Roxl Rhyann F.
Fallore
BSChE 5
Chapter 5: Dilute Systems
5.1 Weight, drag and Particle Reynolds number
All forces must reduce to Newtons
basic equation: = . Forces either cause
particle motion in a fluid, or resist it. A force
balance can be written using all the forces
described, or some of these. The easiest force
to appreciate is the particle weight, but this is
just one example of a field force.
In a fluid, particle weight will cause an
acceleration that will be resisted by fluid drag.
When the fluid drag force is equal to the
particle weight, the motion will be uniform; no
longer accelerating and the particle will attain
its terminal settling velocity.
Figure 1. Force
balance along the
particle.
For a spherical particle, the particle weight is:
3
( 5.1)
6
However, the particle will experience an
upward force, in accordance to Archemedes
principle, which numerically is:
3
( 5.2)
6
Archemedes principle:
When a body is wholly or partially
immersed in a fluid it experiences an upthrust
equal to the weight of the fluid dispersed.
Combining eqn 5.1 and eqn 2 provides the
buoyed particle weight:
3
( ) ( 5.2)
6
Fluid drag force comes from a suitable
solution to the Navier Stokes equation.
However, this has only been achieved
analytically under conditions of no turbulence
within a fluid as shown if Figure 5.1.
Stokes drag expression:
= 3 ( 5.4)
Combining eqn 5.3 and eqn 5.4
provides an expression for terminal velocity
(Ut), called Stokes Law:
=
2 ( )
18
( 5.5)
Eqn 5.5 is only valid when the degree of
turbulence within the fluid is negligible, see
Figure 5.2. This is measured by The Particle
Reynolds number.
The Particle Reynolds number the
ration of inertial to viscous forces within the
fluid and can be expressed as:
( 5.6)
=
The threshold for streamline flow past
the particle is believed to be about 0.2.
For the case of fluid flow past a single
spherical particle, the correlation of friction
factor and Particle Reynolds Number is
illustrated in Figure 5.3.
Where the fluid drag (Fd) is:
=
( 5.8)
The projected area for the sphere is:
= 2 ( 5.9)
4
Combining equations (5.7), (5.8), and
(5.9) provides a generally valid equation for the
terminal settling velocity:
2( )
=
3
( 5.11)
Equation (5.11) can only be used to
predict terminal velocity if the value of drag
coefficient is known. Where Cd could be
expressed as:
12
=
( 5.12)
For Particle Reynolds numbers greater
than 0.2, no single and simple analytical
function equivalent to equation (5.12) can be
used. An alternative approach comes from
considering the drag coefficient further:
=
2 ( )
3 2
( 5.13)
Multiplying the Particle Reynolds
number squared results in:
2 ( ) 2 2 2
2 =
(
)
3 2
2
2 ( ) 3
=[
]
3
2
In particle settling, it is usual to use drag
coefficient (Cd), rather than friction factor, these
are related as follows:
( 5.7)
= =
2 2
(5.14)
The term in the square brackets
contains neither particle diameter, nor settling
velocity.
Likewise, dividing the Particle
Reynolds number by the drag coefficient gives:
2
3
2
= [
] 3
2 ( )
( 5.15)
Combining equations (5.14) and (5.15)
can be written as:
2
3 3
2 2
=
where both PH and QH are not
dependent upon particle size or settling
velocity. The friction factor correlation, Figure
5.3, can then be redrafted in these terms to
give Figure 5.4.
Valid for 2<Re<20000, where The
Archimedes number is closely related to
equation (5.14) and is
( ) 2 3
= [
]
( 5.18)
5.2 Other forces on particles
Field forces other than the gravitational
include:
centrifugal:
3 ( )2
( 5.18)
6
electrical
thermophoretic (due to a temperature
gradient)
thermal creep (due to greater loss of
molecules from the hotter side of a
particle)
photopheric (due to a light intensity
gradient)
Fig. 5.4 Modified drag and Reynolds
number plot
In practice, Figure 5.4 is not very easy
to use. To overcome this problem, a set of
tables was produced by Heywood, correlating
log10(PHx) against log10(Ut/QH) and vice versa.
The advantage of Heywood Tables approach,
over empirical correlations between the Particle
Reynolds number and derived function of the
drag coefficient, is that it is valid for all Particle
Reynolds numbers.
Alternative popular correlation using
Particle Reynolds number and Archimedes (Ar)
number:
= [(14.42 + 1.827 0.5 )0.5 3.798]2
(eqn 5.16)
The fluid drag force may be subject to the
mean free path correction, which is required
when the particle size is comparable to the
mean free path of the fluid. The correction to
the drag coefficient is:
1 1
]
( 5.20)
where is the mean free path length of the
= () [1 +
gas.
5.3 Particle acceleration in streamline flow
The time taken to reach a given
velocity, or fraction of terminal settling velocity
is equal to:
ln (1 ) ( 5.25)
3
Where the actual mass of the particle mp is:
=
3
6
Considering eqn 5.25, it should be apparent
that the particle will never reach its terminal
settling velocity: it asymptotes to this value.
However, most small particles that are
encountered within Particle Technology will
reach 99.9% of their terminal settling velocity
within a very short acceleration time.
Figure 5.6 Critical trajectory model for
continuous settling basin design.
The time taken to settle will be:
( 5.26)
Residence time, assuming plug flow is:
=
( 5.27)
5.5 Laboratory tests
Practical laboratory tests to reduce
settling parameters for the design of industrial
clarifiers involve short tube and long tube tests.
Figure 5.5 Time taken to reach 99.9% of
terminal settling velocity
5.4 Settling basin design (Camp-Hazen)
Figure 5.6 illustrates the principle
behind continuous settling basin design. The
feed flow enters the vessel on the left and plug
flow conditions are assumed, with treated
effluent leaving on the right of the vessel. The
particles are assumed to stick to the base and
be removed from the liquid. Hence, the vessel
design requirement is to allow sufficient
residence time within the vessel.
Figure 5.7. The long tube test
suspension is allowed to settle within
the tube for a set of time and the
contents above a sample point are
drained off.
Concentration above the sample point
is determined by weighing and drying.
1/3
Problem 1.
i). A solid and liquid has a specific gravities of
2.8 and 1.0 respectively and the liquid viscosity
is 0.001 Pa.s, the value of the function PH is
2.87E4 m-1, the value for QH is (SI units):
a. 2.87E-2 b. 2.87E4 c. 2.87 d. 0.49
Solution:
4(2800 1000)(1000)(9.82)
= [
]
3(0.001)2
= 2.87 104 1
= (2.87 104 1 )(50 106 )
= 1.435
4( ) 1/3
= [
]
32
9.82
4(2800/3 1000/3 )(0.001 )( 2 )
=[
]1/3
1000 2
3(
)
3
= 2.87 102 /
ANSWER: a. 2.87E-2
Using Heywood Tables:
log10(Ut/QH) = -1.087
= 101.087 = 0.08184647881 2 /
ii). The SI units of the function QH are:
a. m-1 b. ms-1 c. ms-2 d. sm-1
4( ) 1/3
= [
]
32
Answer: b. ms-1
iii). Use the Heywood Tables to complete the
following:
Particle
diameter
(m)
log10(PHx)
log10(Ut/QH)
10
50
100
1000
9.82
4(2800/3 1000/3 )(0.001 )( 2 )
=[
]1/3
1000 2
3(
)
3
= 2.87 102 /
Settling
velocity
(ms-1)
0.1568
-1.087
0.4578 1.458
-0.510 0.762
2.35E-3
8.869
0.166
= (
= (0.08184647881
2
102
)(2.87
)
= 2.35 103 /
Stokes Law:
Stokes
2.455Esettling
3
velocity(ms1
)
log10(PHx) against log10(Ut/QH)
Calculations:
At 50 m
9.82E3
0.982
2 ( )
18
(50 106 )(2800 1000)(9.82)
=
18(0.001)
=
= 2.455 103 /
1/3
4( )
= [
]
32
