Mathematics: understanding the score

Improving practice in mathematics teaching at secondary level

Mathematics: understanding the score

Improving practice in mathematics teaching at secondary level
In September 2008, the Ofsted report Mathematics:
understanding the score produced detailed evidence and
analysis from inspections of mathematics teaching. The
past decade has seen significant rises in standards in
mathematics for pupils of all ages, but more pupils than
at present should be reaching the higher GCSE grades.
Strategies to improve test and examination performance,
coupled with teaching that focuses heavily on preparation
for the qualifications, does not equip pupils for their
futures. It is vitally important to shift from a narrow
emphasis on disparate skills towards a focus on pupils
mathematical understanding.
The fundamental issue for teachers is how better to
develop that understanding. The essential ingredients of
effective mathematics teaching are subject knowledge
and understanding of the ways in which pupils learn
mathematics drawn together in the report as subject
expertise together with experience of using these in the
classroom. The report describes how the best teaching in
both phases is enthusiastic, knowledgeable and focuses
clearly on developing pupils understanding of important
concepts. Good assessment throughout each lesson enables
teachers to see how pupils are thinking and to adjust
teaching and learning strategies accordingly. By developing
pupils mathematical independence, teachers also equip
them for success in examinations and beyond.
The report highlights many examples of good mathematics
teaching and weaker practice. With this in mind Ofsted has
produced this booklet to help teachers in providing the best
possible opportunities for all pupils.

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What are the essentials of good mathematics teaching?

The following table does not define what constitutes good or satisfactory teaching, but shows the difference between
good and satisfactory features. Teaching that encompasses most of the good features may well be outstanding. Similarly,
the cumulative effect of many weaker features can slow pupils progress.

Features of good mathematics teaching

Features of satisfactory mathematics teaching

Meeting needs and addressing misconceptions

Teaching successfully focuses on each pupil learning.

Teaching successfully focuses on teaching some content.

Teachers monitor all pupils understanding throughout the

lesson, recognising quickly when pupils already understand
the work or what their misconceptions might be, for
example, circulating to check all have started correctly, to
spot errors and extend thinking.

Pupils generally complete some correct work but the

teacher does not recognise when some pupils are stuck,
have made errors or already understand the work, for
example the teacher moves on too quickly or does not
circulate to check so gives answers or methods when
pupils have already done the work correctly.

The teacher listens carefully and interprets pupils

comments correctly, building on pupils contributions,
questions and misconceptions to aid learning, flexibly
adapting to meet needs and confidently departing
from plans.

The lesson features competent questioning but the

teacher is focused more on what has been asked than
on the information about understanding that pupils
responses or lack of responses offers; misses opportunities
to respond to needs, for example, does not build on errors
or pupils comments that they are stuck, and sticks too
closely to plans.

Work challenges higher and lower attainers, as well as

middle attainers, because it is informed by teachers
knowledge of pupils learning; for example, through
setting different work for different groups, or encouraging
pupils capable of doing so to improve their explanations or
use more efficient methods.

Pupils complete some correct work that extends or

consolidates their competence but does not stretch
the high attainers or support the low attainers well; for
example, pupils are given challenging work only if they
finish many routine questions quickly or the numbers
used in a problem create barriers to the concept for
lower attainers.

The plenary extends learning and meets the needs

identified during the lesson.

The plenary draws the lesson to an orderly close.

Understanding concepts and explaining reasoning

Lesson objectives involve understanding.

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Mathematics: understanding the score

Lesson objectives are procedural, such as descriptions of

work to be completed, or are general, such as broad topic
areas.

Features of good mathematics teaching

Features of satisfactory mathematics teaching

Lesson activities are structured around key concepts

and misconceptions, so that carrying out the activities
enhances understanding; for example, involving pupils in
developing suitable methods to solve problems, selecting
questions carefully from exercises. Pupils can explain why
a method works and solve again a problem they solved a
few weeks earlier.

There is a successful focus on developing skills and

obtaining correct answers rather than enhancing
understanding; such as providing examples which do
not illustrate why the method works, or doing questions
identical to worked examples, too many of which are
similar and are not carefully selected. These skills may be
short-lived so pupils cannot answer questions which they
have completed correctly a few weeks earlier.

Work requires thinking and reasoning and enables pupils

to compare approaches.

Methods are clearly conveyed by teachers and used

accurately by pupils; pupils rely on referring to examples,
formulae or rules rather than understanding or
remembering them.

Practical, discussion and ICT work enhance understanding,

for example, using demonstration and mental visualisation
of shapes being rotated, with pairs deciding which method
gives the correct answer and why.

Practical, discussion and ICT work is motivating and

enables pupils to reach correct answers but is superficial
and not structured well enough to enhance their
understanding, such as unfocused pair work on a book
exercise, group tasks where the highest attainer does all
the work or free choice of hands-on ICT.

Pupils give explanations of their reasoning as well as their

methods.

Questioning is clear and accurate but does not require

explanation or reasoning; pupils describe the steps
in their method accurately but do not explain why it
works; for example, discussion activities enable pupils to
share approaches but do not ensure they explain their
reasoning.

Pupils spend enough time working to develop their

understanding.

Teachers give effective exposition that enables pupils

to complete work correctly but restricts the time they
have to develop their understanding through their own
work; for example, teachers talk for too long, pupils spend
too long copying examples, notes or questions, or
drawing diagrams.

Good use of subject knowledge capitalises on

opportunities to extend understanding, such as through
links to other subjects, more complex situations or more
advanced mathematics.

Any small slips or vagueness in use of subject knowledge

do not prevent pupils from making progress.

Teachers introduce new terms and symbols meaningfully,

they expect and encourage correct use; pupils
and teachers use mathematical vocabulary and
notation fluently.

Teachers introduce new terms and symbols accurately and

demonstrate correct spelling.

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Features of good mathematics teaching

Features of satisfactory mathematics teaching

Lesson forms clear part of a developmental sequence and

pupils recognise links with earlier work, different parts of
mathematics or contexts for its use.

Lesson stands alone adequately but links are superficial,

for example, pupils know it is lesson two of five on a
topic but not how it builds on lesson one. Contexts
or applications are mentioned without indicating how
the mathematics may be used in a way the pupils can
understand.

Non-routine problems, open-ended tasks and

investigations are used often by all pupils to develop the
broader mathematical skills of problem solving, reasoning
and generalising.

Typical lessons consist of routine exercises that develop

skills and techniques adequately but pupils have few
opportunities to develop reasoning, problem solving and
investigatory skills, or only the higher attainers are given
such opportunities.

Involving all pupils

Pupils exude enjoyment and involvement in the lesson.

Pupils enjoy making progress in an ordered environment.

Teachers ensure all pupils participate actively in wholeclass activity, such as through using mini whiteboards in
ways which involve all, or partner discussions.

Questioning and whole-class activities are pitched

appropriately but do not involve all pupils actively, for
example, few hands up, questions directed to few pupils,
some not attempting written tasks, mini whiteboards held
up whenever pupils are ready so not all give answers or
some copy from others.

Respect is conveyed for pupils contributions so that many

offer right and wrong comments.

Few pupils offer responses to whole-class questions

although their work is generally correct.

Pupils naturally listen to and respond to each others

comments showing engagement with them.

Pupils listen to the teachers and pupils contributions and

respond to them when asked to.

Developing independence in learning and assessment

Pupils develop independence by recognising when
their solutions are correct and persevering to overcome
difficulties because they expect to be able to solve
problems; the teachers interventions support them in
estimating and checking for themselves and in raising
their confidence; pupils take responsibility for following up
teachers comments on their work and seek to understand
where they have gone wrong.

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Mathematics: understanding the score

Pupils produce generally correct work through support

that does not develop independence in solving complete
problems, such as through providing answers too readily
or breaking down the problem so much that pupils do
not know why the sequence of steps was chosen; for
example, pupils do not attempt hard questions and wait
for answers to be read out or check them from the answer
book, or focus unduly on obtaining correct answers so
amend wrong answers unthinkingly when the correct
ones are read out, or ask for help at each step and are
given directed steps to take rather than interventions that
encourage thinking and confidence that they can succeed.

Features of good mathematics teaching

Features of satisfactory mathematics teaching

Teachers and pupils have a good grasp of what all pupils

have learnt judged against criteria that they understand,
not necessarily against learning objectives or targets;
this is shown through pupil discussion, reflection, oral or
written summaries or explanations, and ascertained by the
teachers monitoring throughout the lesson; for example,
both teacher and pupil assess whether the pupil can
explain why the formula for the area of a rectangle works.

Teachers and pupils make some accurate assessment of

learning; for example, the teacher correctly reflects in a
plenary what many pupils have achieved, pupils make an
impressionistic assessment of their learning, such as using
traffic lights or against a generic lesson title like solving
equations.

Teachers marking identifies errors and underlying

misconceptions and helps pupils to overcome difficulties,
for example, by setting clear targets to which pupils
respond and teachers check against.

Accurate marking by the teacher provides pupils with

feedback; important work has been marked by pupils or
teacher.

Pupils are clear about what they are expected to learn in

the lesson and how to show evidence of this.

Pupils complete correct work and are aware of the lesson

objectives but they are not clear about which ones pertain
to them, what they mean, or what they need to do to
meet them, for example, when objectives are phrased in
terms of all, most and some pupils without indicating
which pupils; when objectives are written down but
pupils do not understand their meaning by the end of
the lesson; when a large quantity of questions are set
and pupils do not know how they relate to the objectives;
or when pupils do not have an attainable target to work
towards.

Teaching assistants know the pupils well, are well briefed

on the concepts and expected misconceptions, and
provide support throughout the lesson that enhances
thinking and independence.

Teaching assistants facilitate the production of correct

work, but may not be active throughout the lesson and
may provide support that leads pupils through so many
small steps that independence is not encouraged.

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In practice
The following examples give some illustration of the prime
and weaker aspects of teaching of mathematics in
secondary schools.
The best teaching was rooted in developing pupils
understanding of key concepts. It was inclusive in terms
of ensuring that all pupils made substantial progress,
no matter what their starting points. In the outstanding
lessons, the teachers had high expectations of pupils
enjoyment and achievement. They made conscious efforts
to foster a spirit of enquiry, developing pupils reasoning
skills through approaches that saw problem-solving and
investigation as integral to learning mathematics. They
checked that everyone was challenged to think hard and
they adapted how they were teaching to achieve this. As a
result, their classrooms were vibrant places of learning.

Many pupils describe a lack of variety in their mathematics

lessons, with typical lessons concentrating on the
acquisition of skills, solution of routine exercises, and
preparation for tests and examinations. They seem to accept
that this is what learning mathematics should be like. When
asked by inspectors, most pupils recognised the difference
between just getting answers right and understanding the
work. Nevertheless, many of those observed in lessons
were content to have the right answers in their books when
they did not know how to arrive at them. They frequently
replicated steps in a method without thinking and
sometimes altered answers, or waited until the teacher read
them out before writing them down.

Prime practice: teaching for understanding

This Year 9 lesson on the volume of cylinders enabled pupils to improve their estimation skills greatly and to understand
the formula to find volume.
First, each pupil wrote an estimate for the volume of a
tea candle that was on their desk. These estimates were
generally far below the actual volume. The teacher then
used a demonstration on the interactive whiteboard,
checking very carefully that everyone could interpret
the two-dimensional representation of circular layers
gradually building up and could explain how the formula
for the volume linked to their previous knowledge.
Pupils worked in pairs with everyday objects that were
well chosen for their dimensions, making measurements
and calculating volumes. In doing this, they became

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Mathematics: understanding the score

much clearer about the size of a cubic centimetre,

estimating how many would fit into an object. At the end
of this very well organised lesson, pupils were much more
accurate in estimating the volume of the tea candle by
eye and most were very surprised that it was many more
cubic centimetres than they had initially estimated.
The planning of the lesson had skilfully brought about a
mismatch between the pupils initial estimates and the
actual volume. This added greatly to their learning as their
surprise deepened their thinking and led to discussion
about why the two amounts differed.

Weaker factors: doing well but without

understanding
A pupil correctly calculated the areas of circles of radius
5cm and 7cm, by applying the standard formula A=r 2.
When the inspector asked her whether it was
reasonable that the second area was nearly twice as
much as the first, she immediately assumed her answer
must be wrong, as she was not used to being asked
to interpret her answers. After further discussion, it
became clear that she had learnt how to use the formula
to calculate the area of a circle as a number, but could
not say what was meant by the area of a circle. The few
circles drawn in her book were all the same size. She had
learnt a method to obtain answers to a problem she did
not understand.

Many pupils meet mathematical ideas one at a time and

therefore do not appreciate the links within mathematics
at all levels. For example, pupils who can shade in of a
shape often have difficulty placing on the number line;
they do not think of it as a number. Good teaching ensures
that these important connections are forged, but the most
effective teachers enable the pupils to make the links for
themselves.

Prime practice: making links within

mathematics
A sixth-form further mathematics lesson in which
students investigated properties of 2x2 matrices of
the form:
a
-b

b
a

Guided by the teacher, the students found that each

matrix
represented
an enlargement of scale factor

r = a2 + b2 with rotation by about the origin,

where r cos = a, r sin = b. They established that the
matrices had the same properties as complex numbers of
form a+ib, and that the set formed a group and a ring.
They therefore found links across the three topics of
matrices, complex numbers and algebraic structure.

How might it be improved?

The pupils understanding would have been better if the
teacher had:
n
established at the beginning how well each pupil

understood the concept of area
n
provided experience of finding the areas of shapes

drawn to their actual size
n
used pupils previous knowledge about areas of

shapes to approximate the area of a circle, for
example by sandwiching it between squares
and/or polygons.
Understanding would also have been strengthened if
the pupil had been asked the sorts of questions that
would have made her think about what she was learning
and how to interpret results.

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Teachers who have effective subject expertise know how

to structure learning in ways that allow pupils to connect
apparently different topics, and build on their earlier
learning.

Prime practice: the mathematical progression

of ideas
A Year 7 lesson introducing the calculation of
probabilities.
A teacher, realising that probability is a difficult
idea for many pupils, had made sure that pupils were
used to marking fractions and decimals on a number
line before they met the idea of the probability scale.
He emphasised the need to consider equally likely
outcomes in calculating probabilities through groups
of three pupils playing a game which was based on the
number of heads obtained from spinning two coins. At
each turn, the player whose number came up scored a
point. The pupils quickly learnt that this game was not
fair. They realised that there were four equally likely
outcomes (tail-tail, tail-head, head-tail, head-head)
rather than three (0, 1, 2 heads) and that this was why 1
head was more likely than either 0 or 2 heads.

More typically, pupils complete questions on calculating

probabilities, for example, There are five red and three
white balls in a bag. What is the probability of obtaining
a red ball?, but do not connect this to work on marking
probability estimates on a number line.

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Mathematics: understanding the score

In the secondary lessons observed, the most prevalent style was one where the teacher demonstrated a new mathematical
method which pupils then practised. When this approach was used well, teachers developed pupils understanding of
why the method worked through explanations and activities. They selected a suitable range of questions so that pupils
developed the necessary breadth of skills and understanding of the applicability of the method. In weaker lessons, pupils
were expected to memorise and apply the method.

Weaker factors: learning without understanding

In a Year 9 lesson, pupils learnt how to plot straight-line graphs but without appreciating the relationship between
coordinate pairs and the equation of the graph, and with little idea how to interpret the gradient in terms of the slope.
The teacher showed the pupils how to substitute three
values for x in an equation such as y = 2x 3 to obtain
three pairs of coordinates. Pupils plotted the three points
and joined them with a straight line. They rarely extended
the line beyond these three points. A few pupils had
difficulty because they did not realise that the numbers
on the axes needed to be regularly spaced, and this led
to dog-leg graphs rather than perfectly straight lines. The
teacher had not checked quickly all pupils work to ensure
they had scaled their axes appropriately or to point out
the problem resulting from not doing so.
While pupils drew a selection of such graphs, the
inspector asked some of them which other points were
on the line. Most recognised only those where the line

segment they had drawn passed through a point on

the grid. They did not appreciate that the straight line
consists of all points with coordinates (x,y) that fit the
equation and no others, a principle that underpins much
future graph-related work.
Some pupils could identify the gradient in the formula
because they had been told it was the coefficient of x,
but not by looking at the graph. These pupils had no
concept of what gradient meant in terms of slope. They
could usually determine the intercept from memory as the
constant term in the formula, but could not explain why
it was necessary to put x = 0 into the equation to find the
intercept on the y axis.

How might it be improved?

Inaccuracies in pupils work could have been spotted
quite easily, if the teacher had checked the work
throughout the lesson, looking especially at axes to pick
up on errors in spacing and at the line segments drawn to
check for position, straightness and length.
For better learning, the teacher might:

n 
focus more on the meaning of gradient and how
it might be read directly from the graph as the
increment in y for unit increment in x.
Learning could be extended by asking pupils what lines
might be parallel to y = 2x 3, or how could they use it to
draw the lines with equations y = 4x 3 and y = -2x 3?

n 
pose questions to check understanding, for example,
whether points such as (5.5, 8), (-10, -17), (3, 2),
(100, 197) lie on the line with equation y = 2x 3

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In the most effective lessons, teachers often presented new

topics by challenging pupils to apply their mathematics
to solve problems, drawing ideas from them and using
probing questions to gauge their initial understanding
and develop it. They sequenced learning carefully, helping
pupils to make links to related areas of mathematics.
The teachers listened to pupils carefully and observed
their work throughout the lesson, aiming to identify any
misconceptions or barriers to understanding.

Prime practice: an interesting approach to a

new topic
This lesson was a challenging introduction to threedimensional applications of Pythagoras theorem for a
top set of Year 10 pupils. The approach enabled pupils
to see how their existing knowledge of two-dimensional
Pythagoras theorem might be extended to the new
three-dimensional context.
The teacher provided models of a cuboid and a
square-based pyramid made from straws. She asked
the pupils to find the length of the diagonal of the
cuboid and the height of the pyramid. After briefly
inviting questions, she let the pupils get on with the
task, circulating around the classroom to ensure they
were all on a fruitful track. She intervened only if
pupils appeared stuck when, by asking questions, she
ascertained their thinking and moved it on. She did not
steer pupils, at any stage, towards a particular method.
This was a successful approach with alternative methods
arising, which she discussed with the whole class later in
the lesson.
In such circumstances, pupils become confident learners
as they develop skills in articulating their thinking about
mathematics. They learn to make sense of ideas, and
reason and justify their methods and solutions because
discussion is a regular feature. Learning is therefore active
and cumulative; they make good progress because they
make connections with their existing knowledge and
understanding.

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Mathematics: understanding the score

Prime practice: pupils persevering

This was a lesson on constructing triangles for lowattaining Year 10 pupils, who discovered for themselves
why pairs of compasses are needed for constructing
some triangles: it became a meaningful problem.
(More usually, pupils are guided through the standard
construction. As a result, they do not necessarily realise
that to draw the triangle accurately without compasses
is not possible.)
The pupils were asked to draw triangles of given
dimensions for the three sides. They had access to
rulers, pencils, protractors and pairs of compasses.
They tried to carry out the task; the teacher gave
them no extra advice or support at that stage. After
10 minutes, the pupils were concerned that they could
draw two sides with the correct length but not the
third. In essence, they had discovered the problem
with the construction. One pupil used the compasses
to draw some arcs but could not see how he could
complete the triangle. The teacher used this pupils
ideas, demonstrating to the class what he had done, and
asking them to think how it could help them. Again they
worked in groups and, gradually, pupils were able to use
the compasses effectively to draw the triangles. The fact
that they had persevered with the task until they found
the method, and realised the reason for it, gave them a
very good understanding of how to draw triangles when
the lengths of the three sides were given.
Most teachers establish clear routines and pupils pay
attention to their explanations. A common shortcoming,
however, is that teachers do not give sufficient attention
to whether all the pupils have understood the work. Errors
or misconceptions are not always exposed: some pupils
get the answers from their peers, others alter their answers
to the stated correct ones, and some do not progress far
through the exercise. Some teachers refer frequently to how
the work relates to examination requirements, which can be
helpful for the pupils, but they do not monitor the quality
of the learning or assess whether the work makes sense to
the pupils.

Weaker factors: learning without understanding

A Year 10 lesson on finding the fraction of an amount. The teacher had a clear view of the types of question pupils
needed to be able to do to be successful in the foundation tier of the GCSE examinations.
The teacher showed the pupils how to calculate of
10.80 by dividing by 4 and multiplying by 3. He did
not explain why. One pupil called out, offering her own
method. The teacher discouraged her, but she insisted
on telling him, even though he didnt want to know that
You halve it, then halve it again, and add the two halves
together. She probably meant that she would add the
first to the halved half, , to make but the teacher
did not pick up on this clue. Instead he repeated his
method of dividing by the denominator and multiplying
by the numerator, all as one calculation.
When pupils tackled similar questions, many of them
reached the right answers, but none of the pupils to
whom the inspector spoke could explain why they were

dividing by the denominator and multiplying by the

numerator. Some pupils could understand why dividing
by the denominator gave one part and, coaxed for the
answer, why they would then multiply by the numerator.
The teacher moved around the classroom while pupils
worked steadily through the exercise, helping those who
were stuck by demonstrating the same method again.
Discussing the lesson afterwards with the inspector, the
teacher could see how he had emphasised the technique
without any reference to understanding. He commented
to the inspector the next day that the discussion had
made him reflect critically on the methods he often used
in his teaching.

How might it be improved?

A different starting point would have been to use an easy
example that pupils could do in their heads, say of 20
or 10, and then probe how they worked it out. Listening
to their responses could provide insights into their
thinking, and the teacher could use their explanations as
the starting point for developing a method.

Learning would have been better if pupils had been

enabled to make the connection between finding the
fraction, , of something and dividing it by 4 to give four
equal parts. Practical equipment might help, although
most pupils find money easy to understand.

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By practising only one method at a time, pupils do not gain the confidence and intellectual flexibility they need. This can
fragment the subject, because it is presented as a collection of apparently arbitrary rules for memorising. The rules can be
incomplete or confusing.

Weaker factors: unhelpful rules

Teachers usually introduce rules to help pupils remember
results or steps in methods. However, few are always
true and many are never fully developed so that
pupils understand the context of a rule. Here are three
examples.
(a) To multiply by 10 you add a nought
but 3.4 10 3.40
Discussion about place value is the most powerful
way of tackling multiplying by 10.
(b) Always measure from the end of the ruler but this
doesnt always work, and is a common mistake
young pupils make when learning to measure.
Another error is that they measure from 1 on the
scale.
The emphasis should be placed on measuring from 0,
which is often at the end of a tape measure but the
scale on most rulers starts a little way in from the end
of the ruler.
(c) Two minuses make a plus -5 -3 = +15 but
-5 + -3 +8.
This rule is an inaccurate simplification of a
generalisation. Incorrectly applied rules on signs
and operations are the source of many errors for
secondary pupils in work on number and algebra,
usually because the rule is learned without
understanding and they do not take into account the
different contexts of the operations of multiplication
and addition, and the positive and negative states.

How might it be improved?

Where it is considered that rules might be useful, they
should be unambiguous and developed with the pupils.
The unthinking use of rules should be discouraged.

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Mathematics: understanding the score

The lack of development of using and applying

mathematics is a prime reason why pupils understanding
of mathematics lags behind their proficiency in executing
techniques and recalling facts. Some mathematics
departments are introducing approaches that focus more
on pupils learning; for example, starting lessons with
tasks or problems that make pupils think, and encouraging
discussion. More generally, teachers need support and
guidance in planning, teaching and assessing using
and applying mathematics and, thereby, in teaching for
understanding.

Prime practice: teaching mathematical thinking

The context of this Year 9 problem-solving lesson was a series of questions about the number of permutations of letters
in different names, such as LUCY, ALI or WAYNE.
Rather than show pupils the standard formula, the
teacher provided them with an opportunity to find their
own solutions. This was not as haphazard as it might
seem, because he also had a very clear idea about which
kinds of thinking he wanted to encourage and the point
he wanted pupils to move towards. This type of problem
solving might be characterised as open in the middle
rather than open-ended.
The lesson objectives were Pupils will learn: the value of
working systematically to solve problems; to refine their
understanding of the methods they develop; to refine
their oral and written explanations of their methods; and
the value of reducing a problem to a simpler case.
For much of the lesson, the teachers role was to listen to
pupils explaining their ideas, to encourage and nurture
any systematic thinking, and to intervene with additional
problems when appropriate. Mini-plenaries were used
as appropriate to encourage pupils to share their ideas
with the class, draw out key ideas that emerged and

stimulate further thought about variations on the

original problem. By the end of the lesson, most pupils
had worked out that the number of permutations of n
distinct letters would be n! = 1 2 3 n. More
importantly, they understood the importance of making
systematic lists and therefore understood in a concrete
sense the recursive nature of the solution: that a fiveletter word could begin with any of the five letters,
followed by any of the 24 permutations of the other
four letters, giving 5 24 = 120, and that 24 arose as 4
(starting letters) 6 (ways of arranging the other three
letters), and 6 as 3 2, and so on.
Variations of the problem were held in reserve, such as
EMMA, ANN, GEMMA and DONALD, leading to the
generalised problem of counting permutations when some
letters repeat. Many pupils recognised that having two
letters the same halved the number of possibilities and
that having three letters the same reduced the number
further, but realised that this needed more thought.

The following example illustrates how good expertise enables mathematical correctness to underpin explanations without
making the ideas inaccessible. It pays attention to detail and is precise.

Prime practice: mathematical correctness

A Year 7 lesson on the sum of the angles in a triangle.
The teacher started the lesson by rehearsing what
pupils knew about the angle properties of intersecting
and parallel lines. Pupils were expected to recall facts
about vertically opposite, corresponding, alternate and
supplementary angles. Pupils could explain that vertically
opposite angles had to be equal because they were both
supplementary to the same angle (totalling 180 degrees
together).
Pupils cut out triangles and tore off the corners, but each
pupil had a different triangle, and all were pasted onto a
class poster. The teacher elicited from them a proof that

the angles of a triangle are supplementary by drawing

a line through a vertex parallel to the opposite side of
a triangle and encouraging them to apply their existing
knowledge.

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Too many secondary pupils expect to find learning

mathematics difficult and seem to accept that this is so.
They know the difference between being proficient at
carrying out techniques and understanding the underlying
mathematical ideas. They recognise that they often learn
methods by following teachers illustrative examples
and working through many exercises, obtaining correct
answers without really understanding why. Some pupils

quite like the security of being given rules and structured

methods, but tend to become dependent on them and,
in turn, on their teachers. Many pupils refer frequently
to prompts provided by the teacher about how to carry
out a technique, but such methods, memorised without
understanding, often later become confused or forgotten,
and subsequent learning becomes insecure. Moreover, such
an approach fragments the mathematics curriculum.

Weaker factors: right answers but insecure learning

A Year 8 lesson in which pupils learnt a method for solving simple equations of the form 2x + 5 = 13 and 5x 7 = 8 but
with superficial understanding. Although the technique was initially demonstrated correctly, pupils thinking was not
developed in a way that would support further learning.
The teacher demonstrated correctly the technique of
adding to or subtracting from each side of the equation
to create a simpler equation, such as 2x = 8 and 5x = 15,
and then dividing by the coefficient of x. Pupils were
set an exercise with around 20 similar questions. The
teacher gave help as needed until most had answered
several questions. The answers were read out and pupils
gave themselves a mark out of 20, with many scoring full
marks.
Noticing that every question had the same format,
and that several pupils had omitted their working, the
inspector tried out some variations with a few pupils.
These pupils tackled 3 + 18x = 42 with confidence. When

asked to explain how they arrived at their (incorrect)

answer of x = 8, they said they had subtracted 18 and
divided by 3. Their choices were based on the position
of the numbers 3 and 18 in the equation, and not their
meaning.
By setting all questions in the same format, pupils took
a short cut to the answers and did not think about the
method they had originally been taught. Critically, the
teacher gained a false impression of pupils learning,
believing they could now solve simple equations, whereas
this was in fact restricted to a particular subset of such
equations. Pupils could not extend their approach to any
other equations.

How might it be improved?

To improve learning in this lesson the teacher, when first
demonstrating the method, could have checked that
pupils understood each step by selecting examples in
which the positions of the numbers within the equations

16
Mathematics: understanding the score

varied. Following this by independent work that included

a range of equations would allow any misconceptions to
be exposed. Insisting on good presentation of solutions
would help reinforce the need for logical thinking.

Sometimes, teachers do not assess the extent of pupils

difficulty accurately. Typically, the teacher asks a question,
very few hands go up, a selected pupil answers it well,
and the teacher assumes that all the class knows and
understands. Actually, the pupils books and discussions
indicate that many are unclear.

Weaker factors: teachers not circulating

A lesson starter in which the teacher was unaware that
pupils progress was very variable.
A low-attaining Year 7 class was given a worksheet as
a quick lesson starter. It contained several questions of
the form 400 + 300 = 600 +
The teacher did not circulate to check anyones work
so did not realise that some pupils had written 1,300
and attempted the remaining questions incorrectly
as additions. While some pupils finished very quickly,
others had managed only a few questions. The speed of
responses showed that the pupils who already knew how
to do this work were not extended and those who did
not know gained little benefit.

How might it be improved?

If the teacher had moved around the class quickly
checking pupils first answers, or used mini whiteboards
for the starter activity, he would have identified those
pupils who were making the mistake of adding the three
numbers. Continuing to circulate as pupils worked would
show the teacher who was struggling and who was not
challenged by the task.
Learning may have been better if the questions had
been tailored to pupils prior attainment, perhaps
through two or three worksheets at different levels of
challenge.

At some stage, most teachers are asked questions by

pupils about the usefulness of what is being taught.
Many feel uncomfortable with these, especially with more
abstract concepts, often resorting to answering, Its on the
syllabus. Few talk about specific applications or explain the
power of being able to think mathematically.

Prime practice: applications of mathematics

A teachers response to Why do we have to learn
algebra? What use will it be?
The teacher reminded the pupils that algebra is
important in science because formulae are needed
to express the laws of science; spreadsheets use
algebraic formulae and are a very powerful tool used
by thousands of businesses; and computer graphics
require complicated algebraic methods to make sure
that objects are portrayed correctly. He also pointed
out the power of algebraic notation as a means of
communicating within mathematics.

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The range of pupils errors and misconceptions when they

learn algebra means that their written work on algebraic
topics is an important source of clues to their thinking.
The best teachers focus on pupils errors as a learning
point. They spot the significant misconceptions which are
illuminated by pupils mistakes. Skilful teachers select a
range of questions for the pupils to tackle, making sure that
all pupils are challenged and each is exposed to potential
misconceptions.

Prime practice: the need for diagnostic

marking
A teachers views on the importance of marking pupils
work on collecting like terms in algebra.
In the lesson, the teacher developed an activity for
pupils adapted from a National Strategy training pack.
She provided plenty of graduated practice that gradually
introduced complications such as negative terms.
Her explanation to the pupils emphasised that terms
could be added and subtracted in any order, provided
that positive terms stay positive and negatives stay
negative. She explained that many pupils had trouble
with this topic, and that she used a specific range of
questions to enable the different types of error to be
revealed. Because they would need this skill often in
later work, she would mark the work herself to identify
any misconceptions.

Although most secondary teachers recognise the

importance of pedagogic skills in mathematics, they often
comment on the pressures of external assessments on them
and their pupils. Feeling constrained by these pressures
and by time, many concentrate on approaches they believe
prepare pupils for tests and examinations, in effect,
teaching to the test. This practice is widespread and is a
significant barrier to improvement.

18
Mathematics: understanding the score

Weaker factors: poor use of subject expertise

A Year 8 lesson following homework on collecting like
terms in algebra. Although the teacher realised that
the pupils had had difficulty with the homework, the
teachers subsequent approach was unhelpful because
it was not mathematically precise and compounded
existing misconceptions.
In the starter activity, pupils took turns to go to the
interactive whiteboard to match equivalent algebraic
expressions by collecting like terms. The examples
involved positive terms only. Pupils then marked their
homework on the same topic, the teacher reading out
answers. When it became apparent that several had
not completed the homework, the teacher amended
his lesson to explain the topic again, using the imagery
of counting apples, bananas, and so on. When one
question involved both c (cats) and c2, the teacher
stretched the imagery, saying c2 is different to c. It
is like a cat with two black ears. Despite the bizarre
imagery, pupils were eventually able to complete the
homework. However, the idea that algebraic terms
represent objects is unhelpful; indeed such a method
reinforces this misconception.

How might it be improved?

The teacher might have found it useful to have marked
this homework himself.
An approach to collecting like terms that generalises
arithmetic would be more powerful mathematically;
for instance two 7s added to three 7s makes five 7s
might help with 2c + 3c = 5c , and 72 is clearly
different from 7.

The interactive whiteboard features in many, but not all,

secondary classrooms, bringing positives and negatives
to teaching and learning. Good practice includes the
use of high-quality diagrams and relevant software to
support learning through, for example, construction of
graphs or visualisation of transformations. However, too
often teachers use whiteboards simply for PowerPoint
presentations with no interaction by the pupils.

Prime practice: ICT

Use of the interactive whiteboard and internet to scale a
picture from very tiny to extremely large.
A Year 7 class, working on scales, was shown a
website using the interactive whiteboard where a
picture was scaled from 10-16 metres to 1016 metres, that
is, 10,000,000,000,000,000 metres. The pupils were
amazed; they became animated and excited, discussing
the effect of scaling by powers of 10. The teacher posed
questions, asking pupils, in pairs, to describe and explain
their thinking. Some presented this from the front of
the class with their peers critically appraising it in a lively
discussion.

Some of the reports examples of primary mathematics

lessons are pertinent to secondary mathematics teaching.
In both phases, good curricular planning provides pupils
with opportunities to apply mathematics to a variety of
interesting tasks, enabling them to choose approaches
and reason and refine their thinking in the light of
their solutions. Teachers encourage pupils to discuss
mathematical problems in depth and this helps to build
their confidence. In a primary school where developing
pupils understanding was promoted effectively, pupils were
confident in thinking aloud and were not afraid to have
their mistakes used to help others.

Prime practice: discussion

An interesting approach to ratio and proportion with
Year 6 pupils with lots of discussion.
The teacher engaged pupils throughout the lesson
by incorporating many activities and encouraging
discussion and argument in pairs until an answer was
agreed. A reverse approach to solving problems was
effective in getting pupils to think about clarity of
expression. The teacher put one cup of fruit juice and
two cups of water in a jug and one cup of fruit juice
and three cups of water into another jug. The contents
of both jugs were poured into a bowl, which, by then,
contained 2,800ml of the mixture.
The teacher posed the question: how many millilitres of
fruit juice are in the bowl? Pupils worked in pairs with
jottings on mini whiteboards. Many struggled at first,
argued with each other, but eventually worked out that
2/ of the mixture would be juice. Pupils were then asked
7
to write a question, in words not just numbers, to match
the problem they had just solved. As the lesson went on,
middle-attaining pupils in the group completed more,
similar questions and higher-attaining pupils were given
some that required much deeper thinking.

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