL /CT:UT /CT:chemical /ED:2000-03

1. Introduction
Pressure vessels, storage tanks and other safety critical components (including pipework and valves) are
designed to contain liquids, gases and solids such that a loss of containment does not occur. Leaks or the
mechanical or structural failure of these items of equipment may result in a major accident on-site.

|Top|

The presence of flaws in critical components may result in the integrity of such systems being compromised and
increase the likelihood of failure.
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) is the application of measurement techniques in order to identify damage and
irregularities in materials. NDT often provides the only method of obtaining information about the current 'health'
of process plant.
If done well, NDT can provide useful information to assist in the management of plant safety. If inappropriate NDT
is applied or NDT is not applied correctly, then the results are likely to give a false impression of the integrity and
safety of the plant.
NDT is a measurement of a physical property or effect from which the presence of damage or irregularity can be
inferred. It is not a measurement of an absolute parameter such as temperature or pressure.
The distinction between what would be considered changes in material properties and what would be considered
a defect is not distinct. This can lead to NDT missing defects and also producing false calls i.e. a defect is
reported when in fact the signal is not produced by a defect. Also, NDT is applied to a greater or lesser extent by
human operators who introduce human error and subjectivity into the process.
NDT is rarely 100% effective at detecting defects of concern. Like all measurements, defect positioning and
sizing measurements with NDT techniques are subject to errors. As these techniques are often a combination of
separate measurements, these errors can be significant.
NDT techniques fall into two categories:

techniques which only detect and size defects/damage present on the surface of a component;

techniques which can detect and size defects/damage embodied within a component.

A brief description of the common techniques applied to process plant is given inTechniques. The basic NDT
techniques have changed little over the years but with improvements in technology and the demand to maximise
plant productivity new techniques and variations on old ones have been developed, along with various
approaches to NDT. These are clarified in Terminology and Current Trends below.
The quality of the NDT applied to a component cannot be easily assessed by subsequently observing the
component or the results obtained.
Extra steps are required in the development and application of the test to provide confidence in its ability to
identify the damage or irregularities of concern. TheInspection Process and its proper Management are discussed in more detail
below.
NDT is a primary recovery mechanism for errors in design, construction and operational activities.
Correct selection and application of an NDT technique can provide confidence that a component or piece of plant
does not contain defects of the type which the technique was capable of detecting.
When applied in a manufacturing environment it is used to provide confidence that there are no defects of
concern over a certain size which may have been introduced by the manufacturing process. In this case NDT is
just one of a number of quality control activities aimed at producing a component or piece of plant to a particular
specification.
In service NDT provides confidence that the operation of the plant is not causing deterioration in its integrity
beyond its design parameters.
If such deterioration is detected then NDT can quantify the damage and provide input to the justification for
maintenance or monitoring actions.
Ad hoc NDT can be used to check that unexpected damage mechanisms are not occurring.
All techniques have strengths and weaknesses regarding the types and parameters of the damage mechanism
they can detect.

Either the ad hoc NDT needs to be targeted at a hypothetical damage mechanism or the damage mechanism
that can be reported as not detected is defined by the capabilities of the technique.
The types of defect / flaw and degradation that can be detected using NDT are summarised as:

Planar defects - these include flaws such as fatigue cracks, lack of side-wall fusion in welds, environmental assisted cracking such as hydrogen cracking and stress
corrosion cracks; cold shuts in castings etc;

Laminations - these include flaws such as rolling and forging laminations, laminar inclusions and de-laminations in composites;

Voids and inclusions - these include flaws such as voids, slag and porosity in welds and voids in castings and forgings;

Wall thinning - through life wall loss due to corrosion and erosion;

Corrosion pits - these are localised and deep areas of corrosion;

Structural deformities such as dents, bulges and ovality.

The application of NDT to support the manufacturing requirements or the continued operation of plant is subject
to certain Regulations.
There are some common misconceptions regarding NDT which are still prevalent in industry:

2. Regulatory requirements
The requirements of the various general regulations can be summarised as:
Pressure Systems Safety Regulations 2000

cover the operation of pressure systems.

Regulation 4 (2) states that plant should be "properly designed and properly constructed from suitable materials
so as to prevent danger."
Regulation 8 (1) requires the "owner or user must have a WSE for the periodic examination by a competent
person where:" according to Regulation 8 (1) (b) "a defect may give rise to danger."
WSE is a Written Scheme of Examination which specifies for each part of the pressure system the damage
mechanism that may be expected, the examination interval and the method of examination. Any NDT required
will be specified on the WSE. Further information on Written Schemes is given in the document Written schemes of
examination.

cover the manufacture of new pressure vessels in line with the European Pressure
Equipment Directive and apply to pressure equipment and assemblies with a maximum allowable pressure PS
greater than 0.5 bar. These regulations require:
The Pressure Equipment Regulations 1999

Pressure equipment must be designed and constructed so that all necessary examinations to ensure safety can be carried out;

Preparation of the component parts (e.g. forming and chamfering) must not give rise to defects or cracks

Permanent joints and adjacent zones must be free of any surface or internal defects detrimental to the safety of the equipment.

For pressure equipment, suitably qualified personnel must carry out non-destructive tests of permanent joints.

For pressure equipment of categories III and IV, the personnel must be approved by a third-party organisation recognised by a Member State pursuant to Article 13.

Pressure equipment must undergo a final inspection to assess - visually and by examination of the accompanying documents - compliance with the requirements of the
Directive. Tests carried out during manufacture may be taken into account.

The old British Standard (BS 5500) for the manufacture of pressure vessels has been superseded by a new
European Standard BS EN 13445 but the design requirements that were in BS 5500 have been kept as PD5500
.
This latter document sets defect Acceptance Criteria for the NDT applied at manufacture. The acceptance criteria
take into account the capabilities and limitations of the NDT techniques so for Radiography it states "No cracks
allowed" whilst for Ultrasonics it states conditions on planar indications based on the height, length and
amplitude.
put a general duty on every Operator to take all measures necessary to
prevent major accidents and limit their consequences to persons and the environment. The references to NDT
that may occur in the safety report are described in COMAH Safety Report.
The Control of Major Accident Hazards Regulations 1999

NDT although not specifically mentioned in the above regulations has a role to play as part of the Operator's
demonstration in respect of mechanical integrity, that all necessary measures have been taken. It provides
confidence that plant is constructed to the required standard and is in good repair. NDT can provide information
to confirm or otherwise that unexpected damage is not occurring.

The Carriage of Dangerous Goods Regulations - Rail & Road

. These regulations cover the transport of dangerous
goods by rail and road, including the examination and testing of the tanks used. The tanks require to be
examined and tested by the competent authority or approved person in accordance with requirements approved
and published in the Approved Tank Requirements. A certificate is required to be produced which confirms the
examination and test and also that the tank conforms to an approved design and is suitable for the purpose for
which it is intended.
. These require employers to make suitable and sufficient assessment of
the risks to employees and the public arising from the business activities
Management of Health & Safety at Work Regulations 1999

. These require the employer to ensure that work equipment is so

constructed or adapted as to be suitable for the purpose for which it is used or provided and that work equipment
is maintained in an efficient state, in efficient working order and in good repair.
The Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1998

3. COMAH safety report

The information given on NDT in the safety report is likely to be in response toCriterion [Link]: the report should show
that systems are in place to ensure, for safety critical plant, that a competent person examines systems at
appropriate intervals. The information is likely to be general and details of the NDT techniques would not be
expected.
The safety report should provide evidence that Written Schemes of Examination are in place for pressurised plant.
A safety report should declare whether examinations are performed by an in-house organisation or bought in
from a 3rd party. If the competent person is in-house then the report should show they are independent from
operations and have direct reporting to senior management.
Most of the information pertaining to the NDT applied and the use of the results in supporting the integrity of the
plant will need to be gathered during the HSE follow up COMAH inspection on-site.

4. HSE follow up COMAH inspection

The HSE follow up COMAH inspection on site should be used to gather further information on the following NDT
activities:

4.1 Justification of Examination Intervals

The interval between examinations may be based on guidelines offered by such organisations as SAFed, CEOC and IoP.
However, HSE interpretation of the legislation does not always agree with the advice given in these guidelines. Also, care is required when interpreting these guidelines for
specific situations.

Investigate the justification of the examination intervals.

If standard guidelines have been used, look at the reasons for selecting the chosen periodicity and if these are
compatible with the operating conditions of the plant.
A risk based inspection (RBI) approach may have been used as an alternative to fixed interval examinations.
In this case damage mechanisms for each plant item should have been established and the item categorised
according to risk.
The NDT should then be targeted at the high/medium risk items with a view to reducing the probability of failure
and hence the risk.
This process can reduce the amount of NDT required from that based on a fixed interval approach. However, it is
then even more important that the correct NDT technique is used:

to look for the required damage mechanism,

that the NDT is correctly applied,

that the capability is understood and

the results are fed back into the RBI process.

HSE's Best Practice for risk-based inspection

can be used for assessing the quality of the RBI process.

4.2 Management of NDT process

NDT needs to be managed correctly to ensure that the theoretical capability of the technique is not unduly
impaired by incorrect or poor application. Companies should not only have procedures which cover the
management and application of the NDT but also evidence that they are being implemented.
Procedure

If it is not given sufficient consideration then it is unlikely to be planned properly, good access is unlikely to be provided and
contractors are likely to be under undue pressure which will prevent them performing the NDT properly. This is discussed further
Assess the plant owners' attitude to NDT.

under Management below.

Check whose quality system the NDT operators

are supposed to be applying the NDT under: the
plant owners' or the NDT companies'.

Check that this actually happens.

The results of a Non Destructive Test are

Check that the requirements for the NDT are specified and that the records provide sufficient information on what NDT technique

dependent on the type of damage being sought

was used and how it was applied. Is the technique likely to find the defects of concern and is the capability of the technique known?

and the particular NDT technique applied.

Further information on the various techniques is given below.

The HSE's Best Practice documents (ultrasonics,

surface techniques) give guidance on assessing
the role of the NDT and the effectiveness required

Where NDT plays a key role in assuring the safety of the component then additional steps should be taken to ensure that all the

of it in reducing the risk of component failure.

defects of concern are detected and that the NDT technique is applied correctly.

The presentation of the NDT results will often influence the subsequent actions. Some reports will just state no defects found or
that the NDT was acceptable i.e. there were no indications observed above a certain acceptance criteria. Other computerised
techniques allow apparently detailed, colour plots to be produced which create the impression of quality. Both these extremes can
disguise the fact that the NDT may have had limitations in defect type detectable or that an insufficient sample area/volume may
have been examined.

Finally the results of the NDT should be assessed

The plant owner should be able to show how the assessment of the NDT results has taken into account the limitations and errors

and acted upon by the plant owner.

inherent in the technique applied.

These issues are covered by the questions in the Checklist designed to help in the HSE on-site COMAH inspection.
Small companies are likely to buy in the competent person expertise and place reliance on the 3rd party's expert
judgement. The Operator should have the statutory records of inspection available, but may not have immediate
access to additional information about the examinations or the competence of the 'competent person'
organisation.

5. NDT process & management

5.1 NDT process
The start of any NDT process is the identification of plant items which require NDT.

For pressure systems this will be detailed in the Written Scheme of Examination.
For non-pressurised but hazardous plant this should be output from the systems which 'ensure that safety critical plant and systems are examined at appropriate intervals
by a competent person'.

These two documents should also identify the damage mechanisms which could be expected to occur in the
plant item and hence should be detected, if present, by the NDT technique. As with any other purchase or
development (in line with ISO 9001) NDT should start with a specification of requirements. For NDT this is a
defect specification or description, which includes:

A description of the damage mechanism - location, type, morphology, orientation;

Whether the volume or surface requires NDT;

The size of defect which needs to be detected and the sizing errors that can be tolerated.

NDT can be applied without stating a particular defect to look for.

The defect description is then defined by the capabilities of the technique applied and the plant item can only be
passed clean of defects detected by this technique.
Once the specification has been produced then the appropriate method and technique can be selected.
The NDT method should be specified in the Written Scheme of Examination, if relevant, or documented
elsewhere.
All NDT should be applied under the control of a procedure which is produced and approved by competent
personnel (see Management).
This is likely to be undertaken by the NDT company on behalf of the plant owner. The procedure, which may be
supplemented by a plant specific technique sheet, should be sufficiently detailed to define the technique to be
applied.
The NDT technique can then be applied by a competent person and the results reported. The report should
highlight any restrictions in the application of the technique and should list any changes to the technique which
were required by the particular application.
Radiography is a popular NDT technique because the radiographic films provide a hard copy of the results.
The results from large area NDT techniques such as corrosion mapping, floor scanners are often presented as
colourful computerised plots. Although these visual outputs look impressive, they do not show the limitations in
the technique and are not proof in themselves that the NDT was performed correctly.
NDT is only able to lead to a reduction in the probability of failure if appropriate action is taken in response to the
results obtained.
If the result is no defects found, there may still be the need for action taking into account the capability of the
NDT technique and the nature of defects which may not have been found.
Standards governing Manufacturing NDT often specify acceptance criteria in terms of the NDT measurement i.e.
no indication longer than or no signal with amplitude greater than. This simplifies the assessment procedure
and puts the responsibility of deciding whether a defect indication is acceptable or unacceptable on the NDT
operator.
For in-service inspection, acceptance criteria are not as easy to define. If manufacturing acceptance criteria are
used, it should be justified that these capture relevant degradation mechanisms which may be present in
operational conditions. They should also be compatible with the both the plant item and the NDT technique used.
The results of NDT can be fed directly in to an Engineering Critical Assessment (ECA) so that the fitness for
purpose of the plant can be assessed.

ECAs involve the solution of mathematical formulae and, as a consequence, answers are often quoted to a
number of decimal places. However, the errors on the input information obtained from the NDT results are likely
to be in the order of millimetres. It is important that the sizing errors in the NDT measurements are estimated and
taken into account in the ECA.
A number of codes can be followed to assess flaws and degradation. Many codes that have been prepared take
into account the accuracy of the NDT test methods, however, some do not and care should be taken when
interpreting the results.
Two of the more important codes are:

BS7910: 2000

(Guide on methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic structures) which superseded earlier standards, PD 6493: 1980 (Guidance on

some methods for the derivation of acceptance levels for defects in fusion welded joints) and PD 6493:1991 (Guidance on methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in fusion
welded structures).

API 579 (Recommended practice for fitness for service).

All inputs into the ECA should be justified:

Have transients or worse case operating conditions been considered?

Are the values for material properties correct?

What assumptions have been made?

The output from the ECA will determine the course of action the plant owner should take.
If an RBI process is used then the results should be fed back into the risk assessment and appropriate changes
made to the required action.

5.2 NDT management

Principle

Information

In order to have confidence in NDT results, it is important

This requires proper management and control. Plant owners who have a certified quality management system will have

that the NDT, as a special process, is applied correctly and

procedures to control the instigation and purchase of NDT activities. They may also have procedures to cover the

the capability of that process is known and understood.

application of the NDT although these will often be left to the NDT vendor.

In addition to a certified quality system, UKAS accreditation

required to either BS EN ISO/IEC 17025 Testing or EN
45004 Inspection

Shows that NDT companies have the systems in place to adequately control the application of NDT.

Responsibility for the specification and control of the NDT is not always clearly defined between the plant owner and the
NDT vendor. An ISO 9000 plant owner can hire in bodies from a UKAS accredited NDT vendor with the result that the
operators work under neither quality system.

Errors are common in unplanned NDT activities: operators performing a planned job may be asked to 'inspect this item
whilst you are here'. In such a case the NDT performed is dependent on the operator's experience; its appropriateness

However, site practice can be different from the

and capabilities are not stated and records to allow future assessment or repetition may not be produced. The control of

documentation and the nature of NDT activities mean that

they are not always subjected to the same control as is

NDT is discussed in more detail in Best Practice documents for Ultrasonics

applied to other products and services.

andRadiography.

and Surface Techniques,

NDT personnel are trained and certified under either a

The requirements for centrally administered schemes are laid down in BS EN 473.

central certification scheme (e.g. PCN

their training in a written practice. Three levels of competency are defined:

employer based scheme (e.g. ASNT

) or an

Their employer should define

).

Level 1 - qualified to carry out NDT operations according to written instructions under the supervision of
Level 2 or Level 3 personnel.

Level 2 - have demonstrated competence to perform and supervise non-destructive testing according to
established or recognised procedures. This includes the ability to define the limitations of application of the testing
method and to translate NDT standards and specifications into NDT instructions.

Level 3 - qualified to direct any NDT operation for which they are certificated This is a supervisory
qualification.

Full details are given for the PCN scheme in the Best Practice documents for Ultrasonics

, Surface Techniques

and Radiography.

Most NDT techniques require the operators to have good

eyesight and to have it checked annually.

This is one aspect which can be overlooked with inevitable consequences for the quality of the NDT performed.

Level 2 qualifications are specific to a NDT method and, in the case of ultrasonics, to a particular geometry. Generic
Site NDT should be under the supervision and support of a

qualifications such as PCN may need supplementation by job specific training for particular NDT technique applications.

Level 3 operator and NDT procedures should be approved

This was highlighted byHSE's PANI project

by Level 3 personnel, or equivalent.

industrial plant.

which investigated the effectiveness of manual ultrasonics as applied on

Where a central certification scheme does not exist for a

technique (which is the case for many but not all of the

The NDT vendor should provide the plant owner with evidence to show that the personnel have sufficient experience and

techniques listed under Other Techniques)

training in the application of that technique.

Some techniques such as magnetic particle inspection or dye penetrant inspection are simple to apply in principle and
there is a temptation to just apply them without a procedure. Conversely operators who have a wide experience of the
All NDT should be controlled by a procedure approved by a

technique may apply advanced techniques and equipment and they may rely on that experience to adjust the many

Level 3, or equivalent.

variables instead of recording them in a complete procedure.

It is not sufficient to state that a component was inspected in accordance with a standard. Most standards have options on
various technique parameters and a procedure or technique sheet should be produced to state what values are to be
NDT is often applied in compliance with a national or

used. Approval of the procedure by a Level 3 implies that the standard has been assessed in the light of the plant item to

international standard.

be inspected and found to be appropriate.

The harmonisation of standards across Europe has produced many standards which do not yet have a track record to
support them.
Some standards have been tried and tested over many
years but the data and expertise on which they were based

An exception is the Magnetic Particle Standard: "Method for Magnetic particle flaw detection", British Standard BS 6072:

and which defines their capabilities and limitations is often

1981 where the supporting information is available as "Magnetic particle flaw detection. A guide to the principles and

not available.

practice of applying magnetic particle flaw detection in accordance with BS6072.", British Standard PD 6513: 1985.

But only if all the parameters are recorded so that what has been applied can be subsequently assessed and if necessary
NDT can be applied without a written procedure.

repeated.

The HSE's Best Practice documents (ultrasonics, surface

Where NDT plays a key role in guaranteeing the safety of the component, additional steps would be expected to be taken

techniques) give guidance on assessing the role of the

to improve the reliability of the NDT, to ensure that all the defects of concern are detected and that the NDT technique is

NDT and the effectiveness required of it in reducing the risk

applied correctly.

of component failure.
Such steps include:

auditing the NDT with independent operators performing repeat NDT on a sample of the volume inspected;

repeating all of the NDT with different personnel or with different NDT techniques;

witnessing the inspection by independent third party;

establishing capability through qualification.

The Best Practice documents also list other important measures that should be considered when looking to ensure a high
reliability of inspection.

The capability of an NDT technique to detect and size

specified defects can be assessed by the gathering of
evidence based on physical reasoning, theoretical

This process is known as Inspection Qualification, Validation or Performance Demonstration. The amount of evidence

modelling, experimental work and previously published

gathered and assessed can be tailored to the importance of the NDT and so need not be prohibitive. Further information

work.

is given in the Best Practice documents for Ultrasonics

, Surface Techniques

, and Radiography.

6. Techniques and capabilities

6.1 Visual Inspection

6.2 Thickness Measurement

6.3 Defect Detection

6.4 Other Techniques

6.5 Common NDT Technique Trade Names

Detailed information on NDT techniques can be found elsewhere:

Best Practice RBI document

Or from The British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing

A brief summary is given below. Terminology other than that relating to specific techniques is given in the
Section. In each section the information is presented in alphabetical order.

Terminology

6.1 Visual inspection

The simplest and easiest technique to apply and often called by the generic term 'inspection' on process plant.
It is able to detect surface damage and distortion. However, access to the surface is required and the capability
relies on the illumination and the eyesight of the inspector.
Many aids are available for visual inspection ranging from a magnifying glass through endoscopes and
boroscopes which allow viewing of surfaces inaccessible to the eye alone, to fully remote computerised video
systems. In the latter case as 'seeing is believing' care needs to be taken to ensure that the signal processing of
the image does not hide any defects.

6.2 Thickness measurement

The commonest damage found on process plant is corrosion and so techniques which allow remaining wall
thickness to be measured are widely applied.
Ultrasonics (high frequency sound) provides an accurate point measurement of wall thickness.
The surface on which the transducer is placed needs to be clean and, as it provides a point measurement, the
measurement positions need to be selected with consideration of the type of corrosion damage so that the
minimum wall thickness can be detected. When using a grid to survey a large surface area, the pitch of the grid
needs to be selected so that it will detect the damage of concern.
Care needs to be taken when taking measurements on plant which is painted or coated to ensure that the
measurement is just that of the remaining wall. Newer instruments have facilities to assist the operator in this
task but older equipment require more care on the part of the operator.
Other thickness techniques include:
Flash Radiography, Magnetic Flux Leakage, Pulsed Eddy Currents and these are discussed below.

These techniques are more limited in their application by material type, accuracy of measurement, wall thickness
or geometry than ultrasonics but offer other advantages such as speed of application or the ability to inspect
under insulation.

6.3 Defect detection

Defect detection techniques fall into two categories:

those that can only detect defects on or near to the surface of a component (Surface Techniques);

those which can detect both surface and embedded defects (Volumetric Techniques).

Surface Techniques

Dye Penetrant Inspection (PT)

Eddy Currents

Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI or MT)

Dye Penetrant inspection (PT)

Dye is drawn into any surface breaking defects which are then highlighted by the application of a developer which draws the dye back out of the defect.

This NDT method can only detect defects which are open to the inspection surface.
Dye penetrant is the preferred surface technique for non-magnetic materials.

Dye penetrant is better suited to the detection of volumetric defects like pits but is more susceptible to the surface
condition than magnetic particle inspection. Detection of tight cracks will require the dye to be left on the surface
for a long time.
The component surface needs to be cleaned prior to the application of dye penetrant inspection.

Mechanical cleaning methods can lead to crack openings being closed, subsequently preventing detection. Care
needs to be taken with any technique which requires the application of chemicals to plant to ensure that the
chemicals are compatible with the plant material. It is particularly important that only chemicals with low halogen
content are applied to stainless steel to avoid the initiation of stress corrosion cracking.
Fluorescent dyes are used to increase the contrast of indications making them more visible to the operator and
hence increasing the sensitivity of the technique.
The HSE's Best Practice document on the procurement of Surface Techniques
penetrant inspection.

gives more details regarding dye

Eddy Currents
When an alternating current is passed through a coil close to a component surface, eddy currents are induced
and produce a back EMF on the current in the coil.
Any defect in the component which restricts the eddy current flow alters the balance between the applied and
back EMFs and can be detected.
The skin depth, which is a function of the permeability of the material and the frequency, determines the depth of
penetration of the eddy currents.
In ferro-magnetic material the skin depth is very small and the technique will only detect surface breaking
defects. In non-magnetic material it provides some sub-surface capability and can give some indication of the
depth of a defect.
Eddy current techniques are widely applied in the NDT of heat exchanger tubing.

Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI or MT)

Defects on the inspection surface interrupt the lines of magnetic flux.
Magnetic particles sprayed onto the surface are attracted to these defects identifying their position.
This NDT method only detects abrupt changes in the magnetic field and therefore only supplies capability for
defects that break the inspection surface. Care needs to be taken to avoid false calls which may arise due to
changes in geometry or the presence of residual magnetic fields.
Fluorescent magnetic inks are used to increase the contrast of indications making them more visible to the
operator and hence increasing the sensitivity of the technique.
Magnetic particle inspection is generally the preferred NDT method for the detection of surface cracks in ferritic
material. The HSE's Best Practice document on the procurement of Surface Techniques gives more details regarding
magnetic particle inspection.

Volumetric techniques

Radiography

Ultrasonics

Radiography
Radiography is the detection of material loss by the variation in applied radiation, g or x-ray, passing through a
component and impinging on a film.
As it is sensitive to material loss, radiography is better suited to the detection of volumetric defects such as slag
or porosity. Detection of planar defects or cracks will depend on the gape or opening of these defects and the
misorientation of the radiation beam from the axis of the defect. In many cases, cracks will not be detected.
Radiography is liked because it produces a hard copy of the results - the film. It is unable to provide depth
information regarding defects without additional specialist techniques (eg profile radiography may give depth
information on large volume defects).
Defects are identified by abrupt changes in the density of the developed film: the film density is related to the
exposure it has received from the radiation.
The gradient of the curve of density against exposure determines how visible are small changes in exposure.
Such changes can arise from the presence of defects and so the ability to detect them through changes in film
density is of prime importance.
This characteristic of the film is its contrast. Contrast tends to increase with film density and so high densities are
beneficial in the detection of defects. However, viewing high density films requires good lighting conditions such
as high light intensity, low background light and film masking and there are practical limits on the level to which
density can be increased because of the reduction in transmitted light intensity. Density in the range 2.0 - 3.0 is
usually regarded as representing the best compromise between contrast and viewing requirements.
Image quality indicators (IQI) are commonly of the wire type, comprising straight wires of differing diameters
sealed in a plastic envelope, or ones which use holes or steps in a block of metal.
The IQI is placed on the object under test and imaged when the radiograph is taken. The smallest wire diameter,
hole diameter or step that is visible on the radiograph then gives a guide to the sensitivity achieved.
The IQI type and its position are specified in the appropriate radiographic standard. It should be recognised that
the sensitivity established by an IQI relates only to the ability to detect changes in section, wire size etc. This
sensitivity is only indirectly related to defect detectability.
The HSE's main concerns are that a significant number of NDT contractors fail to adopt routine working practices
capable of keeping radiation exposures of employees as low as reasonably practicable.

Incidents occur because of poor job planning (most notably with site radiography); failure to use adequate local
source shielding (collimation); or inadequate systems of work.
The quality and sensitivity of a radiograph are measured by the density of the film and the use of an IQI.
The HSEs information document on the Procurement of Radiography

gives more details on the technique.

Industrial Radiography is covered by the Ionising Radiations Regulations 1999 (IRR99) which mostly came into
force on 1 January 2000. Information regarding the requirements of the regulations is available from the HSE website.

Ultrasonics
Ultrasonics is the use of high frequency sound waves in a similar manner to sonar or radar: sound pulses are
reflected from interfaces or discontinuities.
In thickness checking the reflections from the wall surfaces are measured. In defect detection reflections from
cracks, voids and inclusions are detected and assessed.
The transfer of sound from the ultrasonic probe to the component requires a coupling medium, which is usually
water or gel. The condition of the interface determines how much sound is transferred into the component, how
much is scattered and how much noise is produced.
Ultrasonics requires a relatively good surface finish.
Manual application over a large area is relatively slow and the technique needs to be tailored to the defects
requiring detection. However, ultrasonics is able to provide both length and through wall size information.
Some materials such as corrosion-resistant alloys (eg high nickel alloys and austenitic steels) cause additional
problems for ultrasonics and require special techniques and appropriately trained personnel.
Ultrasonics can be automated and hard copy results produced.

6.4 Other techniques (in alphabetical order)

AC-FM - Alternating Current Field Measurement

Acoustic Emission

Creep waves

Digital Filmless Radiography

Flash Radiography

Leak Testing

Long Range Ultrasonics

Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL)

Phased Array Inspection

Pressure Testing

Pulsed Eddy Currents

Radioscopy

Remote Field Eddy Currents

Replication

Shearography

Time of Flight Diffraction. TOFD

Thermography

AC-FM - Alternating Current Field Measurement

This is a non-contacting electromagnetic technique which is used as a surface defect detection alternative to
magnetic particle and dye penetrant inspections in conducting materials.
A uniform electric current is induced into the material to be inspected which produces a magnetic field which in
turn will be disturbed and flow around the edges of a defect if present. The probes are constructed in order to
detect these magnetic field disturbances. Software algorithms allow an estimate of crack depth and crack length
to be obtained.

The technique is capable of detecting sub-surface defects on non-magnetic materials.

It can cope with poor surfaces and can test through coatings. However, it requires skilled operators to apply it
correctly.

Acoustic Emission
A passive technique in which an array of acoustic sensors are attached around the plant item under test.
Signals originating in the plant item, which are above a specified amplitude threshold, are recorded. Signals from
crack propagation, corrosion products and leaks may be identified and located by triangulation.
A common application is in monitoring above ground storage tanks with the sound being generated by the
spalling of corrosion products.
This is not a quantitative technique but gives a qualitative assessment of the condition of the tank.
When acoustic emission is used to detect crack growth it faces the challenge of detecting the signal generated by
the growth in the presence of operating noise.
Operational noise may not be present when conducting a hydraulic test but the stresses seen by the plant item
may be quite different to those seen in service.

Creep waves
This technique is another type of ultrasonic wave which travels along the surface of a component.
As it propagates it converts to a mode which travels into the component at an angle to the surface. This latter
wave will convert back to a surface wave if it hits a surface parallel to the surface on which it originated.
The technique is often used for the detection of near surface defects as a complement to the time of flight
technique.

Digital Filmless Radiography

Industrial radiography using computer based or "filmless" radiography systems can collect and analyse
radiographic data, completely replacing conventional film.
Applications include process corrosion detection and measurement, particularly under insulation and coatings on
process pipework.
This technology complements non-projection systems like SCAR to provide a safe, rapid inspection. The system
uses flexible, re-usable phosphor plates to capture images. The exposed plate is processed through a laser
scanner, delivering the image to a high resolution mono-monitor. After scanning the plate, the digital image is
interpreted, reported and digitally stored for future retrieval and analysis.
The flexibility of this approach means that extra control is required of the process to ensure radiographs are
traceable and not distorted, deleted or over-written.

Flash Radiography
Originally developed to image rapidly moving dynamic events, flash radiography has found application in the
detection of corrosion on pipe outside diameters under insulation.
It is normally applied to pipes up to 12" OD but can be applied to items with diameters up to one meter given
sufficient source to film distance and radiation output. The technique uses x-ray equipment with a low radiation
exposure time, fast x-ray films and intensifying screens, or digital detection media. It saves costs normally
attributed to the removal and re-instatement of insulation and associated scaffolding.

The beam is arranged tangentially to the pipe wall and corrosion of the external wall shows up as a variation in
the profile of the pipe.
It can also identify where lagging has become waterlogged. Contrast and resolution of the image are not as good
as that for conventional radiography because of the limited radiation available, the large grain film and the
relatively large focal spot of the sources.
Recent developments have complemented flash radiography.
These involve hand held radiographic systems using a source such Gadolinium-153 in combination with solidstate scintillator which converts the X-rays into electrons. The quality and output of the source determines the
maximum length of the beam path in the lagging when looking for under lagging corrosion. Special Gadolinium153 equipment can allow measurement of pipe wall thickness when shot through the centre of the pipe. The
limitations with regard to pipe and lagging diameter will depend on the particular instrument used, notably the
length of the fixed arm holding the source opposite the detector and should be known by the NDT vendor.

Leak Testing
This covers a variety of techniques which are used to identify leakage paths through containment.
They include:

Direct Bubble test - like mending a bike tyre.

Vacuum Box - a local vacuum is drawn over a small area in the containment. Any leakage path will prevent a full vacuum.

Tracer Gas Detection - relies on the detection of a tracer gas such as helium or a halogen gas. These techniques are semi-quantitative methods that detect the flow of the
tracer gas across a boundary.

Pressure Change Test - detection of a leak by the monitoring of absolute pressure, pressure hold, pressure loss, pressure rise, pressure decay or vacuum retention.

Long range ultrasonics

This technique has found its main application in pipe NDT.
A particular type of sound wave, Lamb waves, are generated in the pipe wall which acts as a cylindrical wave
guide allowing propagation ranges of up to 50 m to be obtained. The waves are reflected back from features
including wall loss defects. The frequency is less than that used in conventional ultrasonics at kHz rather than
MHz. Interpretation of the signals is complicated because of the different modes of Lamb wave which propagate.
The technique is generally used as a screening tool to identify areas worth more detailed NDT with alternative
techniques.

Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL)

This technique relies on the detection of the magnetic flux, which is 'squeezed' out of the metal wall under test by
any decrease in the wall thickness.
In order to achieve this, the component wall needs to be close to magnetic saturation. The amplitude of the signal
obtained from any wall loss is proportional to the volume that is missing from the region interrogated. This means
that the amplitude does not necessarily correspond to the decrease in thickness of the wall. The technique is not
able to discriminate between material loss on the near surface and material loss on the far surface.
Surface roughness, surface corrosion, distortion, build up of debris on the magnets and any physical disturbance
of the scanning system as it moves across the component will adversely affect the results.
MFL is a qualitative technique and is unable to give an accurate assessment of the remaining wall.
It has found wide use in the NDT of tank floors because it is quick to apply and can detect material loss on both
surfaces of the floor. The requirement for the sensor to be placed between the poles of a magnet mean that the
technique is unable to give 100% coverage of a floor up to vertical obstructions and side walls. The wall thickness
that can be inspected by magnetic flux leakage is limited by the requirement to achieve magnetic saturation.

The high level of set up effort makes the technique susceptible to human error. Procedures need to be clear and
sufficiently detailed and operators need to be qualified and experienced in the application of the technique.

Phased array inspection

Technology advances in materials and computers have made it possible for ultrasonic phased array transducers
to be manufactured in a similar sized case to conventional transducers.
A phased array transducer enables the ultrasonic beam to be electronically focussed or swept in angle along the
length of the array. One phased array transducer can therefore take the place of a number of conventional
transducers or reduce the scanning requirement for the transducer.
This is new and advanced technique and operators need training and experience of the technique additional to
the conventional ultrasonic qualifications.

Pressure testing
Pressure testing is normally a requirement of design codes and is performed at the start of life and subsequently.
It is not always a non-destructive test.
It involves the over pressurisation of a plant item (typically 10 to 50 % over the design operating pressure) with a
fluid to see if it is able to withstand the applied stress. A pneumatic test carries more danger than a hydraulic test,
releasing 200 times more energy should anything go wrong.
Arguments for and against pressure testing are complex and beyond the scope of this document.
The test may be complemented by the application of acoustic emission with the objective of trying to detect any
crack growth, which may be generated during the test.
HSE have a Guidance Note GS4 on Safety in Pressure Testing, which is supported by Contract Research Report CRR168:
"Pressure Test Safety", 1998
.

Pulsed Eddy currents

This is a technique for detecting corrosion and erosion and measuring average remaining wall.
Unlike ultrasonic thickness measurement it measures average wall loss over an area (footprint).
A transmitter coil produces a magnetic pulse which induces eddy currents within the component wall.
The eddy currents in turn produce a second magnetic pulse which is detected by the receiving coil. The system
monitors the rate of decay of the eddy current pulse within the steel wall. The average thickness is derived from
the comparison of the transient time of certain signal features with signals from known calibration pieces.
It is important that the operator is given information regarding the component to allow the NDT equipment to be
set up correctly and the results to be accurately interpreted.
This technique is quick to apply, can test through non-conductive and non-magnetic material (passive fire
protection, concrete) up to 100 mm thick. It is only suitable for low alloy steels and is unable to differentiate
defects on the top and bottom surfaces.

Radioscopy
Radioscopy is a digital version of radiography.
The image is produced on a radiation detector such as a fluorescent screen, rather than film, and is then
displayed on a television or computer screen. Often such systems work in real time and can provide continuous

NDT of objects. The recent advances in detectors and computer technology mean that these systems can offer
advantages over the conventional film NDT technique.

Remote Field Eddy currents

This technique provides an alternative to eddy current NDT for ferro-magnetic tube inspection.
The technique monitors the magnetic field produced by induced eddy currents at some distance from the exciting
coil. The system gives poorer resolution and has a lower test speed than a high frequency eddy current test. The
technique is highly sensitive to gradual wall thinning but detection of localised thinning requires special probes
and electronic control.

Replication
This involves the application of a temporarily softened plastic film onto the prepared surface of the item under
test so that the surface profile is imprinted into the film.
The film is then removed and examined under a microscope. Details such as cracks, surface inclusions and
microstructure can then be observed remotely from the plant item. A hard copy of the results is also obtained.

Shearography
Shearography is used for detection and characterisation of delaminations, debonds, and other defects in fibre
reinforced composites, rubber, and rubber/metal parts.
Comparison of two sets of laser images produced before and after the application of a load (thermal, tensile,
pressure, vibratory) that causes the item under test to deform allows calculation of relative deformation at each
point on the object and highlights local variations in surface deflection. Local variations are characteristic of the
defects such as delaminations and debonds.

Time of Flight Diffraction. TOFD

This is an ultrasonic technique which uses the diffracted wave produced by the edge of a planar defect to detect
and size such defects.
Sizing can be accurate as the time difference between the signals obtained from the top and bottom edges is
used to predict the size. TOFD requires two ultrasonic probes acting as transmitter and receiver to be scanned as
a pair either side of a weld.
It is relatively quick to apply compared to the conventional manual pulse echo techniques and a hard copy image
can be produced. As a consequence TOFD is replacing radiography as a preferred weld NDT technique.
However, TOFD has a number of drawbacks which need to be considered:

The diffracted tip wave is relatively small in amplitude so the sensitivity of the NDT needs to be high which can then lead to false calls;

Other techniques need to be applied to cover the near surface region;

As the weld thickness increases so does the number of probe separations which are required to cover the inspection volume;

The technique requires optimisation for the defects of concern;

Skilled operators are required to operate the equipment and interpret the images.

Thermography
An infrared camera or monitor is used to observe the actual temperature, or the variation over an area, of the
surface of a plant item.
Variations in heat transfer through the wall may be attributable to wall thinning or the build up of scale. It may
indicate the presence of wet insulation and the potential conditions for corrosion under insulation (CUI).

Alternatively, a heat source can be used to heat the surface and the dispersion of the heat observed.
Unexpected changes in the heat flow can be used to identify defects.
For containers containing hot or cold liquid it is possible to observe the level of the liquid in the item noninvasively.
The size of defect which can be detected will depend upon the optical parameters of the system and the
resolution of the camera. In assessing the results the emissivity of any paints or coatings on the component need
to be considered. Reflections of sunlight can also distort readings.
The technique is non-contacting and only line of sight to the surface under examination is required. It is quick and
easy to apply but can only detect defects and or faults which cause a change in heat flow or the surface
temperature of the item.

6.5 Common trade names

Fleximat

This is a thin flexible strip containing an array of ultrasonic transducers which can be permanently bonded to a component to provide continuous corrosion monitoring of
fixed locations.
Internal Rotary Inspection System - IRIS

An ultrasonic technique for the NDT of boiler and heat exchanger tubes consisting of a high frequency ultrasonic immersion probe inside a rotating test head. The system
provides coverage of the full circumference and full wall thickness as the probe is scanned axially along the tube. The head can be modified for defect detection if required.
LORUS

This is an ultrasonic technique which relies on bulk waves and was designed specifically for interrogating the plate under the shell on the annular ring of an above ground storage tank. The probe does not need to be scanned

backwards and forwards and so is suitable for use on the restricted surface available on the annular ring.

The sound floods the plate as it travels and is reflected from corrosion defects on the top or bottom surface. The working range is about 1 m but as the plate is flooded with sound it is unable to discriminate between top and bottom

defects.

Note: Although the acronym, LORUS, is derived from Long Range Ultrasonic System, when compared to more recent techniques referred to as long-range ultrasonics, the LORUS technique can only be considered medium range

(typically up to 1m).

Saturation Low Frequency Eddy Current - SLOFEC

The (SLOFEC) technique is very similar to the magnetic flux leakage technique. However, instead of detecting the flux leakage with a passive coil or a hall effect sensor, the SLOFEC technique has an eddy current sensor.

The fact that the eddy currents are used to sense the distortion of the magnetic field in a layer close to the surface of the component means that this NDT system is able to inspect a greater wall thickness and also able to cope with

thicker non-magnetic coatings than the magnetic flux leakage NDT system.

When the equipment is used on non-magnetic stainless steels the detection technique becomes solely an eddy current NDT technique.

Small Controlled Area Radiography - SCAR

This is a proprietary radiographic system which operates in a more controlled manner and hence a much smaller area than traditional radiography. Proper application of the system will reduce the controlled area to typically within 3

metres of the emission point. This has the advantages of minimal disruption to adjacent work areas and of reduced dose rates to classified workers

7. Checklist for the HSE Inspection of NDT

This checklist covers the whole NDT process from planning through to assessment of results. It is unlikely to be
necessary to apply the checklist from start to finish. It is more likely that specific areas of concern or criticality will
need to be selected and addressed. Bold comments help to direct the questions and interpret the answers.

7.1 NDT planning

Identification of plant items which require NDT.
Scope
Is the plant governed by Pressure Systems Regulations?

If so is there a Written Scheme of Examination for each plant item?

Does the plant contain non-pressure but hazardous fluid?

If so is it examined at appropriate intervals by a competent person?

Is speculative NDT performed to identify unexpected damage mechanisms?

The defect description will be defined by the capabilities of the technique applied.
The plant item can only be passed clean of defects meeting this capability.
Periodicity of NDT
What are the examination intervals?
What is the justification for the examination intervals?
If standard guidelines:

What are the reasons for selecting the chosen periodicity?

Are these are compatible with the operating conditions?

If RBI:

What are the damage mechanisms for each plant item?

What is the risk category?

If High/Medium, is NDT used to reduce risk?

Are the results fed back into the RBI process?

If so have appropriate changes been made to the required action?

7.2 Management of NDT process

Plant owners' attitude to NDT.
Is there sufficient independence between the NDT activity and production/operations functions?
Does the NDT play a key role in assuring the safety of the component?
Are additional steps taken:

To improve the reliability?

To ensure that all the defects of concern are detected?

To ensure NDT technique is applied correctly?

Is the plant owner aware of the limitations and capability of NDT?

Is the quality of the results checked in any way?
Does the plant owner act on the results?
Is the plant owner an informed customer?
Q.A.
Is there a certified quality management system?
Are there procedures to control the instigation and purchase of NDT activities?
Are there procedures which cover the management and application of the NDT?
Is the responsibility for the specification and control of the NDT clearly defined between the plant owner and the
NDT vendor?
Is there a system for maintaining inspections records?
Whose quality system are the NDT operators applying the NDT under (the plant owners' or the NDT
companies')?
Are the NDT companies UKAS accredited to either BS EN ISO/IEC 17025 Testing or BS EN 45004 Inspection?

7.3 NDT Inspection management

Specification
Is there a specification of requirements or defect description?
This should include:

Location, type, morphology, orientation;

Volume or surface that requires NDT;

The size of defect which needs to be detected;

The sizing errors that can be tolerated.

Is the NDT in compliance with a national or international standard?

Approval of the procedure by a Level 3 operator implies that the relevance of the standard has been assessed for
the plant item to be inspected and found to be appropriate.
For pressure systems the NDT method should be specified in the Written Scheme of Examination.
NDT Procedures
Is there evidence of procedures to cover the application of the NDT?
Whose are they [Plant Owners'? NDT vendor?]
Does this match up with the division of responsibilities?
Does a Level 3 approve the procedures?

Is the procedure, which may be supplemented by a plant specific technique sheet, sufficiently detailed to define
the technique to be applied?
Is there evidence that the QA & NDT procedures are being implemented?
Practice can be different from the documentation.
Implementation
What additional steps have been taken:

To improve the reliability?

e.g. different NDT techniques, repeat independent inspections or repeating all of the NDT with different personnel
or with different NDT techniques.

To ensure that all the defects of concern are detected?

e.g. capability established through qualification or auditing with independent operators repeating sample of
volume inspected.

To ensure NDT technique is applied correctly?

e.g. witnessing the inspection by independent third party, audits or measures listed in the Best Practice
document.
Are NDT personnel trained and certified?
(e.g. either a central certification scheme such as PCN or employer based such as ASNT)
Is the site NDT under supervision and support of a Level 3 operator?
Are PCN qualifications supplemented by job specific training for particular NDT technique applications?
Where a central certification scheme does not exist for the technique, can the NDT vendor or the plant owner
show evidence that the personnel have sufficient experience and training in the application of the technique?
Results
Do reports highlight any restrictions in the application of the technique?
Do they list any changes to the techniques which were required by the particular application?
Are sufficient parameters recorded so that what has been applied can be subsequently assessed and if
necessary repeated?
Are the sizing errors in the NDT measurements estimated?
Is appropriate action taken in response to the results obtained?
If the result is no defects found, there may still be the need for action taking into account the capability of the
NDT technique and the nature of defects which may not have been found.
Assessment of Results
How are the NDT results assessed?

Acceptance criteria
If manufacturing acceptance criteria are used is there justification for using them?
Are they compatible with the both the plant item and the NDT technique used?
Engineering Critical Assessment (ECA)
Has the assessment of the NDT results taken into account the limitations and errors inherent in the technique
applied?
The HSEs information document on Sizing Errors and their Implication for Defect Assessment

gives more details.

Has a code been followed to assess flaws and degradation?

(BS7910: 2000 / PD 6493: 1980 / PD 6493:1991 / API 579)
Does the code take into account the accuracy of the NDT test methods?
If not what care is taken when interpreting the results?
All inputs into the ECA should be justified.
Have transients or worse case operating conditions been considered?
Are the values for material properties correct?
What assumptions been made?

8. Terminology & current trends

Testing is the generic term given to a measurement of a property or the performance of an item to assess
whether it is fit for purpose.
Inspection is also a generic term but on process plant it is used in relation to the visual assessment of plant
condition.

Non-invasive inspections
Inspection

Details

This can incur very high costs associated with releasing and emptying the vessel, isolating it and preparing for it for entry. The
Inspecting vessels for possible internal degradation

mechanical disturbances involved in preparing the tank for internal NDT and reinstating it may on occasions adversely affect

has traditionally been performed from the internal

future performance of the tank. Also, the environment within the empty tank may be hazardous for man access requiring

surface, e.g. by visual inspection.

additional precautions to be taken for working in the confined space.

NDT performed from the outside of the vessel, i.e.

If they are applied in lieu of internal NDT then evidence should be provided to show that they are capable of achieving the same

non-invasively, without breaking the containment

detection and sizing requirements. This may be in the form of results from both previous invasive and non-invasive inspections

have the potential to reduce operating costs

showing good correlation or a report on the capability of the non-invasive inspection which can be compared with previous

significantly.

invasive results.

Alternatively, non-invasive NDT can be applied in addition to the internal NDT prior to an outage and during short shutdowns to
assist in the planning of internal NDT or to provide immediate information on an identified potential problem with the minimum of
interference with other operations.

Non-invasive NDT techniques are more complex than the internal NDT techniques and so require better planning, QA and project
management procedures. It is important to state the objectives of the non-invasive inspection as this is likely to have an impact on
the approach to the NDT.

The HOIS project produced a decision tree to establish if non-invasive inspection was acceptable, and the Mitsui Babcock project
HOIS2000 and Mitsui Babcock have carried out

detailed the requirement to ensure satisfactory inspection. Results from both of these projects are being reviewed by HSE prior to

two research projects into non-invasive inspection.

being recognised as 'Good Practice' documents.

Risk Based Inspection

Risk based inspection is the definition of the NDT requirements based on the risk posed by a particular plant
item.
When implementing a risk based approach, safety concerns need to take precedence over other influences such
as business interruption and loss of earnings. The RBI approach identifies the potential damage mechanisms
and the required interval of inspection: high-risk items requiring frequent NDT; low risk items requiring infrequent
or no NDT. This contrasts with the statutory approach of standard fixed inspection intervals irrespective of risk of
failure.
To use this approach the plant Operator needs to demonstrate that the risk assessment and NDT planning
processes are being implemented in an effective and appropriate manner.
The risk-based approach requires that the quality and veracity of the information is tested and validated.
Information on integrity of plant can be generated from the design, operational experience and NDT records, and
from sound knowledge of the deterioration mechanisms and the rate at which deterioration will proceed. The
approach is unreliable when there is lack of, or uncertainty in, the key information required to assess integrity.
NDT can then be planned at appropriate intervals using NDT methods that are able to detect the type and level of
deterioration anticipated in order to allow an assessment of the current and future fitness-for-service to be made.

Sample inspections
Rather than applying NDT to the total length of welds or number of components, NDT costs can be reduced by
inspecting a reduced percentage or sample of the items.
Often a figure of 10% is used. This doesn't necessarily have any scientific basis but is seen as being a
reasonable amount without incurring undue cost. Such an approach is only viable if the results from the 10%
inspected can be legitimately extrapolated to the 90% which wasn't inspected. i.e. if the damage mechanism is
equally likely to occur in all of the 100% and if it can be justifiably assumed that if no defects are found in the 10%
examined then there will be no defects in the remaining 90%.
This approach is not applicable if the damage can occur preferentially in one area over another or if random
defects can occur.

9. Case studies
NDT Case study 1
A process plant contained two stainless steel vessels which had been operating for 21 years. The contents of the
vessels were flammable, mildly toxic and contained 500 ppm of chlorides. The vessels were operated from full
vacuum up to 15 psi for 20 cycles per day. They contained an agitator which was used in part of the process.
Both vessels had been hydraulically tested to 70 psi when new but had not been subjected to a test since.

The company philosophy was 'Leak before break' but they didn't think that stainless steel would break. No leak
detection equipment had been installed and reliance was placed on plant operators noticing the smell or
observing drips.
The plant owners hired a Competent Person from a large insurance company who produced the Written Scheme
of Examination (WSE) for the vessels. There was no evidence of shared decision making between the plant
owner and the insurance company. A generic WSE was put into use. This followed SAFED guidelines on
periodicity of inspection which was specified as:
External visual examination supplemented by a hammer test every 2 years.
Was this suitable?
The combination of stainless steel and chlorides immediately raises concerns regarding the possibility of stress
corrosion cracking. Whilst the cracks were likely to initiate on the inner surface an external examination could
detect the presence of through wall cracks. However, stress corrosion cracks can be very tight and difficult to see
with the naked eye. The hammer test offers no benefit - who knows what a good vessel should sound like!
During a thorough examination of one of the vessels the Competent Person called for a small welded repair to an
external weld and for this to be followed by a hydraulic test. The vessel developed leaks at 40 psi. Further
investigation of the vessel found thousands of through wall cracks. The vessel had not leaked in service because
the contents were too viscous to pass through the tight stress corrosion cracks.
The competent person modified the WSE for the 2nd vessel:

Yearly examination instead of 2 yearly.

Addition of internal examination from the access way.

Addition of internal dye penetrant examination using red dye on 10% of welds.

Was this suitable?

The Internal inspection would be carried out from the small access way with agitator still in place.
The failed vessel had shown most throughwall cracks in base. This region could not be inspected on the second
vessel from the access way.
Inspection of 10% of welds.
The failed vessel showed through cracks on parent plate and most welds. There was no justification for limiting
the inspection to welds only and for just inspecting 10% of them.
Dye Penetrant Inspection using red dye.
With the cracking on the internal surface there was a chance that the cracks may have been filled with product
and if this had been the case dye penetrant inspection would not have been effective.
Stress corrosion cracking can be tight and if so the dye penetrant indications would not reveal the defects.
Fluorescent dyes give a higher sensitivity and would give much better results in the confined, dark space of the
vessel.
Regulation 9 of The Pressure Systems Safety Regulations 2000 requires that a competent person examines
those parts of the pressure system included in the scheme of examination within the intervals specified in the
scheme. The actions above raise the question of how competent was the competent person? Did they
understand the damage mechanisms and the detection requirements?
The competent person, who was independent from the plant owner, did not involve their company NDT expert in
amending the WSE. When the expert was finally consulted they estimated that the probability of detection, using
the method stated, was less than 30%. In limiting the inspection to just 10% of the welds then the overall
probability of detecting a crack in a weld was just 3%. This is unacceptably low. A probability of detection of only
50% may be acceptable for a regularly applied, non-critical inspection whilst for a highly critical inspection the
probability of detection would need to be up near 95%.

However, the examination of the second vessel did find two incidences of stress corrosion cracking (SCC): one
around the access way nozzle and a star crack in the plate. The nozzle was repaired by welding and the vessel
was hydraulically tested to 60 psi. The star crack was to be monitored at the next inspection in a year's time. No
further review of WSE was performed and the vessel was put back into service. The Competent person who put
the vessel back into service was not the regular surveyor for the site and it raises the question of whether they
fully understood the process.
When the poor inspection and quick return to service was questioned the following excuses were offered:

The client needed the vessel back as quickly as possible.

We worked day and night for 2 days.

We have never seen this problem before.

We follow SAFed guidelines.

There is no better way to inspect this type of vessel.

Conclusions

The client placed a high dependency on the competent person to satisfy the 'sufficient' aspect of the WSE.

The Competent Person may not have understood the process.

When part of a large company, the Competent Person system relies on the surveyor feeding back information to Head Office which they will not be able to do if they lack
understanding.

The client imposed time pressures on the Competent Person.

The Competent Person had access to experts in various disciplines but these were not used.

The initial WSE was poorly thought out.

The final WSE was even more poorly thought out.

No attempt was made to estimate critical crack sizes or growth rates and the NDT selected did not have a capability for measuring defect through wall size.

Finally, just because a leading competent person certifies the WSE it does not mean that it is sufficient: the WSE
should be scrutinised and the contents challenged wherever there is doubt on their suitability.

NDT case study 2

A number of large LPG storage vessels were due for their first thorough examination after 10 years of use. The
vessels had been designed and constructed to BS 5500 Class 1, with radiography used for the detection of
volumetric defects. The size of these vessels required that they were site constructed. Site manufacture has the
disadvantage that welding and inspection is open to the weather, and in similar vessels Fabrication Hydrogen
Cracking (FHC) has occurred, which is very difficult to detect with radiography.
The Operator and Competent Person wished to change the inspection strategy to non-invasive inspection to
prevent disruption to operation. The period between inspections was not to be altered.
It has been standard practice to inspect such vessels from the inside. Applying NDT from the outside surface i.e.
non-invasively can offer cost savings. However, it is important to ensure that the external inspection achieves the
desired detection capability. A relevant joint industry research project (phase 1) had concluded that non-invasive
inspection is best used where there was a history of invasive inspections to enable a comparison of the results of
the two methods to be made.
In this case there was no previous history, but the Operator had similar vessels on other sites, so considered that
they had previous experience in damage mechanisms that could occur.
Was this suitable?
In addition to checking for in-service degradation, the first in-service inspection is also used to show that there
are no defects in the vessel which were missed by the manufacturing inspections which could give rise to
integrity problems. The competent person and Operator offered no evidence to show that the non-invasive
inspection was fit for purpose: there were no results from previous invasive inspections to use as a bench mark;
there was no evidence to show that the non-invasive inspection techniques to be used would give the same
detection capability as an invasive inspection; no evidence was provided to show that any Fabrication Hydrogen
Cracking not detected during manufacture would be detected in the in-service inspection.
The Operator carried out a number of studies to address these concerns. A detailed study of the LPG supply
chain was carried out to evaluate if any hydrogen sulphide or other trace components could have been present,
which could give additional damage mechanisms.

A test piece was manufactured, to simulate the main weld of the vessels with a number of defects representing
in-service defects and FHC. A number of NDT techniques were applied to the test piece, and manual ultrasonic
inspection gave the best results. An operator was then qualified on the test piece.
To evaluate the critical crack size, Engineering Critical Assessments were carried out on the vessels. The ECAs
assumed the fracture toughness of the material. As the material had a specified Charpy value at -50 C, this value
was converted to a fracture toughness and used for the low temperature analysis. A LPG vessel is required to
operate though a specific temperature range specified in the LPGA Code of Practice, so assessments had to be
made of the tolerable defect size at different temperatures and pressures. The fracture toughness at other
temperatures was taken from very limited data available from The Welding Institute. The size of the tolerable
defect was quite small, but the NDT trials had demonstrated that defects half the tolerable size could be detected.
o

A trial inspection was carried out on the smallest vessel. To obtain access to the vessel welds a mobile platform
was used, with a target set for inspection of 10% of the weld, in the hope that a greater coverage could be
obtained in the period that the mobile platform was available. In addition magnetic particle inspection was to be
carried out in the regions of the support legs.
The inspection was carried out in high winds, and the platform was not available for use on two of the days. Only
10 % of the weld length was inspected. The results for the inspection identified a number of planar defects which
exceeded the manufacturing ultrasonic acceptance criteria, but were smaller than the maximum allowable size.
Was this suitable?
The NDT of the vessel was performed from a mobile platform in windy conditions.
While the wind speed allowed the inspection to be carried out on 3 days, NDT requires a stable work platform to
ensure reliable results.
The ECA was based on material assumptions which had limited validity. The fracture toughness was based on
measurements on the parent plate and was then used for the low temperature assessment. For the assessments
carried out at different temperatures, parent plate data was taken from a limited database, but, to be
conservative, a lower bound value should have been used. If FHC had occurred it would have been in the heat
affected zone of the weld, which the work did not address.
Inspection on the other vessels used mechanised ultrasonic inspection, which was not affected by wind, and
provided inspection data to a computer, which was analysed later. Only 10% of the weld length was inspected on
each vessel. In one case the defect was sized at 4 mm high, compared with the maximum tolerable defect height
of 6 mm.
Was this suitable?
The use of mechanised ultrasonic testing was a considerable improvement over the manual technique. However,
no allowance was made for the sizing errors of the inspection. The sizing accuracy of the mechanised ultrasonic
inspection would have been +/- 2 mm. This means that the 4 mm defects detected could have actually been at
the maximum tolerable size of 6 mm. No justification was given for limiting the inspection to 10 % coverage of the
weld and this was not extended even when defects near the tolerable size had been detected.
Conclusions

The Competent Person changed the inspection strategy to non-invasive inspection without the benefit of information from prior invasive inspection or other evidence to
justify the decision.

By use of a test specimen it was demonstrated that the intended non-invasive NDT technique was capable of detecting and sizing in-service and manufacturing defects.
With no prior inspection data available, inspecting only 10% of the weld does not give a strong demonstration of the vessel integrity. Having detected defects that were on
the limit of the tolerable size, increased coverage should have been carried out.

Allowance should have been made for the sizing error of the NDT technique, and the acceptance criteria set accordingly.

The ECAs did not use lower bound material properties that may have been present in the welds.

10. Guidance and codes of Practice relating to inspection/NDT

Please note that references quoted are current at June 2003: the originating organisation should be contacted to
establish the status and current version.
There are many guides and codes of practice relating to inspection and NDT. These include:

Acceptance Standards and ECA

BS EN 25817: 1992, ISO 5817:1992, Arc Welded joints in steel. Guidance on quality levels for imperfections.

BS 7910: 1999, Guide on methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic structures.

Accreditation

BS EN 45004:1995, General criteria for the operation of various types of bodies performing inspection.

Personnel qualification

BS EN 473:2000, Non-destructive testing. Qualification and certification of NDT personnel. General principles

ISO 9712: 1999 Non-destructive testing - Qualification and certification of personnel.

PCN/GEN/2000, General requirements for qualification and certification of personnel engaged in Non-destructive testing, BINDT.

Inspection techniques

BS EN 1714: 1998, Non-destructive examination of welded joints - Ultrasonic examination of welded joints.

BS EN 1435:1997, Non-destructive testing of welds - Radiographic testing of welded joints

BS EN 571-1 1997 Non-destructive testing. Penetrant testing. General principles

BS EN 1290 1998 Non destructive examination of welds: Magnetic particle examination of welds: Method

Information regarding these British Standards can be obtained from the BSI web Site.
American Petroleum Institute guides.

API 510 Pressure vessel inspection code: Maintenance inspection, rating, repair, and alteration

API RP 572 Inspection of pressure vessels,

API RP 576 Inspection of pressure-relieving devices

API 579 Recommended Practice for Fitness for Service

Energy Institute

Institute of Petroleum, Model Code of Safe Practice for the Petroleum Industry: Part 12: Pressure Vessel Systems Examination. 2 nd Edition. [Link] 0471 939366.

Institute of Petroleum, Model Code of Safe Practice for the Petroleum Industry: Part 13: Pressure Piping Systems Examination. 2 nd Edition. [Link] 0471 939374.

Safety Assessment Federation - SAFed

Guidelines for the Production of Written Schemes of Examination and the Examination of Pressure Vessels Incorporating Openings to Facilitate Ready Internal Access
Ref: PSG4 April 2003.

Pressure Systems: Guidelines on Periodicity of Examinations Ref: PSG1 (ISBN 1 901212 10 6). Date of Publication: May 1997
Shell Boilers: Guidelines for the Examination of Shell-to-Endplate and Furnace-to Endplate Welded Joints Ref: SBG1 (ISBN 1 901212 05)
Date of Publication: April 1997

Shell Boilers: Guidelines for the Examination of Longitudinal Seams of Shell Boilers Ref: SBG2 (ISBN 1 901212 30 0). Date of Publication: May 1998