KnowledgeandPracticeStandardsforTeachersofReading

InternationalDyslexiaAssociation

ExecutiveSummary

ReadingDifficulties,IncludingDyslexia,AreVeryCommon
[Link]
readandwriteisnotnaturaloreasyformanyifnotmoststudents,especiallythosewithdyslexiaandrelated
languageproblems.TheNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgressconsistentlyfindsthatabout36%ofall
fourthgradersreadataleveldescribedasbelowbasic.Between15and20%ofyoungstudentsaredoomedto
academicfailurebecauseofreadingandlanguageprocessingweaknesses,unlessthoseweaknessesare
recognizedearlyandtreatedskillfully.Another2030%areatriskforinadequatereadingandwriting
development,[Link]
forspecialeducationservicesandaredependentontheinstructiongivenintheregularclassroomorother
[Link],ofthosestudentswhoarereferredtospecialeducationservicesinpublic
schools,approximately85%arehavingseveredifficultieswithlanguage,reading,[Link],
responsibilityforteachingreadingandwritingmustbesharedbyclassroomteachers,readingspecialists,and
specialeducationpersonnel.

EffectiveInstructionIsKey
Althoughdyslexiaandrelatedreadingandlanguageproblemsmayoriginatewithneurobiological
differences,[Link],
especiallyintheearlygrades,canpreventoratleasteffectivelyaddressandlimittheseverityofreadingand
[Link],ifnot
[Link],intensiveinstruction,allbutthemost
severereadingdisabilitiescanbeamelioratedintheearlygradesandstudentscangetontracktowardacademic
[Link]
class,competentinterventionfromaspecialistcanlessentheimpactofthedisorderandhelpthestudent
overcomeandmanagethemostdebilitatingsymptoms.

Whatisthenatureofeffectiveinstructionforstudentsatrisk?Themethodssupportedbyresearchare
thosethatareexplicit,systematic,cumulative,andmultisensory,inthattheyintegratelistening,speaking,
reading,[Link],includingthe
speechsoundsystem(phonology),thewritingsystem(orthography),thestructureofsentences(syntax),the
meaningfulpartsofwords(morphology),meaningrelationshipsamongwordsandtheirreferents(semantics),
[Link],organization,
attentiontotask,criticalthinking,[Link]
studentswithdyslexia,thesestrategiesalsoenhancethepotentialofallstudents.

AreTeachersPrepared?
Teachinglanguage,reading,andwritingeffectively,especiallytostudentsexperiencingdifficulty,
[Link],thelicensingandprofessionaldevelopmentpractices
currentlyendorsedbymanystatesareinsufficientforthepreparationandsupportofteachersandspecialists.
Researchersarefindingthatthosewithreadingspecialistandspecialeducationlicensesoftenknownomore
aboutresearchbased,[Link]
practitionersatalllevelshavenotbeenpreparedinsufficientdepthtopreventreadingproblems,torecognize
earlysignsofrisk,[Link]
teacherpreparationinreadinghaverevealedapervasiveabsenceofrichcontentandacademicrigorinmany
[Link]
typically,[Link]
alignedwithscientificresearch,[Link]
andpromotemorerigorous,meaningful,andeffectiveteacherpreparationandprofessionaldevelopment,IDA
hasadoptedthissetofknowledgeandpracticestandards.

StandardsforPractice
IDAsKnowledgeandPracticeStandardsforTeachersofReadingprovideacontentframeworkfor
[Link],theydelineateproficiencyrequirementsforpracticalapplicationof
thiscontent(e.g.,interpretationofassessments,deliveryofdifferentiatedinstruction,andsuccessful
interventionwithachildoradultwithareadingdisability).Thefirstsectionspecifieswhatallteachersofreading
shouldknowandbeabletodo,[Link]
guidelinesfortheadditionalpracticalteachingskillsnecessaryforteachingstudentswithdyslexiaandrelated
[Link]:

SECTIONI:KnowledgeandPracticeStandards
1. FoundationConceptsaboutOralandWrittenLanguageLearning
2. KnowledgeoftheStructureofLanguage
3. KnowledgeofDyslexiaandOtherLearningDisorders
4. InterpretationandAdministrationofAssessmentsforPlanningInstruction
5. StructuredLanguageTeaching:
1. Phonology
2. PhonicsandWordStudy
3. Fluent,AutomaticReadingofText
4. Vocabulary
5. TextComprehension
6. Handwriting,Spelling,WrittenExpression
6. EthicalStandardsfortheProfession


SECTIONII:GuidelinesPertainingtoSupervisedPracticeofTeachersofStudentswith
DocumentedReadingDisabilitiesorDyslexiaWhoWorkinSchool,Clinical,orPrivate
PracticeSettings
A. LevelIexpectationsforteachers.
B. LevelIIexpectationsforspecialists.

GuidanceandSupportforTeachers
Insummary,learningtoteachreading,language,[Link]
andexpertiseofteacherscanbenourishedwithtrainingthatemphasizesthestudyofreadingdevelopment,
language,[Link],teachersneedsupervisedpracticeopportunitiestobe
successful,[Link]
arebetterprepared,theimpactofreadingdifficulties,includingdyslexia,willbelessenedandmanymore
[Link]
less.

KnowledgeandPracticeStandardsfor
TeachersofReading

InternationalDyslexiaAssociation,
ProfessionalStandardsandPracticesCommittee
2010

LouisaMoats,CommitteeChair
SuzanneCarreker
RosalieDavis
PhyllisMeisel
LouiseSpearSwerling
BarbaraWilson

INTRODUCTION

PurposeofTheseStandards

TheInternationalDyslexiaAssociation(IDA)offersthesestandardstoguidethepreparation,
certification,andprofessionaldevelopmentofthosewhoteachreadingandrelatedliteracyskillsinclassroom,
remedial,[Link]
[Link]
teachingreadingshouldknowandbeabletodosothatreadingdifficulties,includingdyslexia,maybe
prevented,alleviated,[Link],thestandardsseektodifferentiateclassroomteachersfrom
therapistsorspecialistswhoarequalifiedtoworkwiththemostchallengingstudents.
Althoughprogramsthatcertifyorsupportteachers,clinicians,orspecialistsdifferintheirpreparation
methodologies,teachingapproaches,andorganizationalpurposes,theyshouldascribetoacommonsetof
[Link]
assurethepublicthatindividualswhoteachinpublicandprivateschools,aswellasthosewhoteachinclinics,
arepreparedtoimplementscientificallybasedandclinicallyprovenpractices.

Background:WhyTheseStandardsAreNecessary
[Link]
NationalAssessmentofEducationalProgressconsistentlyfindsthatabout36%ofallfourthgradersreadata
leveldescribedasbelowbasic.Between15and20%ofyoungstudentsdemonstratesignificantweaknesses
withlanguageprocesses,includingbutnotlimitedtophonologicalprocessing,thataretherootcauseofdyslexia
[Link],
approximately85%arereferredbecauseoftheirproblemswithlanguage,reading,and/[Link]
effectiveclassroominstruction,especiallyintheearlygrades,canpreventandrelievetheseverityofmanyof
[Link],
competentinterventionfromaspecialistcanlessentheimpactofthedisorderandhelpthestudentovercome
themostdebilitatingsymptoms.
Teachingreadingeffectively,especiallytostudentsexperiencingdifficulty,requiresconsiderable
[Link],currentlicensingandprofessionaldevelopmentpracticesendorsedbymany
[Link]
thosewithreadingspecialistandspecialeducationlicensesoftenknownomoreaboutresearchbased,effective
[Link]
notbeenpreparedinsufficientdepthtorecognizeearlysignsofrisk,topreventreadingproblems,ortoteach
[Link]
havearevealedapervasiveabsenceofsubstantivecontentandacademicrigorinmanycoursesthatleadto
[Link],veryfeware
[Link],IDAhas
adoptedthesestandardsforknowledge,practice,andethicalconduct.

ResearchbasedAssumptionsaboutDyslexiaandOtherReadingDifficulties

Thesestandardsarebroadlyconstructedtoaddresstheknowledgeandskillbaseforteachingreadingin
preventive,intervention,[Link],
prevalence,manifestations,andtreatmentsfordyslexiathataresupportedbyresearchandbyaccepted
[Link]
learningdifficulties,asfollows:
Dyslexiaisalanguagebaseddisorderoflearningtoreadandwriteoriginatingfromacoreorbasic
[Link]
and/orslowprintedwordrecognitionandpoorspellingproblemsthatinturnaffectreadingfluency
[Link]
difficultieswithreadingcomprehensionand/orspeedofprocessing(readingfluency).Theseproblems
mayexistinrelativeisolationormayoverlapextensivelyinindividualswithreadingdifficulties.
Dyslexiaoftenexistsinindividualswithaptitudes,talents,andabilitiesthatenablethemtobe
successfulinmanydomains.
Dyslexiaoftencoexistswithotherdevelopmentaldifficultiesanddisabilities,includingproblemswith
attention,memory,andexecutivefunction.
[Link]
[Link]
theregularclassroomandthroughotherinterventionprograms.
Appropriaterecognitionandtreatmentofdyslexiaistheresponsibilityofalleducatorsandsupport
personnelinaschoolsystem,notjustthereadingorspecialeducationteacher.
Althoughearlyinterventionisthemosteffectiveapproach,individualswithdyslexiaandotherreading
difficultiescanbehelpedatanyage.

HowtoUseTheseStandards
Thestandardsoutlinethe1)contentknowledgenecessarytoteachreadingandwritingtostudentswith
dyslexiaorrelateddisordersorwhoareatriskforreadingdifficulty;2)practicesofeffectiveinstruction;and3)
[Link]
thefoundationalknowledgeoflanguage,literacydevelopment,andindividualdifferencesbecausetheyshare
responsibilityforpreventingandamelioratingreadingproblems.

Thestandardsmaybeusedforseveralpurposes,includingbutnotlimitedto:
coursedesignwithinteachercertificationprograms;
practicumrequirementswithincertificationprograms;
criteriaformembershipinIDAscoalitionoforganizationsthatprovidetrainingandsupervisionof
teachers,tutors,andspecialists(notethatadditionalrequirementsformembershiparetobe
determined);
criteriaforthepreparationofthoseprofessionalsreceivingreferralsthroughIDAoffices;and
acontentframeworkforthedevelopmentoflicensingorcertificationexaminations.

HowtoReadtheStandards
[Link],knowledgeof
languagestructure,knowledgeofdyslexiaandotherlearningdisorders,administrationandinterpretationof
assessments,theprinciplesofstructuredlanguageteaching,[Link]
[Link],StandardsA,B,C,andEarepresentedin
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
thirdcolumnontherightthatspecifiesingreaterdetailwhattheteacherorspecialistshouldbeabletodo.

Manyofthestandardsarefollowedbythedesignationof(Level1)or(Level2).Thesedesignations
indicatewhetherthestandardshouldbemetbynoviceteachersintraining(Level1)orbyspecialistswithmore
experienceandgreaterexpertise(Level2).InSectionII,therecommendedstandardsforpreparationofteachers
andspecialistsaredistinguishedbythesetwolevels.

References
Bos,C.,Mather,N.,Dickson,S.,Podhajski,B.,&Chard,D.(2001).Perceptionsandknowledgeofpreserviceand
[Link],51,97120.
Cunningham,A.E.,Perry,K.E.,Stanovich,K.E.,&Stanovich,P.J.(2004).DisciplinaryknowledgeofK3teachers
[Link],54,139167.
Joshi,R.M.,Binks,E.,Hougen,M.,OckerDean,E.,Graham,L.,&Smith,D.(2009).Teachersknowledgeofbasic
linguisticskills:Wheredoesitcomefrom?[Link]&[Link](Eds.),Handbookon
implementingevidencebasedacademicinterventions(pp.851877).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
McCutchen,D.,Harry,D.R.,Cunningham,A.E.,Cox,S.,Sidman,S.,&Covill,A.E.(2002).Readingteachers
[Link],52,207228.
Moats,L.C.(1994).Themissingfoundationinteachereducation:Knowledgeofthestructureofspokenand
[Link],44,81102.
Moats,L.C.,&Foorman,B.R.(2003).[Link]
ofDyslexia,53,2345.
Piasta,S.B.,Connor,C.M.,Fishman,B.J.,&Morrison,F.J.(2009).Teachersknowledgeofliteracyconcepts,
classroompractices,[Link],13(3),224248.
Smartt,S.M.,&Reschly,D.J.(2007).Barrierstothepreparationofhighlyqualifiedteachersinreading.
Washington,DC:NationalComprehensiveCenterforTeacherQuality.
SpearSwerling,L.(2008).[Link](Ed.),Educating
individualswithdisabilities:IDEA2004andbeyond(pp.273293).NewYork:Springer.
SpearSwerling,L.,Brucker,P.,&Alfano,M.(2005).Teachersliteracyrelatedknowledgeandselfperceptionsin
[Link],55,266293.
Walsh,K.,Glaser,D.,&Wilcox,D.D.(2006).Whateducationschoolsarentteachingaboutreadingandwhat
[Link],DC:NationalCouncilonTeacherQuality.

SECTIONI:KNOWLEDGEANDPRACTICESTANDARDS

[Link]

ContentKnowledge
1. Understandandexplainthelanguageprocessing
requirementsofproficientreadingandwriting
Phonological(speechsound)processing
Orthographic(print)processing
Semantic(meaning)processing
Syntactic(sentencelevel)processing
Discourse(connectedtextlevel)processing

2. Understandandexplainotheraspectsofcognition
andbehaviorthataffectreadingandwriting
Attention
Executivefunction
Memory
Processingspeed
Graphomotorcontrol

Application
1. [Link]
importancetoproficientreadingandwriting
(Level1).
[Link]
languageprocessesunderlyingreadingand
writing(Level2).

2. [Link]
othercognitiveandbehavioralproblems(Level
1).
[Link]
cognitiveinfluencesonreadingandwriting,and
explainmajorresearchfindingsregardingthe
contributionoflinguisticandcognitivefactorsto
thepredictionofliteracyoutcomes(Level2).

3. Identify(Level1)orexplain(Level2)majorresearch
3. Defineandidentifyenvironmental,cultural,and
findingsregardingthecontributionof
socialfactorsthatcontributetoliteracy
environmentalfactorstoliteracyoutcomes.
development(e.g.,languagespokenathome,
languageandliteracyexperiences,culturalvalues).

4. Matchexamplesofstudentresponsesandlearning
4. Knowandidentifyphasesinthetypical
behaviortophasesinlanguageandliteracy
developmentalprogressionof
development(Level1).
Orallanguage(semantic,syntactic,

pragmatic)

Phonologicalskill
Printedwordrecognition
Spelling
Readingfluency
Readingcomprehension
Writtenexpression

5. Explainhowaweaknessineachcomponentskillof
5. Understandandexplaintheknowncausal
orallanguage,reading,andwritingmayaffect
relationshipsamongphonologicalskill,phonic
otherrelatedskillsandprocessesacrosstime(Level
decoding,spelling,accurateandautomaticword
recognition,textreadingfluency,background
2).
knowledge,verbalreasoningskill,vocabulary,

readingcomprehension,andwriting.

ContentKnowledge
6. Knowandexplainhowtherelationshipsamongthe
majorcomponentsofliteracydevelopmentchange
withreadingdevelopment(i.e.,changesinoral
language,includingphonologicalawareness;
phonicsandwordrecognition;spelling;readingand
writingfluency;vocabulary;reading
comprehensionskillsandstrategies;written
expression).

7. Knowreasonablegoalsandexpectationsfor
learnersatvariousstagesofreadingandwriting
development.

Application
6. Identifythemostsalientinstructionalneedsof
studentswhoareatdifferentpointsofreadingand
writingdevelopment(Level2).

7. Givencasestudymaterial,explainwhyastudent
is/isnotmeetinggoalsandexpectationsinreading
orwritingforhisorherage/grade(Level1).

ExplanatoryNotes
Anextensiveresearchbaseexistsontheabilitiesthatareimportantinlearningtoreadandwrite,includinghow
theseabilitiesinteractwitheachother,howtheyareinfluencedbyexperience,andhowtheychangeacross
[Link]
skillsdescribedinsubsequentsectionsofthisdocument.

References
Level1
Adams,M.(1990).Beginningtoread:[Link],MA:MITPress.
Bickart,T.(1998).Summaryreportofpreventingreadingdifficultiesinyoungchildren(NationalAcademyof
Sciences).Washington,DC:[Link].
Hart,B.,&Risley,T.R.(1995).MeaningfuldifferencesintheeverydayexperienceofyoungAmericanchildren.
Baltimore:Brookes.
NationalReadingPanel.(2000).Teachingchildrentoread:Anevidencebasedassessmentofthescientific
[Link],DC:National
InstitutesofHealth.
Shaywitz,S.(2003).Overcomingdyslexia:Anewandcompletesciencebasedprogramforreadingproblemsat
[Link]:Knopf.
Snow,C.,Griffin,P.,&Burns,S.(2006).[Link]:Jossey
Bass.
SpearSwerling,L.,&Sternberg,R.J.(2001).[Link]
Research&Practice,16,5157.

Level2
Adams,M.J.(1998).[Link]&[Link](Eds.),Literacyforall:Issuesinteachingand
learning(pp.7399).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Crawford,E.C.,&Torgesen,J.K.(2006,July).Teachingallchildrentoread:PracticesfromReadingFirstschools
[Link],Orlando.
Retrievablefrom[Link]
Cunningham,A.E.,&Stanovich,K.E.(1997).Earlyreadingacquisitionanditsrelationtoreadingexperienceand
[Link],33,934945.
Denton,C.A.,Fletcher,J.M.,Anthony,J.L.,&Francis,D.J.(2006).Anevaluationofintensiveinterventionfor
[Link],39,447466.
Denton,C.,Foorman,B.,&Mathes,P.(2003).SchoolsthatBeattheOdds:Implicationsforreadinginstruction.

RemedialandSpecialEducation,24,258261.
Denton,C.,Vaughn,S.,&Fletcher,J.(2003).Bringingresearchbasedpracticeinreadinginterventiontoscale.
LearningDisabilitiesResearchandPractice,18,201211.
Fletcher,J.M.,Lyon,G.R.,Fuchs,L.S.,&Barnes,M.A.(2007).Learningdisabilities:Fromidentificationto
[Link]:GuilfordPress.
Genesee,F.,Paradis,J.,&Crago,M.(2004).Duallanguagedevelopment&disorders:Ahandbookon
bilingualism&[Link]:Brookes.
McCardle,P.,&Chhabra,V.(2004).[Link]:Brookes.
Rayner,K.,&Pollatsek,A.(1989)ThePsychologyofReadingHillsdale,NJ:[Link],L.(2004).A
roadmapforunderstandingreadingdisabilityandotherreadingproblems:Origins,intervention,and
[Link]&[Link](Eds.),Theoreticalmodelsandprocessesofreading:[Link],
DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.
Stanovich,K.E.(2000).Progressinunderstandingreading:[Link]:
GuilfordPress.
Stone,A.C.,Silliman,E.R.,Ehren,B.J.,&Apel,K.(Eds.).(2004).Handbookoflanguageandliteracy:
[Link]:GuilfordPress.
Vellutino,F.R.,Tunmer,W.E.,Jaccard,J.J.,&Chen,R.(2007).Componentsofreadingability:Multivariate
[Link],11(1),332.

[Link]

ContentKnowledge
Phonology(TheSpeechSoundSystem)
1. Identify,pronounce,classify,andcomparethe
consonantandvowelphonemesofEnglish.

Orthography(TheSpellingSystem)
2. Understandthebroadoutlineofhistorical
influencesonEnglishspellingpatterns,especially
AngloSaxon,Latin(Romance),andGreek.

3. Definegraphemeasafunctionalcorrespondence
unitorrepresentationofaphoneme.

4. Recognizeandexplaincommonorthographicrules
andpatternsinEnglish.

5. Knowthedifferencebetweenhighfrequencyand
irregularwords.

6. Identify,explain,andcategorizesixbasicsyllable
typesinEnglishspelling.

Morphology
7. Identifyandcategorizecommonmorphemesin
English,includingAngloSaxoncompounds,
inflectionalsuffixes,andderivationalsuffixes;Latin
basedprefixes,roots,andderivationalsuffixes;and
Greekbasedcombiningforms.

Semantics
8. Understandandidentifyexamplesofmeaningful
wordrelationshipsorsemanticorganization.

Application

1. a. Identifysimilarorcontrastingfeaturesamong
phonemes
(Level1).
b. Reconstructtheconsonantandvowel
phonemeinventoriesandidentifythefeature
differencesbetweenandamongphonemes
(Level2).

2. Recognizetypicalwordsfromthehistoricallayers
ofEnglish(AngloSaxon,Latin/Romance,Greek)
(Level1).

3. Accuratelymapgraphemestophonemesinany
Englishword(Level1).

4. Sortwordsbyorthographicchoicepattern;
analyzewordsbysuffixendingpatternsandapply
suffixendingrules.

5. Identifyprintedwordsthataretheexceptionto
regularpatternsandspellingprinciples;sorthigh
frequencywordsintoregularandexceptionwords
(Level1).

6. Sort,pronounce,andcombineregularwritten
syllablesandapplythemostproductivesyllable
divisionprinciples(Level1).

7. a. Recognizethemostcommonprefixes,roots,
suffixes,andcombiningformsinEnglishcontent
words,andanalyzewordsatboththesyllable
andmorphemelevels(Level1).
[Link](e.g.,
chameleonprefixes)(Level2).

8. Matchoridentifyexamplesofwordassociations,
antonyms,synonyms,multiplemeaningsanduses,
semanticoverlap,andsemanticfeatureanalysis
(Level1).

Syntax
9. Defineanddistinguishamongphrases,dependent
clauses,andindependentclausesinsentence
structure.

10. Identifythepartsofspeechandthegrammatical
roleofawordinasentence.

DiscourseOrganization
11. Explainthemajordifferencesbetweennarrative
andexpositorydiscourse.

12. Identifyandconstructexpositoryparagraphsof
varyinglogicalstructures(e.g.,classification,
reason,sequence).

13. Identifycohesivedevicesintextandinferential
gapsinthesurfacelanguageoftext.

9. Constructanddeconstructsimple,complex,and
compoundsentences(Level1).

10. [Link]
wordsbytheirgrammaticalroleinasentence
(Level1).

[Link](e.g.,
infinitives,gerunds)(Level2).

11. Classifytextbygenre;identifyfeaturesthatare
characteristicofeachgenre,andidentifygraphic
organizersthatcharacterizetypicalstructures
(Level1).

12. Identifymainideasentences,connectingwords,
andtopicsthatfiteachtypeofexpository
paragraphorganization(Level2).

13. Analyzetextforthepurposeofidentifyingthe
inferencesthatstudentsmustmaketo
comprehend(Level2).

ExplanatoryNotes
Formalknowledgeaboutthestructureoflanguagerecognizing,forexample,whetherwordsarephonetically
regularorirregular;commonmorphemesinwords;andcommonsentencestructuresinEnglishisnotan
[Link],withoutthiskindofknowledge,teachersmay
havedifficultyinterpretingassessmentscorrectlyormayprovideunintentionallyconfusinginstructionto
[Link],strugglingreadersarelikelytobeconfusediftheyareencouragedtosoundoutaword
thatisphoneticallyirregular(e.g.,some),orifirregularwords,suchascomeandhave,areusedasexamplesofa
[Link],toteachspellingandwritingeffectively,teachersneedaknowledge
baseaboutlanguagestructure,[Link]
understandingoflanguagestructureoftenrequiresexplicitteachingofthisinformationandmorethan
superficialcoverageinteacherpreparationandprofessionaldevelopment.

References
Level1
Grace,K.(2006).[Link],CO:SoprisWest.
Moats,L.C.(2009).Languageessentialsforteachersofreadingandspelling(LETRS).Longmont,CO:SoprisWest.

Level2
Brady,S.,Gillis,M.,Smith,T.,Lavalette,M.,LissBronstein,L.,Lowe,E.,etal.(2009).Firstgradeteachers'
knowledgeofphonologicalawarenessandcodeconcepts:Examininggainsfromanintensiveformof
[Link]:AnInterdisciplinaryJournal,22,375510.
Henry,M.(2003).[Link]:Brookes.
McCutchen,D.,Abbott,R.D.,&Green,L.B.(2002).Beginningliteracy:Linksamongteacherknowledge,teacher
practice,[Link],35,6986.

Moats,L.C.(2000).Speechtoprint:[Link]:Brookes.
SpearSwerling,L.,&Brucker,P.(2004).Preparingnoviceteacherstodevelopbasicreadingandspellingskillsin
[Link],54,332364.
SpearSwerling,L.,&Brucker,P.(2006).Teachereducationstudentsreadingabilitiesandtheirknowledge
[Link],29,113123.

[Link]

ContentKnowledge
Application
1. Understandthemostcommonintrinsicdifferences 1. [Link]
characteristicsofindividualswithpoorword
betweengoodandpoorreaders(i.e.,cognitive,
recognition(e.g.,overdependenceoncontext
neurobiological,andlinguistic).
toaidwordrecognition;inaccuratenonword

reading)(Level1).

[Link]
profilestypicalofstudentswithdyslexiaand
relatedlearningdifficulties.(Level2).

2. Explainthereasoningorevidencebehindthe
2. RecognizethetenetsoftheNICHD/IDAdefinition
mainpointsinthedefinition(Level1).
ofdyslexia.

3. Recognizethatdyslexiaandotherreading
3. Recognizelevelsofinstructionalintensity,
difficultiesexistonacontinuumofseverity.
duration,andscopeappropriateformild,

moderate,andseverereadingdisabilities(Level
1).

4. Matchsymptomsofthemajorsubgroupsofpoor
4. Identifythedistinguishingcharacteristicsof
readersasestablishedbyresearch,including
dyslexiaandrelatedreadingandlearning
disabilities(includingdevelopmentallanguage
thosewithdyslexia,andidentifytypicalcasestudy
comprehensiondisorder,attentiondeficit
profilesofthoseindividuals(Level2).
hyperactivitydisorder,disordersofwritten

expressionordysgraphia,mathematicslearning

disorder,nonverballearningdisorders,etc.).

5. Identifypredictablewaysthatsymptomsmight
5. Identifyhowsymptomsofreadingdifficultymay
changeasstudentsmovethroughthegrades
changeovertimeinresponsetodevelopmentand
(Level2).
instruction.

6. Understandfederalandstatelawsthatpertainto 6. [Link]
federalandstatelawspertainingtotherights
learningdisabilities,especiallyreadingdisabilities
ofstudentswithdisabilities,especially
anddyslexia.
studentsrightstoafree,appropriatepublic
education,anindividualizededucationalplan,
servicesintheleastrestrictiveenvironment,
anddueprocess(Level1).

[Link]
lawsinidentifyingandservingstudentswith
learningdisabilities,readingdisabilities,and
dyslexia(Level2).

ExplanatoryNotes
Toidentifychildrenwithdyslexiaandotherlearningdisabilities,teachersmustunderstandandrecognizethe
keysymptomsofthesedisorders,[Link]
instructionanddetectolderstudentswithlearningdisabilitieswhomayhavebeenoverlookedintheearly
grades,teachersalsoshouldunderstandhowstudentsdifficultiesmaychangeovertime,basedon
developmentalpatterns,experience,andinstruction,aswellasonincreasesinexpectationsacrossgrades.

References
Level1
Aaron,P.G.,Joshi,R.M.,Gooden,R.,&Bentum,K.(2008).Diagnosisandtreatmentofreadingdisabilitiesbased
onthecomponentmodelofreading:[Link]
Disabilities,41,6784.
Hudson,R.R.,High,L.,&AlOtaiba,S.(2007).Dyslexiaandthebrain:Whatdoescurrentresearchtellus?The
ReadingTeacher,60(6),506515.
Lyon,R.,Shaywitz,S.,&Shaywitz,B.(2003).[Link],53,114.
Moats,L.C.,&Dakin,K.(2007).[Link]:TheInternationalDyslexiaAssociation.

Level2
Catts,H.W.,Hogan,T.P.,&Adlof,S.M.(2005).[Link].
[Link]&[Link](Eds.),Theconnectionsbetweenlanguageandreadingdisabilities(pp.2540).
Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.
Leach,J.M.,Scarborough,H.S.,&Rescorla,L.(2003).[Link]
Psychology,95,211224.
Ehri,L.,&Snowling,M.(2004).[Link],[Link],B.J.
Ehren,&[Link](Eds.),Handbookoflanguageandliteracy:Developmentanddisorders(pp.443460).New
York:GuilfordPress.
Hulme,C.,&Snowling,M.(2009)Developmentaldisordersoflanguage,learning,[Link],
England:WileyBlackwell.
Pennington,B.(2009).Diagnosinglearningdisorders(2nded.).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Olson,R.K.(2004).SSSR,environment,[Link],8(2),111124.
Rayner,K.,Foorman,B.F.,Perfetti,C.A.,Pesetsky,D.,&Seidenberg,M.S.(2002).Howshouldreadingbe
taught?ScientificAmerican,286(3),8491.
Vadasy,P.F.,Sanders,E.A.,Peyton,J.A.,&Jenkins,J.R.(2002).Timingandintensityoftutoring:Acloserlookat
[Link]&Practice,17,227241.
Wolf,M.(2007).Proustandthesquid:[Link]:HarperCollins.
Wolf,M.,&Bowers,P.G.(1999).[Link]
EducationalPsychology,91,415438.

[Link]

ContentKnowledge
1. Understandthedifferences
amongscreening,diagnostic,
outcome,andprogress
monitoringassessments.

2. Understandbasicprinciplesof
testconstruction,including
reliability,validity,andnorm
referencing,andknowthe
mostwellvalidatedscreening
testsdesignedtoidentify
studentsatriskforreading
difficulties.

3. Understandtheprinciplesof
progressmonitoringandthe
useofgraphstoindicate
progress.

4. Knowtherangeofskills
typicallyassessedbydiagnostic
surveysofphonologicalskills,
decodingskills,oralreading
skills,spelling,andwriting.

5. Recognizethecontentand
purposesofthemostcommon
diagnostictestsusedby
psychologistsandeducational
evaluators.

6. Interpretmeasuresofreading
comprehensionandwritten
expressioninrelationtoan
individualchildscomponent
profile.

Application
1. Matcheachtypeof
assessmentanditspurpose
(Level1).

ObservableCompetenciesfor
TeachingStudentswithDyslexia
andRelatedDifficulties
1. Administerscreeningsand
progressmonitoring
assessments(Level1)

2. Matchexamplesoftechnically
adequate,wellvalidated
screening,diagnostic,
outcome,andprogress
monitoringassessments(Level
1).

2. Explainwhyindividualstudents
areorarenotatriskinreading
basedontheirperformanceon
screeningassessments(Level
1).

3. Usingcasestudydata,
accuratelyinterpretprogress
monitoringgraphstodecide
whetherornotastudentis
makingadequateprogress
(Level1).

4. Usingcasestudydata,
accuratelyinterpretsubtest
scoresfromdiagnosticsurveys
todescribeastudents
patternsofstrengthsand
weaknessesandinstructional
needs(Level2).

5. Findandinterpretappropriate
printandelectronicresources
forevaluatingtests(Level1).

3. Displayprogressmonitoring
dataingraphsthatare
understandabletostudents
andparents(Level1).

6. Usingcasestudydata,
accuratelyinterpreta
studentsperformanceon
readingcomprehensionor
writtenexpressionmeasures
andmakeappropriate
instructional
recommendations.

4. Administereducational
diagnosticassessmentsusing
standardizedprocedures(Level
2).

5. Writereportsthatclearlyand
accuratelysummarizea
studentscurrentskillsin
importantcomponentareasof
readingandreading
comprehension(Level2).

6. Writeappropriate,specific
recommendationsfor
instructionandeducational
programmingbasedon
assessmentdata(Level2).

ExplanatoryNotes
Teachersabilitytoadministerandinterpretassessmentsaccuratelyisessentialbothtoearlyidentificationof
[Link]
recognizeearlysignsthatachildmaybeatriskfordyslexiaorotherlearningdisabilities,andtheassessments
[Link]
aredifferenttypesofassessmentsfordifferentpurposes(e.g.,briefbutfrequentassessmentstomonitor
progressversusmorelengthy,comprehensiveassessmentstoprovidedetaileddiagnosticinformation),aswell
[Link]
findunbiasedinformationabouttheadequacyofpublishedtests,andtointerpretthisinformationcorrectly,
theyrequireanunderstandingofbasicprinciplesoftestconstructionandconceptssuchasreliabilityand
[Link]
performanceonaparticulartest,especiallyonbroadmeasuresofreadingcomprehensionandwritten
[Link],achildwithveryslowreadingislikelytoperformbetteronanuntimedmeasureof
readingcomprehensionthanonastringentlytimedmeasure;achildwithwritingproblemsmayperform
especiallypoorlyonareadingcomprehensiontestthatrequireslengthywrittenresponsestoopenended
questions.

References
Level1
Hasbrouck,J.,&Haager,D.(Eds.).(2007).[Link]
LanguageandLiteracy33(2).
Lyon,G.R.,Shaywitz,S.,&Shaywitz,B.(2003).[Link],53,114.
Torgesen,J.K.(2004).Avoidingthedevastatingdownwardspiral:Theevidencethatearlyinterventionprevents
[Link],28(3),69,1213,1719,4547.

Level2
Cutting,L.E.,&Scarborough,H.S.(2006).Predictionofreadingcomprehension:Relativecontributionsofword
recognition,languageproficiency,andothercognitiveskillscandependonhowcomprehensionis
[Link],10,277299.
Deno,S.L.(2003).[Link],37,184192.
Fletcher,J.M.,Lyon,G.R.,Fuchs,L.S.,&Barnes,M.A.(2007).Learningdisabilities:Fromidentificationto
[Link]:GuilfordPress.
Fuchs,L.(2004).Thepast,present,[Link]
Review,33,188192.
Good,R.H.,Simmons,D.C.,&Kameenui,E.J.(2001).Theimportanceanddecisionmakingutilityofa
continuumoffluencybasedindicatorsoffoundationalreadingskillsforthirdgradehighstakesoutcomes.
ScientificStudiesofReading,5,257288.
Hogan,T.P.,Catts,H.W.,&Little,T.D.(2005).Therelationshipbetweenphonologicalawarenessandreading:
[Link],Speech,andHearingServicesin
Schools,36,285293.
Jenkins,J.R.,Johnson,E.,&Hileman,J.(2004).Whenisreadingalsowriting:Sourcesofindividualdifferenceson
[Link],8,125152.
Keenan,J.M.,Betjemann,R.S.,&Olson,R.K.(2008).Readingcomprehensiontestsvaryintheskillstheyassess:
[Link],12,281300.
Pennington,B.(2009).Diagnosinglearningdisorders(2nded.).NewYork:GuilfordPress.

[Link]:Phonology

ObservableCompetenciesforTeachingStudents
withDyslexiaandRelatedDifficulties
Identifythegeneralandspecificgoalsof
1. Explicitlystatethegoalofanyphonological
phonologicalskillinstruction.
awarenessteachingactivity(Level1).

2. a. Selectandimplementactivitiesthatmatcha
Knowtheprogressionofphonologicalskill
studentsdevelopmentallevelofphonological
development(i.e.,rhyme,syllable,onsetrime,
skill(Level1).
phonemedifferentiation).
b. Designandjustifytheimplementationof
activitiesthatmatchastudents
developmentallevelofphonologicalskill
(Level2).

Identifythedifferencesamongvariousphonological 3. Demonstrateinstructionalactivitiesthatidentify,
match,blend,segment,substitute,anddelete
manipulations,includingidentifying,matching,
sounds(Level1).
blending,segmenting,substituting,anddeleting
sounds.

4. a. Successfullyproducevowelandconsonant
Understandtheprinciplesofphonologicalskill
phonemes(Level1).
instruction:brief,multisensory,conceptual,and
b. Teacharticulatoryfeaturesofphonemesand
auditoryverbal.
words;useminimallycontrastingpairsof

soundsandwordsininstruction;support
instructionwithmanipulativematerialsand
movement(Level2).

5. [Link]
Understandthereciprocalrelationshipsamong
duringreading,spelling,andvocabulary
phonologicalprocessing,reading,spelling,and
instructionusingamirror,discussionof
vocabulary.
articulatoryfeatures,andsoonasscriptedor

prompted(Level1).
[Link]
duringreading,spelling,andvocabulary
instructionwithoutscriptingorprompting
(Level2).

6. Explicitlycontrastfirstandsecondlanguage
Understandthephonologicalfeaturesofasecond
phonologicalsystems,asappropriate,to
language,suchasSpanish,andhowtheyinterfere
anticipatewhichsoundsmaybemostchallenging
withEnglishpronunciationandphonics.
forthesecondlanguagelearner(Level2).

ContentKnowledge

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

ExplanatoryNotes
Phonologicalawareness,basicprintconcepts,andknowledgeoflettersoundsarefoundationalareasofliteracy.
Withoutearly,researchbasedintervention,childrenwhostruggleintheseareasarelikelytocontinuetohave
[Link],[Link]
existstoinformteachingofphonologicalawareness,includingresearchonthephonologicalskillstoemphasize
ininstruction,appropriatesequencingofinstruction,andintegratinginstructioninphonologicalawarenesswith
[Link]
canpreventoramelioratemanychildrensreadingproblems,includingthoseofstudentswithdyslexia.

References
Level1
Adams,M.,Foorman,B.R.,Lundberg,I.,&Beeler,T.(Spring/Summer,1998).Theelusivephoneme:Why
[Link],22(1&2),18
29.

Level2
Brady,S.&Shankweiler,D.(Eds.).(1991).Phonologicalprocessesinliteracy:[Link].
Hillsdale,NJ:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates
Gillon,G.(2004).Phonologicalawareness:[Link]:GuilfordPress.
Neuman,S.B.,&Dickinson,D.K.(2002).[Link]:GuilfordPress.
Scarborough,H.S.(1998).Earlyidentificationofchildrenatriskforreadingdisabilities:Phonologicalawareness
[Link],[Link],&[Link](Eds.),Specificreading
disability:Aviewofthespectrum(pp.75119).Timonium,MD:YorkPress.
Scarborough,H.S.,&Brady,S.A.(2002).Towardacommonterminologyfortalkingaboutspeechandreading:A
[Link],34,299334.

[Link]:PhonicsandWordRecognition

ContentKnowledge

ObservableCompetenciesforTeachingStudents
withDyslexiaandRelatedDifficulties
1. Planlessonswithacumulativeprogressionof
wordrecognitionskillsthatbuildoneonanother
(Level1).

2. Explicitlyandeffectivelyteach(e.g.,information
taughtiscorrect,studentsareattentive,teacher
checksforunderstanding,teacherscaffolds
studentslearning)conceptsofwordrecognition
andphonics;applyconceptstoreadingsingle
words,phrases,andconnectedtext(Level1).

3. Demonstratethesimultaneoususeoftwoor
threelearningmodalities(toincludelistening,
speaking,movement,touch,reading,and/or
writing)toincreaseengagementandenhance
memory(Level1).

1. Knoworrecognizehowtoorderphonicsconcepts
fromeasiertomoredifficult.

2. Understandprinciplesofexplicitanddirect
teaching:model,lead,giveguidedpractice,and
review.

3. Statetherationaleformultisensoryand
multimodaltechniques.

4. Knowtheroutinesofacompletelessonformat,
fromtheintroductionofawordrecognition
concepttofluentapplicationinmeaningful
readingandwriting.

5. Understandresearchbasedadaptationsof
instructionforstudentswithweaknessesin
workingmemory,attention,executivefunction,or
processingspeed.

4. Planandeffectivelyteachallstepsinadecoding
lesson,includingsinglewordreadingand
connectedtextthatisreadfluently,accurately,
andwithappropriateintonationandexpression
(Level1).

5. Adaptthepace,format,content,strategy,or
emphasisofinstructionaccordingtostudents
patternofresponse(Level2).

ExplanatoryNotes
Thedevelopmentofaccurateworddecodingskillsthatis,theabilitytoreadunfamiliarwordsbyapplying
[Link]
areacentralweaknessforstudentswithlearningdisabilitiesinreading,[Link]
abilitiestoprovideexplicit,systematic,appropriatelysequencedinstructioninphonicsisindispensabletomeet
theneedsofthispopulation,[Link]
shouldalsounderstandtheusefulnessofmultisensory,multimodaltechniquesinfocusingstudentsattention
onprintedwords,engagingstudents,andenhancingmemory.

References
Level1
Birsh,J.(Ed.).(2005).Multisensoryteachingofbasiclanguageskills(2nded.).Baltimore:Brookes.
Moats,L.C.(1998).[Link],22(1&2),4249,9596.

Level2
Blachman,B.A.,Schatschneider,C.,Fletcher,J.M.,Francis,D.J.,Clonan,S.,Shaywitz,B.,etal.(2004).Effectsof
[Link],96,444461.
Calhoon,M.B.(2005).Effectsofapeermediatedphonologicalskillandreadingcomprehensionprogramon
[Link],
38(5),424433.
Catone,W.V.,&Brady,S.(2005).Theinadequacyofindividualeducationalprogramgoalsforhighschool
[Link],55(1),5378.
Christensen,C.A.,&Bowey,J.A.(2005).Theefficacyoforthographicrime,graphemephoneme
correspondence,[Link],9,
327349.
Ehri,L.C.(2004).Teachingphonemicawarenessandphonics:Anexplanationofthenationalreadingpanel
[Link]&[Link](Eds.),Thevoiceofevidenceinreadingresearch(pp.153186).
Baltimore:Brookes.
Joseph,L.M.,&Schisler,R.(2009).Shouldadolescentsgobacktothebasics?:Areviewofteachingwordreading
skillstomiddleandhighschoolstudents.RemedialandSpecialEducation30(3),131147.
Lovett,M.W.,Barron,R.W.,&Benson,N.J.(2003).Effectiveremediationofwordidentificationanddecoding
[Link],[Link],&[Link](Eds.),
HandbookofLearningDisabilities(pp.273292).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Mathes,P.G.,Denton,C.A.,Fletcher,J.M.,Anthony,J.L.,Francis,D.J.,&Schatschneider,C.(2005).Theeffects
[Link]
ResearchQuarterly,40,148182.
McCandliss,B.,Beck,I.L.,Sandak,R.,&Perfetti,C.(2003).Focusingattentionondecodingforchildrenwithpoor
readingskills:[Link],7,
75104.
Torgesen,J.K.(2004).Lessonslearnedfromresearchoninterventionsforstudentswhohavedifficultylearning
[Link]&[Link](Eds.),Thevoiceofevidenceinreadingresearch(pp.355381).
Baltimore:Brookes.

[Link]:Fluent,AutomaticReadingofText

ContentKnowledge
1. Understandtheroleoffluencyinword
recognition,oralreading,silentreading,
comprehensionofwrittendiscourse,and
motivationtoread.

2. Understandreadingfluencyasastageofnormal
readingdevelopment;astheprimarysymptomof
somereadingdisorders;andasaconsequenceof
practiceandinstruction.
3. Defineandidentifyexamplesoftextata
studentsfrustration,instructional,and
independentreadinglevel.

4. Knowsourcesofactivitiesforbuildingfluencyin
componentreadingskills.

5. Knowwhichinstructionalactivitiesand
approachesaremostlikelytoimprovefluency
outcomes.

6. Understandtechniquestoenhancestudent
motivationtoread.

7. Understandappropriateusesofassistive
technologyforstudentswithseriouslimitationsin
readingfluency.

ObservableCompetenciesforTeachingStudentswith
DyslexiaandRelatedDifficulties
1. Assessstudentsfluencyrateanddetermine
reasonableexpectationsforreadingfluencyat
variousstagesofreadingdevelopment,using
researchbasedguidelinesandappropriatestate
andlocalstandardsandbenchmarks(Level1).

2. Determinewhichstudentsneedafluency
orientedapproachtoinstruction,usingscreening,
diagnostic,andprogressmonitoringassessments
(Level2).

3. Matchstudentswithappropriatetextsas
informedbyfluencyratetopromoteample
independentoralandsilentreading(Level1).
4. Designlessonplansthatincorporatefluency
buildingactivitiesintoinstructionatsubwordand
wordlevels(Level1).

5. Designlessonplanswithavarietyoftechniques
tobuildreadingfluency,suchasrepeated
readingsofpassages,alternateoralreadingwitha
partner,readingwithatape,orrereadingthe
samepassageuptothreetimes.(Level1).

6. Identifystudentinterestsandneedstomotivate
independentreading(Level1).
[Link]
assistivetechnologyingeneraleducationclasses
forstudentswithdifferentreadingprofiles(e.g.,
dyslexiaversuslanguagedisabilities)(Level2).

ExplanatoryNotes
[Link]
[Link],
especiallyinelementaryagedstudents,avarietyoffluencytaskshavebeendevelopedforuseinscreeningand
[Link],poorreadingfluencyisaverycommonsymptomofdyslexiaand
otherreadingdisabilities;problemswithreadingfluencycanlingerevenwhenstudentsaccuracyinword
[Link]
sometimesbeassociatedwithprocessingweaknesses,considerableresearchsupportstheroleofpractice,wide
exposuretoprintedwords,[Link]
studentsfluencyneeds,teachersmusthavearangeofcompetencies,includingtheabilitytointerpretfluency
basedmeasuresappropriately,toplacestudentsinappropriatetypesandlevelsoftextsforreadinginstruction,

tostimulatestudentsindependentreading,andtoprovidesystematicfluencyinterventionsforstudentswho
[Link](e.g.,texttospeechsoftware)isoftenemployedtohelpstudentswith
[Link],teachers,andparticularly
specialists,requireknowledgeabouttheappropriateusesofthistechnology.

References
Level1
Carreker,S.(2005).Teachingreading:[Link](Ed.),Multisensoryteachingofbasic
languageskills(2nded.,pp.213255).Baltimore:Brookes.
Cunningham,A.E.,&Stanovich,K.E.(1998).[Link],22(1&2),815.
Hasbrouck,J.E.,&Tindal,G.A.(2006).OralReadingFluencynorms:Avaluableassessmenttoolforreading
[Link],59(7),636644.
Hudson,R.F.,Lane,H.B.,&Pullen,P.C.(2005).Readingfluencyassessmentandinstruction:What,why,and
how?TheReadingTeacher,58,702714.
Kuhn,M.(2004/2005).Helpingstudentsbecomeaccurate,expressivereading:Fluencyinstructionforsmallgroups.
TheReadingTeacher,58(4),338345.
Meyer,M.(Winter,2002)Repeatedreading:[Link](The
InternationalDyslexiaAssociationQuarterlyNewsletter),1518.
Meyer,M.S.,&Felton,R.H.(1999).Repeatedreadingtoenhancefluency:Oldapproachesandnewdirections.
AnnalsofDyslexia,49,293306.
Pikulski,J.J.,&Chard,D.J.(2005).Fluency:[Link],58,
510519.
Samuels,S.J.(1997).[Link],50,7681.
Level2
Chard,D.,Vaughn,S.,&Tyler,B.(2002)Asynthesisofresearchoneffectiveinterventionsforbuildingfluencywith
[Link],35,386406.
Connor,C.M.,Morrison,F.J.,&Katch,L.E.(2004).Beyondthereadingwars:Exploringtheeffectofchild
[Link],8,305336.
Ehri,L.C.(1997).[Link](Ed.),Foundationsof
readingacquisitionanddyslexia(pp.163189).Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.
Fuchs,L.S.,Fuchs,D.,Hamlett,C.L.,Walz,L.,&Germann,G.(1993).Formativeevaluationofacademicprogress:
Howmuchgrowthshouldweexpect?SchoolPsychologyReview,22,2748.
Fuchs,L.S.,Fuchs,D.,Hosp,M.K.,&Jenkins,J.(2001).Oralreadingfluencyasanindicatorofreadingcompetence:
Atheoretical,empirical,[Link],5(3),239256.
Good,R.H.,Simmons,D.C.,&Kameenui,E.J.(2001).Theimportanceanddecisionmakingutilityofacontinuumof
[Link]
ofReading,5(3),257288.
Hamilton,C.,&Shinn,M.R.(2003).Characteristicsofwordcallers:Aninvestigationoftheaccuracyofteachers
[Link],32(2),228240.
Hosp,M.K.,Hosp,J.L.,&Howell,K.W.(2007).TheABCsofCBM:Apracticalguidetocurriculumbased
[Link]:GuilfordPress.
Katzir,T.,Kim,Y.,Wolf,M.,OBrien,B.,Kennedy,B.,Lovett,M.,etal.(2006).Readingfluency:Thewholeismore
[Link],56(1),5182.
NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,[Link]:NAEP2002specialstudyof
[Link],DC:NationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress,UnitedStatesDepartment
ofEducation,InstituteforEducationSciences.
Samuels,S.J.,&Flor,R.F.(1997).[Link]
andWritingQuarterly:OvercomingLearningDifficulties,13,107121.
Speece,D.L.,&Ritchey,K.D.(2005).Alongitudinalstudyofthedevelopmentoforalreadingfluencyinyoung
[Link],38(5),387399.

Stahl,S.A.,&Heubach,K.(2005).[Link],37,2560.
Therrien,W.J.,Wickstrom,K.,&Jones,K.(2006).Effectofacombinedrepeatedreadingandquestion
[Link]&Practice,21(2),8997.
Torgesen,J.,Alexander,A.W.,Wagner,R.,Rashotte,C.A.,Voeller,K.,Conway,T.,etal.(2001).Intensive
remedialinstructionforchildrenwithseverereadingdisabilities:Immediateandlongtermoutcomes
[Link],34,3358.

[Link]:Vocabulary

ContentKnowledge
1. Understandtheroleofvocabularydevelopment
andvocabularyknowledgeincomprehension.

2. Understandtheroleandcharacteristicsofdirect
andindirect(contextual)methodsofvocabulary
instruction.

3. Knowvariedtechniquesforvocabularyinstruction
before,during,andafterreading.

4. Understandthatwordknowledgeismultifaceted.

5. Understandthesourcesofwidedifferencesin
studentsvocabularies.

ObservableCompetenciesforTeachingStudentswith
DyslexiaandRelatedDifficulties
1. Teachwordmeaningsdirectlyusingcontextual
examples,structural(morpheme)analysis,
antonymsandsynonyms,definitions,
connotations,multiplemeanings,andsemantic
featureanalysis(Levels1and2).

2. Lessonplanningreflects:
A. Selectionofmaterialforreadaloudsand
independentreadingthatwillexpand
studentsvocabulary.
B. Identificationofwordsnecessaryfordirect
teachingthatshouldbeknownbeforethe
passageisread.
C. Repeatedencounterswithnewwordsand
multipleopportunitiestousenewwords
orallyandinwriting.
D. Recurringpracticeandopportunitiestouse
newwordsinwritingandspeaking.

ExplanatoryNotes
Vocabulary,orknowledgeofwordmeanings,[Link]
multifaceted,rangingfrompartialrecognitionofthemeaningofawordtodeepknowledgeandtheabilityto
[Link],systematicteachingofword
meaningsandindirectmethodsofinstructionsuchasthoseinvolvinginferringmeaningsofwordsfrom
sentencecontextorfromwordparts(e.g.,commonrootsandaffixes).Teachersshouldknowhowtodevelop
[Link]
importanceofwideexposuretowords,bothorallyandthroughreading,instudentsvocabularydevelopment.
Forexample,althoughoralvocabularyknowledgefrequentlyisastrengthforstudentswithdyslexia,overtime,
lowvolumeofreadingmaytendtoreducethesestudentsexposuretorichvocabularyrelativetotheirtypical
peers;explicitteachingofwordmeaningsandencouragementofwideindependentreadinginappropriatetexts
aretwowaystohelpincreasethisexposure.

References
Level1
Diamond,L.,&Gutlohn,L.(2006).[Link],CA:ConsortiumonReadingExcellence.
Ebbers,S.(2006).[Link],CO:SoprisWest.
Beck,I.L.,McKeown,M.G.,&Kucan,L.(2002).Bringingwordstolife:[Link]:
GuilfordPress.
Biemiller,A.(1999).[Link](Ed.),Fromreadingresearchtopractice,Aseries
[Link],MA:BrooklineBooks.
Biemiller,A.(2005).Sizeandsequenceinvocabularydevelopment:Implicationsforchoosingwordsforprimary
[Link](Eds.),Teachingandlearningvocabulary:Bringing
[Link],NJ:Erlbaum.

Hirsch,E.D.(2006).Theknowledgedeficit:[Link]:
HoughtonMifflin.

Level2
Carlisle,J.,&Rice,M.S.(2003).Readingcomprehension:[Link]:
YorkPress.
Dickinson,D.K.,&Smith,M.W.(1994).Longtermeffectsofpreschoolteachers'bookreadingsonlowincome
children'[Link],29,104123.
Graves,M.(2006).TheVocabularybook:[Link]:TeachersCollegePress,Columbia
University.
Hirsch,E.D.(2001).[Link],25(2),4,67.
Kamil,M.(2004).Vocabularyandcomprehensioninstruction:SummaryandimplicationsoftheNationalReading
[Link](Eds.),Thevoiceofevidenceinreadingresearch(pp.213
234).
Metsala,J.L.(1999)Youngchildren'sphonologicalawarenessandnonwordrepetitionasafunctionof
[Link],91,319.
Paynter,D.E.,Bodrova,E.,&Doty,J.K.(2005).Fortheloveofwords:Vocabularyinstructionthatworks,Grades
[Link]:JosseyBass.
Simpson,J.A.(Ed.).(1989).TheOxfordEnglishDictionary(2ndEdition,[Link]).Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
Stahl,S.A.,&Nagy,W.E.(2006)[Link],NJ:Erlbaum.
Tannenbaum,K.R.,Torgesen,J.T.,&Wagner,R.K.(2006).Relationshipsbetweenwordknowledgeandreading
[Link],10,381398.

[Link]:TextComprehension

ContentKnowledge

ObservableCompetenciesforTeachingStudentswith
DyslexiaandRelatedDifficulties

1. Befamiliarwithteachingstrategiesthatare
appropriatebefore,during,andafterreadingand
thatpromotereflectivereading.

1. a. Statepurposeforreading,elicitorprovide
backgroundknowledge,andexplorekey
vocabulary(Level1).
b. Queryduringtextreadingtofosterattention
todetail,inferencemaking,andmentalmodel
construction(Level1).
c. Usegraphicorganizers,notetakingstrategies,
retellingandsummarizing,andcrosstext
comparisons(Level1).

2. Contrastthecharacteristicsofmajortextgenres,
includingnarration,exposition,and
argumentation.

3. Understandthesimilaritiesanddifferences
betweenwrittencompositionandtext
comprehension,andtheusefulnessofwritingin
buildingcomprehension.

4. Identifyinanytextthephrases,clauses,
sentences,paragraphsandacademiclanguage
thatcouldbeasourceofmiscomprehension.

2. Lessonplansreflectarangeofgenres,with
emphasisonnarrativeandexpositorytexts(Level
1).

3. Model,practice,andsharewrittenresponsesto
text;fosterexplicitconnectionsbetweennew
learningandwhatwasalreadyknown(Level1).

4. Anticipateconfusionsandteachcomprehensionof
figurativelanguage,complexsentenceforms,
cohesivedevices,andunfamiliarfeaturesoftext
(Level2).

5. Planlessonstofostercomprehensionofthe
5. Understandlevelsofcomprehensionincluding
surfacecode(thelanguage),thetextbase(the
thesurfacecode,textbase,andmentalmodel
underlyingideas),andamentalmodel(thelarger
(situationmodel).
contextfortheideas)(Level2).

6. Adjusttheemphasisoflessonstoaccommodate
6. Understandfactorsthatcontributetodeep
learnersstrengthsandweaknessesandpaceof
comprehension,includingbackground
learning(Level2).
knowledge,vocabulary,verbalreasoningability,
knowledgeofliterarystructuresandconventions,
anduseofskillsandstrategiesforclosereading
oftext.

ExplanatoryNotes
[Link]
onlyuponthecomponentabilitiesdiscussedinprevioussections,butalsouponotherfactors,suchas
[Link]
inreadingcomprehension,teachersmustunderstandthearrayofabilitiesthatcontributetoreading
[Link],atypicalstudentwith
dyslexia,whosereadingcomprehensionproblemsareassociatedmainlywithpoordecodinganddysfluent
reading,willneeddifferentemphasesininterventionthanwillapoorcomprehenderwhoseproblemsrevolve

[Link],teachersmustbeabletomodel
andteachresearchbasedcomprehensionstrategies,suchassummarizationandtheuseofgraphicorganizers,
[Link]
comprehensionhaveareciprocalrelationship;goodoralcomprehensionfacilitatesreadingcomprehension,but
widereadingalsocontributestothedevelopmentoforalcomprehension,[Link]
shouldunderstandtherelationshipsamongorallanguage,readingcomprehension,andwrittenexpression,and
theyshouldbeabletouseappropriatewritingactivitiestobuildstudentscomprehension.

References
Level1
Beck,I.L.,&McKeown,M.G.(2006).Improvingcomprehensionwithquestioningtheauthor:Afreshand
[Link]:Scholastic.
Beck,I.,McKeown,M.,Hamilton,R.,&Kucan,L.(1998).[Link],22,6685.
Caccamise,D.,&Snyder,L.(Eds.).(2009).Readingcomprehension:Issuesandinstructionalapplications.
PerspectivesonLanguageandLiteracy,35(2).
Cunningham,A.E.,&Stanovich,K.E.(1998).[Link],22,815.
Rosenshine,B.,&Meister,C.(1994).Reciprocalteaching:[Link]
Research,64,479530.
Willingham,D.T.(2006).Howknowledgehelps:Itspeedsandstrengthensreadingcomprehension,learning,and
[Link],30(1),3037.
Willingham,D.T.(200607).[Link]
Educator,30(4),3945.

Level2
Barnes,M.A.,Johnston,A.M.,&Dennis,M.(2007).Comprehensioninaneurodevelopmentaldisorder,Spina
[Link]&[Link](Eds.),Childrenscomprehensionproblemsinoraland
writtenlanguage:Acognitiveperspective(pp.193217).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Cain,K.,&Oakhill,J.V.(2007).Readingcomprehensiondifficulties:Correlates,causes,[Link].
Cain&[Link](Eds.),Childrenscomprehensionproblemsinoralandwrittenlanguage:Acognitive
perspective(pp.81103)NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Carlisle,J.R.,&Rice,M.S.(2002).Improvingreadingcomprehension:Researchbasedprinciplesandpractices.
Baltimore:YorkPress.
Catts,H.W.,Fey,M.E.,Zhang,X.,&Tomblin,J.A.(1999).Languagebasisofreadingandlanguagedisabilities:
[Link],3,331361.
Fuchs,D.,Fuchs,L.S.,Mathes,P.B.,&Simmons,D.C.(1997).Peerassistedlearningstrategies:Making
[Link],34,174206.
Gattardo,A.,Stanovich,K.,&Siegel,L.(1996).Therelationshipsbetweenphonologicalsensitivity,syntactic
processing,[Link]
ExperimentalChildPsychology,63,563582.
Gersten,R.,Fuchs,L.S.,Williams,J.P.,&Baker,S.(2001).Teachingreadingcomprehensionstrategiesto
studentswithlearningdisabilities:[Link],71,279320.
Graesser,A.C.(2008).[Link](Ed.),Reading
comprehensionstrategies:Theories,interventionandtechnologies(pp.326).NewYork:Erlbaum.
Hirsch,E.D.(2006).Buildingknowledge:Thecaseforbringingcontentintothelanguageartsblockandfora
[Link],30(1),821,2829,5051.
Kamil,M.(2004).Vocabularyandcomprehensioninstruction:SummaryandimplicationsoftheNationalReading
[Link]&[Link](Eds.),Thevoiceofevidenceinreadingresearch(pp.213234).
Baltimore:Brookes.
Kintsch,E.(2005).[Link]
disorders,25(1),pp.5164.

Pressley,M.(2000).Whatshouldcomprehensioninstructionbetheinstructionof?[Link],[Link],
[Link],&[Link](Eds.),HandbookofReadingResearch(Vol.3).Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.
RANDReadingStudyGroup.(2002).Readingforunderstanding:Towardaresearchanddevelopmentprogramin
[Link],CA:RANDCorporation.
([Link]
Scarborough,H.(2001).Connectingearlylanguageandliteracytolaterreading(dis)abilities:Evidence,theory,
[Link]&[Link](Eds.),HandbookofEarlyLiteracyResearch(pp.97110).
NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Scott,C.(2004).[Link],[Link],[Link],&[Link]
(Eds.).HandbookofLanguage&Literacy(pp.340362).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Shankweiler,D.,Lundquist,E.,Katz,L.,Stuebing,K.K.,Fletcher,J.M.,Brady,S.,etal.(1999).Comprehension
anddecoding:[Link],31,
2435,6994.
Stahl,K.A.D.(2004).Proof,practice,andpromise:[Link]
ReadingTeacher,57,598609.
Sweet,A.P.,&Snow,C.E.(2003).[Link]:GuilfordPress.
Vaughn,S.,&Klingner,J.K.(1999).Teachingreadingcomprehensionthroughcollaborativestrategicreading.
InterventioninSchoolandClinic,34,284292.
Westby,C.(2004).Alanguageperspectiveonexecutivefunctioning,metacognition,andselfregulationin
[Link],[Link],[Link],&[Link](Eds.),Handbookoflanguageandliteracy:
Developmentanddisorders(pp.398427).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Williams,J.P.(2006).Stories,studies,[Link],10(2),121
142.

[Link]:Handwriting,Spelling,andWrittenExpression

ObservableCompetenciesforTeachingStudentswith
DyslexiaandRelatedDifficulties
Handwriting
Handwriting
1. Knowresearchbasedprinciplesforteachingletter 1. Usemultisensorytechniquestoteachletter
namingandletterformationinmanuscriptand
namingandletterformation,bothmanuscriptand
cursiveforms(Level1).
cursive.

2. Knowtechniquesforteachinghandwritingfluency. 2. Implementstrategiestobuildfluencyinletter

formation,andcopyingandtranscriptionof

writtenlanguage(Level1).

Spelling
Spelling
1. Explicitlyandeffectivelyteach(e.g.,information
1. Recognizeandexplaintherelationshipbetween
taughtiscorrect,studentsareattentive,teacher
transcriptionskillsandwrittenexpression.

checksforunderstanding,teacherscaffolds

studentslearning)conceptsrelatedtospelling

(e.g.,aruleforaddingsuffixestobasewords)

(Level1).

2. Identifystudentslevelsofspellingdevelopment
2. Selectmaterialsand/orcreatelessonsthataddress
andorthographicknowledge.
studentsskilllevels(Level1).

3. Recognizeandexplaintheinfluencesof
3. Analyzeastudentsspellingerrorstodetermine
phonological,orthographic,andmorphemic
hisorherinstructionalneeds(e.g.,development
knowledgeonspelling.
ofphonologicalskillsversuslearningspellingrules

versusapplicationoforthographicormorphemic
knowledgeinspelling)(Level2).

WrittenExpression
WrittenExpression
1. Understandthemajorcomponentsandprocesses 1. Integratebasicskillinstructionwithcompositionin
ofwrittenexpressionandhowtheyinteract(e.g.,
writinglessons.
basicwriting/transcriptionskillsversustext

generation).

2. Knowgradeanddevelopmentalexpectationsfor
2. a. Selectanddesignactivitiestoteachimportant
studentswritinginthefollowingareas:mechanics
componentsofwriting,includingmechanics/
andconventionsofwriting,composition,revision,
conventionsofwriting,composition,and
andeditingprocesses.
revisionandeditingprocesses.

[Link]

instructionalneeds.

c. Providespecific,constructivefeedbackto

studentstargetedtostudentsmostcritical

needsinwriting.

[Link]

thoseforplanning,revising,andeditingtext.

ContentKnowledge

3. Understandappropriateusesofassistive
technologyinwrittenexpression.

e. Teachwriting(discourse)knowledge,suchas
theimportanceofwritingfortheintended
audience,useofformalversusinformal
language,andvariousschemasforwriting(e.g.,
reportsversusnarrativesversusarguments).

3. Makeappropriatewrittenrecommendationsfor
theuseofassistivetechnologyinwriting.

ExplanatoryNotes
Justasteachersneedtounderstandthecomponentabilitiesthatcontributetoreadingcomprehension,they
[Link]
writing(transcription)skillssuchashandwriting,keyboarding,spelling,capitalization,punctuation,and
grammaticalsentencestructure;textgeneration(composition)processesthatinvolvetranslatingideasinto
language,suchasappropriatewordchoice,writingclearsentences,anddevelopinganideaacrossmultiple
sentencesandparagraphs;andplanning,[Link]
writtenexpressiondependonpinpointinganindividualstudentsspecificweaknessesinthesedifferent
componentareasofwriting,aswellasonteachersabilitiestoprovideexplicit,systematicteachingineacharea.
Teachersmustalsobeabletoteachresearchbasedstrategiesinwrittenexpression,suchasthoseinvolving
strategiesforplanningandrevisingcompositions,andtheyshouldunderstandtheutilityofmultisensory
[Link]
[Link](e.g.,spell
checkerscanbevaluablebutdonotreplacespellinginstructionandhavelimitedutilityforstudentswhose
misspellingsarenotrecognizable).Specialistsshouldhaveevengreaterlevelsofknowledgeabouttechnology.

References
Level1
Berninger,V.,&Wolf,B.(2009)[Link]:Brookes.
Graham,S.,McArthur,C.A.,&Fitzgerald,J.(Eds.).(2007).[Link]:
GuilfordPress.
Joshi,M.,Treiman,R.,Carreker,S.,&Moats,L.C.(2008/2009)Howwordscasttheirspell:Spellingisanintegral
partoflearningthelanguage,[Link],32(4),616,4243.
Moats,L.C.(Winter2005/06).Howspellingsupportsreading:Andwhyitismoreregularandpredictablethan
[Link],1222,4243.

Level2
Berninger,V.W.,Abbott,R.D.,Jones,J.,Gould,L.,AndersonYoungstrom,M.,Shimada,S.,etal.(2006).Early
developmentoflanguagebyhand:Composing,reading,listening,andspeakingconnections;threeletter
writingmodes;[Link],29,6192.
Berninger,V.W.,&Amtmann,D.(2003).Preventingwrittenexpressiondisabilitiesthroughearlyandcontinuing
assessmentandinterventionforhandwritingand/orspellingproblems:[Link].L.
Swanson,[Link],&[Link](Eds.),HandbookofLearningDisabilities(pp.345363).NewYork:
GuilfordPress.
Cassar,M.,Treiman,R.,Moats,L.,Pollo,T.C.,&Kessler,B.(2005).Howdothespellingsofchildrenwithdyslexia
comparewiththoseofnondyslexicchildren?ReadingandWriting,18,2749.
Edwards,L.(2003).Writinginstructioninkindergarten:Examininganemergingareaofresearchforchildrenwith
[Link],36,136.

Englert,C.S.,Wu,X.,&Zhao,Y.(2005).Cognitivetoolsforwriting:Scaffoldingtheperformanceofstudents
[Link]&Practice,20,184198.
Gersten,R.,&Baker,S.(2001).Teachingexpressivewritingtostudentswithlearningdisabilities:Ameta
[Link],101,251272.
Graham,S.,&Perin,D.(2007).Writingnext:Effectivestrategiestoimprovewritingofadolescentsinmiddleand
[Link],DC:AllianceforExcellent
Education.
Troia,G.(Ed.).(2009)Instructionandassessmentforstrugglingwriters:[Link]:
GuilfordPress.

[Link]

EthicalPrinciplesforServiceProviders,ConferenceExhibitors,andAdvertisers

Theseprinciplesaretobeusedbyemployees,boardmembers,andbranchofficersoftheInternational
DyslexiaAssociation(IDA)indecidingwhethermembers,conferenceexhibitors,conferenceorworkshop
presenters,and/[Link]
intendedtosafeguardandpromotethewellbeingofindividualswithdyslexiaandrelatedlearningdifficulties,
topromotethedisseminationofreliableandhelpfulinformation,andtoensurethatstandardsofbestpractice
areupheldbytheorganizationanditsactivities.

Practitioners,publishers,presenters,exhibitors,advertisers,andanyotherswhoprovideservicesto
individualswithdyslexiaandrelateddifficulties:

1.
strivetodonoharmandtoactinthebestinterestsofthoseindividuals;
2.
maintainthepublictrustbyprovidingaccurateinformationaboutcurrentlyacceptedand
scientificallysupportedbestpracticesinthefield;
3.
avoidmisrepresentationoftheefficacyofeducationalorothertreatmentsortheproofforor
againstthosetreatments;
4.
respectobjectivitybyreportingassessmentandtreatmentresultsaccurately,honestly,and
truthfully;
5.
avoidmakingunfoundedclaimsofanykindregardingthetraining,experience,credentials,
affiliations,anddegreesofthoseprovidingservices;
6.
respectthetrainingrequirementsofestablishedcredentialingandaccreditation
organizationssupportedbyIDA;
7.
engageinfaircompetition;
8.
avoidconflictsofinterestwhenpossibleandacknowledgeconflictsofinterestwhenthey
occur;
9.
supportjusttreatmentofindividualswithdyslexiaandrelatedlearningdifficulties;
10.
respectconfidentialityofstudentsorclients;and
11.
respecttheintellectualpropertyofothers.

SECTIONII:GUIDELINESPERTAININGTOSUPERVISEDPRACTICEOFTEACHERS
OFSTUDENTSWITHDOCUMENTEDREADINGDISABILITIESORDYSLEXIA
WHOWORKINSCHOOL,CLINICAL,ORPRIVATEPRACTICESETTINGS1

Trainingprogramsforindividualswhoarelearningtoworkwithchallengingstudentsoftendistinguishlevelsof
expertisebytheskillsandexperienceoftheindividualandtheamountofsupervisedpracticerequiredfor
[Link]
designationofLevelIandLevelII.

C. LevelIindividualsarepractitionerswithbasicknowledgewho:
1. demonstrateproficiencytoinstructindividualswithadocumentedreadingdisabilityor
dyslexia;
2. implementanappropriateprogramwithfidelity;and
3. formulateandimplementanappropriatelessonplan.
D. LevelIIindividualsarespecialistswithadvancedknowledgewho:
1. mayworkinprivatepracticesettings,clinics,orschools;
2. demonstrateproficiencyinassessmentandinstructionofstudentswithdocumentedreading
disabilitiesordyslexia;
3. implementandadaptresearchbasedprogramstomeettheneedsofindividuals.
ToattainLevelIstatus,anindividualmust:
passanapprovedbasicknowledgeproficiencyexam;
completeaonetoonepracticumwithastudentorsmallgroupofonetothreewellmatchedstudents
[Link],certifiedinstructor*providesconsistent
oversightandobservationsofinstructiondeliveredtothesamestudent(s)overtime,andthepracticum
continuesuntilexpectedproficiencyisreached.**
demonstrate(overtime)instructionalproficiencyinallLevel1areasoutlinedonIDAKnowledgeand
PracticeStandards,SectionIthatisresponsivetostudentneeds.
Documentsignificantstudentprogresswithformalandinformalassessmentsasaresultofthe
instruction.
ToattainLevelIIstatus,anindividualmust:
Passanapprovedadvancedknowledgeproficiencyexam
Completea1:1practicumwithastudentorsmallgroupofwellmatchedstudents(13)whohavea
[Link],certifiedinstructor*providesconsistentoversightand
observationsofinstructiondeliveredtothesamestudent(s)overtime,andthepracticumcontinues
untilexpectedproficiencyisreached.**
Demonstrate(overtime)diagnosticinstructionalproficiencyinallLevel1and2areasoutlinedonIDA
Standardsdocument,SectionI.
Providesuccessfulinstructiontoseveralindividualswithdyslexiawhodemonstratevaryingneedsand
documentsignificantstudentprogresswithformalandinformalassessmentsasaresultofthe
instruction.
Completeanapprovededucationalassessmentofastudentwithdyslexiaand/orlanguagebased
readingdisability,includingstudenthistoryandcomprehensiverecommendations.

(Tier3inanRTIsystem;studentswhomaybeeligibleforspecialeducationorintensiveintervention;studentsreferred
forclinicalservicesbecauseoflearningdifficulties;orstudentswhoqualifyfordyslexiainterventionserviceswhere
available.)


*Arecognizedorcertifiedinstructorisanindividualwhohasmetalloftherequirementsofthelevelthey
supervisebutwhohasadditionalcontentknowledgeandexperienceinimplementingandobserving
[Link]
hasbeenrecommendedbyorcertifiedbyanapprovedtrainermentorshipprogramthatmeetsthese
[Link]
PracticesCommittee.

**Documentationofproficiencymustbe1)completedbyarecognized/certifiedinstructorproviding
oversightinthespecifiedprogram;2)completedduringfull(notpartial)lessonobservations;and3)must
occuratvariousintervalsthroughouttheinstructionalperiodwithstudent.

2010,byTheInternationalDyslexiaAssociation(IDA).
Allrightsreserved.
IDAencouragesthereproductionanddistributionofthisdocument.
Ifportionsofthetextarecited,appropriatereferencemustbemade.
Thisdocumentmaynotbereprintedforthepurposeofresale.