J Food Sci Technol

DOI 10.1007/s13197-014-1372-0

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Seasonal variation in nutritional composition of Kappaphycus

alvarezii (Doty) Dotyan edible seaweed
K. Suresh Kumar & K. Ganesan & P. V. Subba Rao

Revised: 3 April 2014 / Accepted: 10 April 2014

# Association of Food Scientists & Technologists (India) 2014

Abstract Seasonal variation in the proximate and mineral

composition of Kappaphycus alvarezii were investigated in
the present study, moreover, the relationship between the
nutritive components of this seaweed and the environment
were also established. Carbohydrates represented the major
portion of the algae (i.e. average total carbohydrate content
was 23.011.64 g/100 g DW), while the lipid content was the
lowest among the constituents investigated (0.390.04 to
0.910.51 g/100 g DW). The protein content of K. alvarezii
varied from 12.690.6 to 23.610.02 g/100 g DW, and the
fiber content varied between 9.680.08 to 18.570.15 g/
100 g DW. Highest total mineral content (29939.61
9340.38 mg/100 g DW) was observed in April 2005, while
least values were recorded in January 2006 i.e. (10997.62
1120.26 mg/100 g DW). The Na/K ratio during the study
ranged from 0.34 to 0.87. All the samples showed remarkable
semi-refined carrageenan (SRC) yield ranging from 42.70
1.07 to 63.731.73 % (average 53.901.37 %), and, the
samples collected during December 2004 and January 2006
demonstrated maximum gel strengths i.e. 74315.28 and
783.3315.28 gcm2 respectively. Various environmental
parameters influenced the chemical composition of
K. alvarezii, and these parameters demonstrated seasonal fluctuations. Moreover, based on the nutritional composition obtained, it could be stated that this seaweed has great scope to
K. Suresh Kumar : K. Ganesan : P. V. Subba Rao
Marine Biotechnology and Ecology Discipline, Central Salt and
Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research, CSIR, Bhavnagar 364 002, India
Present Address:
K. Suresh Kumar (*)
Department of Environmental Marine Sciences, College of Science
and Technology, Hanyang University, Ansan 426-791, Republic of
Korea
e-mail: ksuresh2779@[Link]

be incorporated into several food products as an excellent nutritional supplement, or as a value additive in animal or pet food.
Keywords Seaweed . Kappaphycus alvarezii . Proximate
composition . Mineral composition . Seasonal variation

Introduction
Benthic marine macroalgae, commonly known as seaweeds, are
one of the living renewable resources of the marine environment
with potential food and therapeutic applications; they have been
used directly or indirectly as human food in Asian countries and
are considered under-exploited resources (Tseng 2004).
Currently there is increasing consumer interest in products that
can support or even promote health. Nutritionists acclaim seaweed as being low in calories, and rich in vitamins, minerals, and
dietary fibers (Jimenez-Escrig and Sanchez-Muniz 2000).
Seaweeds have been conventionally used for a wide variety
of applications such as food, fodder, fertilizer, for medicinal
purpose, and phycocolloids. Approximately, 250 species of
seaweeds have been commercially utilized worldwide,
amongst which 150 species are favorably consumed as human
food; however, in western countries they form a source of
polysaccharides (agar, alginates, carrageenans) for food and
pharmaceutical industry (Zemke-White and Ohno 1999;
Kumari et al. 2010). In order to cope with the growing market
demand of seaweeds, several of them are cultivated commercially as a source of livelihood worldwide.
Seaweeds generally show great variation in the nutrient
contents, which could be related to several environmental
factors such as water temperature, salinity, light and nutrients.
Further, most of the environmental parameters influencing
seaweed composition generally vary with season; moreover,
the changes in ecological conditions can also stimulate or
inhibit the biosynthesis of several nutrients (Soriano et al.

J Food Sci Technol

2006). Seasonal variations in the chemical composition and

nutritive value have been reported in common marine seaweed from Hong Kong (Kaehler and Kennish 1996) and
Ireland (Mercer et al. 1993). Though there have been several
reports on biochemical composition of various seaweeds
across India, but there are very few studies focusing on the
temporal variations in chemical composition of seaweeds in
Indian context. This study aims at presenting the seasonal
variation in the proximate and mineral composition of tropical
Indian red seaweed K. alvarezii, a carrageenophyte with enormous commercial value.

Materials and methods

Seaweed: sampling and processing
Kappaphycus alvarezii was collected once in a month (from
September 2004 to April 2006) from the cultivation site at
Okha (2228.656 N and 6904.015 E) Gujarat, Northwest
coast of India. The samples were thoroughly washed with
seawater followed by fresh water, and subsequently dried at
60 C in an oven, the dried samples were ground to particle
size<1 mm and stored at room temperature in airtight plastic
containers for further use.
Analysis of proximate composition
The nitrogen content of the dried seaweed was quantified
using Kjeldahl procedure (Wathelet 1999) using KEL
PLUS-KES 20L Digestion unit attached to a KEL PLUSCLASSIC DX Distillation unit (M/s PELICAN Equipments,
Chennai, India). The digestion was performed using sulfuric
acid (96 % H2SO4; initially for 75 min at 420 C, and again for
75 min at 370 C); this was thereafter distilled with boric acid
solution (2 %) and titrated with 0.1 M HCl. The crude protein
content was estimated by multiplying the nitrogen with a
factor of 6.25; while the total carbohydrate content was
assayed by the phenolsulphuric acid method using glucose
as a standard (Dubois et al. 1956). Crude lipids were extracted
using soxhlet extractor using 2:1 ratio of chloroform-methanol
(Bligh and Dyer 1959). The fiber content of the dried seaweed
was determined using a standard method outlined by AOAC
(1990), here, the acid hydrolysis was carried out with sulfuric
acid (0.3 N H2SO4) and the base hydrolysis was undertaken
using sodium hydroxide (0.5 N NaOH). The cold extraction
was performed with acetone. The sample was then dried (1 h
at 110 C) until it reached a constant weight, cooled in a
desiccator, and weighed (W1); thereafter, it was placed in a
muffle furnace at 550 C for 3 h, cooled (in a desiccator) and
reweighed (W2). The crude fiber percentage was calculated
following the equation: % crude fiber = (W1 W2 /W0) 100
(wherein, W0 was the initial weight of the dried seaweed

which was 2 g). The ash content was analyzed by shade drying
the samples at room temperature and later in an oven at 80 C
for 1 h, thereafter, one gram of the powdered sample was
accurately taken in a crucible, ashed at 550 C in muffle
furnace for 6 h to a constant weight, and the ash obtained
was then quantified gravimetrically (AOAC 1995).
Analysis of minerals by ICP-OES
One gram seaweed was ashed, moistened with ten drops of
distilled water (Milli-Q) and carefully dissolved in 3 ml HNO3
(1:1 v/v), followed by heating at 100120 C till the solution
totally evaporated. The crucible was returned to muffle furnace and ashed again for 1 h at 550 C and cooled.
Subsequently the ash was dissolved in 3 ml of 10 M HCl
(1:1 v/v), and the solution was filtered through Millipore
syringe filter (0.25 m) into 50 ml volumetric flask and 2 ml
0.1 N HCl was added to the filtrate and the final volume was
made up to 50 ml using distilled water (Milli-Q) (Suresh
Kumar et al. 2007). Determination of mineral contents (Na,
K, Ca, Mg, P, S, B, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, Hg, Mo and
V) of each seaweed sample was carried out using Inductively
Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy, ICP-OES
(Perkin-Elmer, Optima 2000). The analysis of all the above
minerals was carried out in triplicate. Mean and standard
deviation were calculated. All the chemicals and solvents used
for experiments were of analytical grade.
Environmental parameters
Selected environmental parameters were determined at the
farming site during the period of experimental cultivation
(September 2004 to April 2006). All determinations, including water sample collections, were conducted at a depth of
30 cm i.e. the same depth as the cultured seaweeds. Seawater
temperature was recorded daily throughout the study period
and the mean monthly temperature was obtained. Salinity was
determined fortnightly and the average value was recorded.
The seawater samples were subjected to fortnightly nutrient
analysis; here, dissolved inorganic phosphate (PPO4) and
dissolved inorganic nitrate (NNO3) were determined according to the method described by Strickland and Parsons (1972)
followed by which average monthly values were calculated.
Extraction of semi-refined carrageenan
The pre-cleaned dried seaweed (10 g) was rinsed with fresh
water at ambient temperature and treated with 200 ml of 8 %
KOH (cooking solution), in a container (glass) maintained at
approximately 70 C for 3 h. After 3 h of processing had
elapsed, the seaweed was removed from the hot aqueous KOH
solution and drained (this KOH mixture containing the seaweed was handled with extreme caution as it was corrosive

J Food Sci Technol

having a pH ranging from 12 to 14). The seaweed was then

subjected to a series of fresh water washes to reduce the pH,
and, to wash residual KOH from the seaweed. This process
helps eliminate certain salts and residual saponification products created during the KOH cook/reaction. The processed
seaweed (containing carrageenan) obtained after the final
rinse, was then chopped, dried and ground (Rideout and
Bernabe 1997); this processed seaweed powder referred to
as semi-refined carrageenan was then used for further
determinations.
The carrageenan yield (%) was determined according to the
formula:
Yield% Wc=Wm  100

Where, Wc is the extracted carrageenan weight (g) and

Wm is the dry powder or algal weight (g) used for extraction.
The data were then presented as the mean yield obtained from
three replicates.
Gel strength measurement
In order to evaluate the gel strength of the product, 1 g of
carrageenan was soaked in a solution of 1 % KCl for 2 h. This
mixture was boiled (100 C) for 20 min, cooled and left
undisturbed at room temperature to facilitate the formation
of gel; thereafter, the gels were refrigerated at 10 C overnight
(approx. 10 h) in a refrigerator. Gel strength was measured at
25 C using a Nikkansui type gel tester (Kiya Seisakusho Ltd.
Tokyo, Japan) as described by Hurtado-Ponce and Umezaki
(1988) and it was expressed as gcm2.
Statistical analysis
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to determine
the differences in seasonal variations of biochemical constituents; moreover multiple comparison tests with the least significance difference (LSD) were performed to determine significant differences.

Results and discussion

Seasonal fluctuations in various environmental parameters
were observed during the study period. Apart from showing
seasonal fluctuations in environmental parameters along the
various coasts of India, several chemical oceanographic studies also reveal seasonal variations in nutrients and their interrelationships in the Northeastern Arabian Sea, and particularly
the West coast of India (Sen Gupta et al. 1976). However,
there are few studies highlighting the seasonal fluctuation in
the various parameters influencing seaweed composition

particularly the shoreline water of Okha coast. During the

course of study a mean salinity and temperature were
34.20 and 26.55 C respectively, which corresponded
with reports of Gunalan et al. (2010) and Subba Rao
et al. (2008). The seawater temperature varied from 22.5
to 30.1 C, while the salinity fluctuated from 31.20 to
36.64. The tropical climate, warm, nutrient-enriched seawater, high light levels and high degree of water motion
waters are suitable for farming Kappaphycus species, therefore, it could be projected that the prevalent environmental
conditions encountered during this study were suitable for
the growth of Kappaphycus alvarezii.
As evidenced in most studies, environmental parameters and
season had a definite impact on the growth and biochemical
constituent of K. alvarezii; Fig. 1 and 2 elucidate the seasonal
variation in protein and carbohydrate content of K. alvarezii
(P<0.001) respectively. Subba Rao et al. (2008) reported that
the growth rate of Kappaphycus alvarezii significantly correlates with salinity, nitrate and seawater temperature at various
sites; however, this study reveals that various environmental
parameters had a vital impact on the chemical composition of
this seaweed. The average protein content of this seaweed
(19.250.15 g/100 g DW) was much higher than that reported
for Sargassum vulgare (4.599.97 g/100 g DW; Soriano et al.
2006), Ulva lactuca (7.060.06 g/100 g DW; Wong and
Cheung 2000), Undaria pinnatifida (7.51.9 g/100 g DW;
Dawczynski et al. 2007), Caulerpa veravelensis (7.770.59
g/100 g DW; Kumar et al. 2011), C. lentillifera (9.260.03 g/
100 g DW; Nguyen et al. 2011), Caulerpa scalpelliformis
(10.500.91 g/100 g DW; Kumar et al. 2011), Laminaria sp.
(11.60.8 g/100 g DW; Dawczynski et al. 2007), C. racemosa
(12.88 1.17 g/100 g DW; Kumar et al. 2011), Hizikia
fusiforme (13.86.2 g/100 g DW; Dawczynski et al. 2007)
and Ulva rigida (17.8 g/100 g DW; Taboada et al. 2010).
However, these values were comparable with that of Hypnea
charoides (18.40.30 g/100 g DW; Wong and Cheung 2000),
Hypnea japonica (19.00.3 g/100 g DW; Wong and Cheung
2000), and Gracilaria cervicornis (14.322.71 g/100 g DW;
Soriano et al. 2006). El Din and El-Sherif (2012) reported the
protein content of C. prolifera, C. racemosa, C. bursa, H. tuna,
U. petiolata, Udotea sp., G. verrucosa, R. ardissonei,
C. spinosa, D. dichotoma, S. acinarium, S. hornschuchii and
S. vulgare to be 3.86, 8.23, 5.35, 11.8, 11.5, 14.5, 7.08, 4.5,
7.01, 8.15, 3.9, 6.05 and 6.15 g/100 g DW respectively, however, these values are lower than that obtained for K. alvarezii in
the present study. Moreover, K. alvarezii contained relatively
higher protein as compared to the seaweeds species habitually
consumed as food (Fleurence 1999). Dawes (1998) vividly
state that the members of Rhodophyta are characterized by
greater protein content when compared to those of
Phaeophyta, this could probably explain the high protein content in the species studied herein. Additionally, the mean protein
content of K. alvarezii (19.250.15 g/100 g DW) was higher

J Food Sci Technol

Fig. 1 Seasonal variation in protein content (%) of [Link]

than that reported for higher plants (Norziah and Ching 2000).
However, reports suggest that although chemical composition
of seaweeds could be influenced by factors such as species,
habitat, maturity, geographical locations, environmental parameters, and season (Ito and Hori 1989; Fleurence 1999), it is
essential to note the very presence of proteins and other vital
nutrients such as high concentrations of essential amino acids
(EAA) (e.g. argenine, aspartine and glutamine found in many
seaweed species; Fleurence 1999) make them a promising
candidate to be used in various food formulations or as a
supplement. More essentially, even though there may be seasonal variations in the protein content and in turn the essential
amino acids, however, these EAA are available throughout the
year despite seasonal variations in their concentrations
(Galland-Irmouli et al. 1999).
The average protein content of K. alvarezii (19.250.15 g/
100 g DW), was much less than the mean carbohydrate
content (25.871.64 g/100 g DW). The carbohydrate content
of K. alvarezii (average 25.871.64 g/100 g DW) was higher
than several seaweeds, for e.g. Ulva rigida, Ulva lactuca,
Caulerpa racemosa, Sargassum filipendula and Hypnea
japonica (Rosenberg and Ramus 1982), C. prolifera,
C. racemosa, C. bursa, H. tuna, U. petiolata, Udotea sp.,

Fig. 2 Seasonal variation in sugar content (%) of [Link]

G. corneum, G. verrucosa, R. ardissonei, C. spinosa,

D. dichotoma, S. acinarium, S. hornschuchii and S. vulgare
(El Din and El-Sherif 2012) which are reported to contain
6.40, 7.06, 3.98, 3.73, 4.28, 9.00, 6.93, 7.43, 7.40, 8.60, 8.00,
12.03, 15.77, 5.00, 20.91, 8.60, 13.67, 16.50 and 14.30 g/
100 g DW of carbohydrate respectively. It is essential to note
that, in the present study the occurrence of maximum carbohydrate content of K. alvarezii coincided with occurrence of
maximum biomass, thereby suggesting a link between seaweed growth and carbohydrate content; similarly, Rosenberg
and Ramus (1982) also related the carbohydrate synthesis to
periods of maximum growth, increased photosynthetic activity and a reduction in protein content. Moreover, during the
period of occurrence of maximum carbohydrate in K. alvarezii
higher values of water temperature, salinity and sunlight intensity were recorded, which confirms the influence of these
parameters on carbohydrate synthesis (Munda and Kremer
1977). However, a negative correlation was found in this
study between total carbohydrate and phosphate (r=0.471).
On the other hand, an inverse relationship was observed
between carbohydrate and protein content; Givernaud et al.
(1993) observed a similar a pattern for several species of
seaweeds.
The lipid content varied from 0.390.04 to 0.910.51 g/
100 g DW (Fig. 3) with an average of 0.640.08 g/100 g
DW. The lipid content of marine macroalgae (seaweed) has
been reported to generally range between 1 and 6 g/100 g
DW (Dawczynski et al. 2007). However, in the present
investigation on the carragenophytic seaweed K. alvarezii,
the lipid content ranged from 0.390.04 to 0.910.51 g/
100 g DW (Fig. 3) which was comparable with Sargassum
polyschides (0.70.09 g/100 g DW), Corallina officinalis
(0.30.2 g/100 g DW; Sara Marsham et al. 2005) as well
as Hizikia sp. and Arame (0.70.9 g/100 g DW; Kolb et al.
1999); however, it was lower than Palmaria sp. (1.8
0.14 g/100 g DW), Hypnea elongata (0.970.07 g/100 g
DW) and Undaria pinnatifida (1.050.01 g/100 g DW)
(Sanchez-Machado et al. 2004). Moreover, there was a
positive correlation between the water temperature and the
lipid content (r=0.554).
Seaweeds are reported to be rich in fiber as compared to
most fruits and vegetables; moreover, consumption of seaweeds helps increase the intake of dietary fiber and lower the
occurrence of some chronic diseases (diabetes, obesity, heart
diseases, cancers, etc.). In addition, consumption of seaweed
is known to promote the growth of beneficial intestinal flora
and also protect them; it also reduces the overall glycemic
response, greatly increases stool volume and reduces the risk
of colon cancer (Southgate 1990; Gupta and Abu-Ghannam
2011). K. alvarezii was particularly rich in fiber. Its fiber
content ranged from 9.680.08 to 18.570.15 g/100 g DW
(Fig. 4). This was higher than that reported by Robledo and
Freile-Pelegrin (1994); they reported Sargassum vulgare

J Food Sci Technol

Fig. 3 Seasonal variation in lipid content (%) of [Link]

(mean 7.401.61 g/100 g DW) and Gracilaria cervicornis

(mean 5.650.74 g/100 g DW) to have fiber content comparable to few other brown and red macroalgal species. On the
other hand, the average fiber content of K. alvarezii (14.52
0.11 g/100 g DW) was comparable with Gelidiella acerosa
(13.451.07 g/100 g DW) and lower than Sargassum wightii
(171.19 g/100 g DW) (Syad et al. 2013).
The average SRC yield obtained in the present study
(53.901.37 %) was comparable with western Pacific commercial sample (57 %; Hayashi et al. 2007). Subba Rao et al.
(2008), cite several reports mentioning lower semi-refined
carrageenan content (3143 %) for the same seaweed farmed
in the subtropical waters of Sao Paulo State, Brazil, and
moderate yields for materials from Vietnam (34.5 to 45.3 %;
Ohno et al. 1996) and Indonesia (45 %; Ohno et al. 1996),
however, higher yields are reported from Philippines (54.6 %;
Trono and Ohno 1986). On the other hand, the SRC obtained
in this study also demonstrated remarkable gel strength ranging from 348.3312.58 to 783.3315.28 gcm2 with an
average of 602.0012.13 gcm2 which justifies its potential
use in several pet food products. All the K. alvarezii samples
yielded good amount of SRC i.e. the SRC yields ranged
between 42.701.07 to 63.731.73 % (Fig. 5). A positive
correlation could be derived between the carrageenan yield
and gel strength (r=0.578; Table 1); nonetheless, the nitrate
present in seawater had a positive correlation with carrageenan yield (r=0.465).

Fig. 4 Seasonal variation in fiber content (%) of [Link]

Fig. 5 Seasonal variation in semi-refined carrageenan yield (%) and gel

strength (gcm2)

The ash content of K. alvarezii ranged from 20.990.08 to

33.811.71 g/100 g DW (Fig. 6). The ash contents of the
seaweeds are usually much higher than land vegetables other
than spinach (Rupeez 2002; Omotoso 2006). However, the
ash content is known to vary with species, geographical
locations and season (Kaehler and Kennish 1996). The average ash content of K. alvarezii recorded in this study (27.00
1.62 g/100 g DW; Fig. 6) was considerably higher than
Hypnea japonica (22.1 0.72 g/100 g DW), Hypnea
charoides (22.82.23 g/100 g DW), Ulva lactuca (21.3
2.78 g/100 g DW), Hypnea pannosa (15.3 g/100 g DW),
Ulva lactuca (24.6 g/100 g DW), Ulva pertusa (24.7 g/
100 g DW), Ulva lactuca (11.0 0.1 g/100 g DW),
Durvillaea Antarctica (17.91.2 g/100 g DW), Caulerpa
lentillifera (22.200.27 g/100 g DW), Gelidiella acerosa
(10.34.9 g/100 g DW) and Sargassum wightii (252 g/
100 g DW) (Dawczynski et al. 2007; Mushollaeni 2011;
Taboada et al. 2010; Syad et al. 2013). Generally, the ash
content of a sample is known to reflect its mineral content.
Mushollaeni (2011) state that the presence of ash content in
seaweed showed that there were mineral salt in the sample;
similarly, this study also confirms that K. alvarezii (which
demonstrated high ash content) was also rich in minerals.
Seaweed are rich (840 %) in several essential minerals
and trace elements required for human nutrition (Indegaard
and Ostgaard 1991); in fact, several reports suggest that the
mineral content in seaweeds is higher than edible land plants
(Ortega-Calvo et al. 1993; USDA 2001). However, it is obvious that occurrence and amounts of these may vary with
species, moreover, within the same species there may also
be seasonal fluctuations in the composition of these elements.
Seasonal variation in mineral composition of K. alvarezii have
been elucidated in Table 2; the highest mineral content
(29939.619340.38 mg/100 g DW) was recorded in the
month of April 2005, while the lowest value (10997.62
1120.26 mg/100 g DW) was recorded in January 2006.
Among the 17 minerals analyzed, K. alvarezii demonstrated
highest S content (11,240730 mg/100 g DW), and lowest

J Food Sci Technol

Table 1 Correlation coefficients (n=20) of the environmental parameters and the chemical composition of K. alvarezii
Salinity Phosphate Nitrate Biomass
Water C
0.314
Salinity
Phosphate
Nitrate
Biomass
Gel strength
Carrageenan yield
Protein
Sugar
Lipid
Fiber
Ash

0.169
0.197

Gel strength Carrageenan Yield Protein

0.139 0.005** 0.338

0.216 0.193
0.136
0.380 0.346
0.278
0.307
0.399
0.059

0.175
0.426
0.008
0.465*
0.196
0.578*

0.152
0.373
0.174
0.698**
0.140
0.246
0.476*

Carbohydrate Lipid
0.042
0.352
0.471*
0.004
0.171
0.095
0.097
0.355

Fiber

Ash

0.554* 0.170 0.259

0.041 0.127 0.077
0.267 0.076 0.071
0.055
0.017 0.049
0.113
0.367 0.234
0.423
0.191 0.155
0.167
0.093 0.116
0.023
0.144 0.046
0.173 0.313 0.153
0.052 0.196
0.205
1.000

*Significance (p<0.05)
**Significance (p<0.01)

quantities of Mo (0.040.02 mg/100 g DW). Apart from

remarkable macro-mineral content (Na + K + Ca + Mg;
7,9102,950 mg/100 g DW), K. alvarezii was also rich in
selected micronutrients (Fe + Zn + Mn + Cu; 69.610.16 mg/
100 g DW). The accumulation of Na and K salts generally
depends upon the physiology as well as season; in this study
the Na/K ratio of K. alvarezii ranged from 0.34 to 0.87. The
macro-mineral content (Na + K + Ca + Mg) of K. alvarezii
(7,9102,950 mg/100 g DW) was lower than the values
reported for the brown seaweeds such as Fucus (11,723
126 mg/100 g DW), Laminaria (17,061182 mg/100 g
DW), Wakame (17,875382 mg/100 g DW), and for the red
seaweeds such as Chondrus (8,60690 mg/100 g DW) and
Nori (8,082214 mg/100 g DW) (Indegaard and Ostgaard
1991); however, it was higher than many land vegetables
(carrot 3,276 mg/100 g DW, sweet corn 1,347 mg/100 g
DW, potato 6,015 mg/100 g DW, tomato 3,429 mg/100 g
DW), but spinach (9679 mg/100 g DW) is exceptional.
Looking into the Mg content of all the samples, it could be

Fig. 6 Seasonal variation in ash content (%) of [Link]

stated that K. alvarezii could prove to be a good source for

Mg, which is essential for regulating central nervous system
excitability and normal functions. In this context, Syad et al.
(2013) reported that low levels of Mg contribute to the heavy
metal deposition in the brain that leads Parkinsons, multiple
sclerosis and Alzheimers disease; hence inclusion of this
seaweed in the diet could evade these mentioned problems.
Marine algae are also interesting candidates as Fe sources,
especially in countries where the algal production is feasible;
K. alvarezii also comprised significant quantities of Fe. In this
study, the selected micronutrients (Fe + Zn + Mn + Cu) in the
seaweed was higher (69.610.16 mg/100 g DW) than the land
plant sweet corn (Fe + Zn + Mn + Cu, 4.9 mg/100 g DW) and
the seaweed Laminaria (5.1 mg/100 g DW) (Food and
Nutrition Board 1981).
K. alvarezii showed a relatively higher sodium content than
as compared to that reported for terrestrial vegetables (carrots,
sweet corn, green peas, potato and tomato) (Food and
Nutrition Board 1981). Generally, the intake of sodium chloride and diets with high Na/K ratio are related to the incidence
of hypertension; here, the Na/K ratio of K. alvarezii ranged
from 0.34 to 0.87. Ortega-Calvo et al. (1993) studied
Spirulina and five other eukaryotic seaweeds used in food in
Spain, and reported Na/K ratios were below 1.5 in all seaweeds studied (0.331.34), which is interesting from the point
of nutrition; nevertheless, the Na/K ratio in olives and sausages are 43.63 and 4.89, respectively (USDA 2001).
Seaweeds have been investigated for various elements and
heavy metals in the past; in fact, reports suggest that most of
the trace elements present in the algal biomass are heavy
metals (As, Cd, Cu, Hg, Pb and Zn), but their content is
generally below the toxic limit in most seaweeds (OrtegaCalvo et al. 1993). However, it is essential to quantify the

0.60.02

5.260.02

Co

Cr

1.280.04

1.030.12

Cd

Mn

4.870.02

0.550.03

20.913.09

Total

90.20.02

13.672.04

Fe

0.120.00

Cu

0.970.36

0.760.16

Mg

3.260.38

Ca

2.130.15

2.560.17
4.080.23
0.800.06
0.690.17
0.110.00
11.370.35
19.610.98
0.190.01
0.740.02
0.710.01
5.360.01
1.070.02
94.500.17
2.260.04
2.260.01
0.220.01
0.010.01
0.330.02
107.650.32
19717.65
980.32

Nov-04

1.170.04

45.50.03

0.550.03

1.570.02

0.470.06

0.670.03

2.160.04

19.31.8

11.30.79

0.120.00

0.770.2

1.120.35

3.280.31

2.710.15

Oct-05

1.110.29
2.930.21
0.820.17
0.660.24
0.090.00
11.380.20
16.961.11
1.740.03
1.540.01
0.480.01
4.310.02
1.030.02
68.800.06
0.160.02
1.070.02
0.040.01
0.160.01
1.780.02
81.110.23
17041.11
1110.23

Oct-04

Sep-05

2.490.20
3.400.17
0.820.33
0.740.18
0.100.00
5.430.46
12.981.13
5.750.02
1.350.01
0.480.02
2.660.02
0.620.03
49.160.09
1.350.02
2.210.02
0.020.01
0.050.01
0.110.01
63.750.24
13043.75
1130.24

Sep-04

Na

Mineral

Na
K
Ca
Mg
P
S
Total
B
Cd
Co
Cr
Cu
Fe
Mn
Zn
Hg
Mo
V
Total
Grand Total (mg/
100 g)

Mineral

1.480.02

126.770.23

0.770.02

5.160.03

0.760.02

0.40.01

0.160.03

16.181.94

9.240.35

0.250.00

0.750.21

0.920.2

2.680.25

2.340.93

Nov-05

3.790.17
6.410.17
0.960.12
0.840.12
0.130.00
13.760.52
25.891.1
0.600.02
0.800.01
0.640.02
7.280.01
0.760.01
98.850.01
1.670.01
1.340.03
0.090.01
0.100.01
0.370.12
112.490.26
26002.49
1100.26

Dec-04

1.250.02

48.560.02

0.60.1

0.870.03

0.130.06

0.220.02

0.930.04

16.862.46

10.360.76

0.050.00

0.760.3

0.990.15

2.780.64

1.920.61

Dec-05

3.270.25
5.270.30
0.800.23
0.911.16
0.170.00
13.060.50
23.482.44
2.060.02
3.960.03
0.200.01
0.740.03
0.760.07
132.730.04
0.660.04
1.650.04
0.040.01
0.050.03
0.040.04
142.90.35
23622.90
2440.35

Jan-05

2.610.27
5.850.31
0.830.23
0.710.12
0.120.00
15.390.64
25.511.57
5.810.02
0.630.02
0.190.02
1.730.15
0.580.02
34.570.03
1.030.02
2.170.21
0.020.02
0.030.01
0.110.01
46.870.50
25556.87
1570.50

Mar-05

0.50.01

13.830.03

0.350.02

1.140.0

0.10.03

0.230.06

0.330.06

10.981.12

6.120.46

0.090.00

0.560.2

0.760.21

2.060.1

1.390.15

Jan-06

2.380.36
4.960.46
0.810.15
0.770.71
0.170.00
13.470.79
22.562.47
5.680.04
2.070.03
0.760.03
3.590.02
0.650.03
101.640.08
1.670.02
2.250.02
0.020.01
0.060.05
0.110.09
118.510.42
22678.51
2470.42

Feb-05

Table 2 Macro (g/100 g DW), micro and trace elements (mg/100 g DW) of [Link] determined by ICP-OES

0.570.01

21.150.02

0.220.01

1.330.23

0.140.01

0.240.01

1.070.12

15.121.26

9.230.3

0.060.00

0.650.58

0.550.17

3.010.06

1.620.15

Feb-06

2.710.31
6.690.26
0.760.42
0.780.15
0.100.00
9.590.46
20.631.6
6.140.02
0.830.02
0.180.02
1.350.04
0.550.06
24.670.02
0.750.03
1.450.02
0.010.01
0.020.12
0.080.01
36.030.34
20666.03
1600.34

Apr-05

0.360.02

9.090.02

0.190.02

0.370.01

0.060.01

0.230.02

1.230.06

14.271.88

8.960.79

0.100.00

0.540.15

0.530.21

3.010.15

1.130.58

Mar-06

2.050.1
3.462.08
0.980.25
0.920.21
0.130.00
12.130.46
19.673.1
2.030.02
1.530.01
2.650.03
13.470.31
3.770.01
111.830.12
1.240.01
2.260.05
0.080.01
0.030.01
0.10.1
138.990.68
19808.99
3100.68

May-05

0.880.02

31.190.02

0.470.02

10.02

0.120.03

0.230.02

0.630.05

13.962.61

8.240.61

0.110.00

0.660.62

0.880.18

2.420.82

1.10

1.22

6.3

1.11

1.47

3.70

5.23

0.07

0.25

0.25

2.60

1.100.02

0.88

65.940.07 81.78

0.760.03

3.880.05

0.560.02

1.000.03

2.810.03

19.273.68

11.240.73

0.120.00

0.741.82

0.840.33

4.100.44

2.230.36

LSD

2.561.53
7.591.53
0.752.52
0.720.3
0.150.00
18.033.46
29.89.34
4.670.02
0.580.02
0.280.02
5.340.04
0.580.02
123.60.17
1.60.02
2.760.03
0.050.0
0.010.01
0.140.03
139.610.38
29939.61
9340.38

Aug-05

Average

2.060.25
3.50.12
0.890.16
0.890.46
0.170.00
12.180.17
19.651.16
5.650.02
0.920.02
2.140.02
13.540.01
0.650.02
64.780.01
0.690.01
1.430.02
0.070.0
0.020.01
0.080.01
89.970.15
19739.97
1160.15

July-05

1.650.38

Apr-06

2.070.17
5.210.2
0.890.06
0.760.12
0.120.00
11.840.46
20.891.01
4.560.02
1.850.02
0.160.03
1.530.03
0.380.01
27.470.25
0.790.01
1.40.02
0.050.01
0.030.01
0.080.01
38.30.42
20928.30
1010.42

June-05

J Food Sci Technol

0.62
14282.43
1880.22
15145.92
1260.45
10997.62
1120.26

13996.66
2610.24

0.210.03

78.200.35
12.430.22
25.920.45
17.620.26

36.660.24

0.050.02
0.070.01
0.050.01

0.090.01

0.06
0.040.02
0.020.01
0.030.01
0.030.0

0.040.01

1.16

0.08

1.850.04

0.050.01

0.810.02

0.020.01

1.090.01

0.010.01

1.990.03

Macronutrients,
minerals and
trace elements

1.040.01

0.020.01

Table 3 Recommended dietary allowances of macronutrients, minerals

and trace elements of K. alvarezii

0.020.03

LSD
Mar-06
Feb-06
Jan-06

Apr-06

Average

J Food Sci Technol

Recommended Dietary
Allowances per daya

Macronutrients (g)
Protein
971
Carbohydrate
60210
Fiber
1929
Fats
ND
Macro elements (mg)
Boron
<20
Calcium
2101,000
Iron
627
Magnesium
30320
Manganese
0.0032.6
Phosphorus
1001,250
Zinc
212
Microelements (g)
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Molybdenum
Mercury

50150
5.545
2001,300
250
40

Average content
per gram in K. alvarezii

0.17
0.23
0.12
0.007
0.03
8.42
0.63
7.42
0.011
1.23
0.019
10.02
38.87
7.55
43
0.46

16915.72
2460.36
19354.07
1800.30
Grand Total (mg/100 g) 21015.80
3090.04

16319.13
1940.42

0.130.01

55.720.36
139.130.42
Total

0.130.01

54.070.3

0.160.02

105.80.41

0.150.02

0.050.01
0.070.01
0.040.02
Mo

0.010.01

2.960.04
3.370.02
1.770.02
1.80.1

0.010.0
Hg

0.10.01

According to Dietary Reference Intakes (2004), Food and Nutrition

Board (1989), Recommended Daily Intakes of Various Food Supplements (2007), Concon (1988) and Phaneuf et al. (1999)

Zn

0.010.01

Dec-05
Nov-05
Oct-05
Sep-05
Mineral

Table 2 (continued)

0.020.01

mineral, ash and heavy metal content in any seaweed before

recommending its use in food formulation. In the USA, algal
products have to comply with the following maximum limits:
45 % ash, 40 ppm heavy metals (Dietary Reference Intakes
2004). In the present study the Cu + Zn content ranged from
1.47 to 4.31 mg/100 g DW, which is below the toxic limits
permitted for macroalgae for human consumption (OrtegaCalvo et al. 1993). Indegaard and Ostgaard (1991) suggested
incorporation of algal products in the daily diet of adults, and
recommend intake values of some trace elements (Fe: 10
18 mg, Zn: 15 mg, Mn: 2.55 mg and Cu: 23 mg. 100 g dry
weight). Table 3 provides a comparison of the various recommended dietary allowances of macronutrients, minerals and
trace elements and their presence in K. alvarezii (1 g); as
elucidated this seaweed indeed qualifies to be incorporated
as a food ingredient.
Based on the study conducted herein, it could be stated that
K. alvarezii could be an excellent source of essential macronutrients and minerals, therefore, it could probably compensate for the frequently low minerals content of food; moreover,
it also comprises significant quantities of protein and fiber.
Hence, it could be preferentially used as an essential valueadded food supplement or spice to the vegetarian or omnivorous diet.

J Food Sci Technol

Conclusion
Seaweeds have been traditionally used for variegated purposes including several food applications. Studies on temporal
variations in the proximate and mineral composition of
K. alvarezii conducted herein reveal the consistent presence
of fiber and minerals (micro and macro nutrient) in this widely
cultivated seaweed, thereby suggesting its use as a potential
food supplement. K. alvarezii having high nutritional value,
could either be used in the food industry as a source of these
essential ingredients, or could be used as such for oral consumption after proper processing. However, its commercial
value could also be enhanced by improving its quality and
further increasing the probability of its use in a wider range of
novel seaweed-based products. Nevertheless, it could definitely be incorporated into various animal and pet food products
as a vital value additive supplement.
Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to Dr. Pushpito Ghosh,
Director, Central Salt & Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, Gujarat, India for his constant support and encouragement. They also
appreciate Discipline Coordinator, Marine Biotechnology and Ecology
Discipline, for providing research facilities and profusely thank the Department of Biotechnology (Sanction No: BT/PR 3309/PID/03/139/
2002), New Delhi, India for providing financial assistance.

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