Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Abou Bekr Belkaid University Tlemcen
Faculty of Letters and Foreign Languages
Section Of English

Faculty
of Letters
And Foreign
Promoting
Learner
Autonomy
inLanguages
an EFL Context:
Learners Readiness
and
Teachers Roles.
Section Of
English
(The Case of First Year Pupils in Secondary
Education in Algeria)

Dissertation Submitted to the Department of English as a Partial Fulfillment for

the Degree of Magister in Applied Linguistics and TEFL

Presented by:

Under The Supervision of:

Miss. Kheira HADI

Dr . Ali BAICHE

Board of Examiners:
-Pr . BENMOUSSAT Smail (Prof) (University of Tlemcen)
-Dr. BAICHE Ali (MCA)

(University of Tlemcen)

President of the jury

Supervisor

-Dr. BENYELLES Radia (MCA) ( University of Tlemcen)

Examiner

-Dr. HADJOUI Ghouti (MCA)

Examiner

( University of Tlemcen)

-Dr .GUERROUDJ Noureddine (MCA)( University of Sidi Bel-Abess) Examiner

Academic Year : 2011 - 2012

Dedication

I dedicate this research work to my parents who switch candles of hope around
me, and devoted their lives to see me succeed. To my sisters, brothers, uncles and
aunts. and to my lovely nephew Mouad. This dissertation is dedicated also to all my
teachers from the primary school to the university and to all my pupils, study mates,
and colleagues. Special dedication to my friends who stand by me in my hour of grief
and give me belief, to my intimate friend Naima, to my pain sharer Touria, and to my
two angels and gifts from God: Naima and Zahra. To my close bosom friends: Nawel,
Kamila and Chafia.

Acknowledgements

First of all sincere gratitude, deepest appreciation and heartfelt thanks to my

supervisor Dr. A. Baiche for his assistance, patience and guidance in the writing of this
Dissertation.
I am deeply grateful to Dr. Hayo Reinders Head of Language and Learning
Support Middlesex University, England, for his help with documents and books in
relation to my research work. A deepest appreciation goes also to Pr. Benmoussat for
his valuable lectures during the theoretical year. To Dr Benyelles, Dr Guerroudj and Dr
Hadjoui who have kindly accepted to examine the present dissertation. Special thanks
go to Mr. Bassou for his help and methodological guidance, to Mr. Benzian, Mr.
Semmoud, Dr. Srir. And all my teachers in the department of English at the university
of Tlemcen.
Sincere thanks are extended to Mr. L. Fridi for his collaboration in interviews and
questionnaires and to all EFL teachers and pupils in Ain Temouchent. To my
colleagues and my pupils in Tafna secondary school in Hassi El Gella . I also gratefully
acknowledge the support of may magister mates especially that of Mr. Meghaghi and
Miss Lahmar.
Special thanks to my loving and inspiring parents who have supported me all the
way through. And my friends who have always been there for me to share my ups and
downs in completing this dissertation.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements I
Table of [Link]
List of Figures and Tables VI
List of Abbreviation.. VIII
Abstract ..IX
General Introduction..1
CHAPTER

ONE :

LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1 Introduction.5
1.2

What is Learner Autonomy?....................................................................5

1.2.1 Autonomy Terms in the Literature...8

1.2.2 Individual and Group Autonomy...9
1.2.3 The Rise of Autonomy in Language Education.10
1.2.4 Levels of Autonomy..11
1.2.5 Main Versions of Autonomy in ELT Context ...12
1.2.6 Learner Autonomy the Let Me Learn Drive......13
1.3 Reasons for Learner Autonomy14
1.4 Dominant Philosophies Underlying Learner Autonomy...16
1.4.1 Developmental Learning.17
1.4.2 Humanism and Learning Theory...18
1.4.3 Constructivism ...19
[Link] Cognitive Constructivism (Piagets Theory).....21
[Link] Social Constructivism ( Vygotskys Theory)....23
1.4.4 Experiential Learning....24
1.5 Classroom Autonomy26
1.6 Learner Autonomy and Language Proficiency.....28
1.7 Conditions for Learner Autonomy....30
1.7.1 Learners Attitudes and Motivation..30
1.7.2 Language Learning Strategies.32
[Link] Classifications of Learning Strategies...33
[Link] Learning Strategies for Learner Autonomy35
[Link] Strategy Training for Learners36
1.7.3 Materials of Learning..37
1.8. Teacher Autonomy and Learner Autonomy ..38
1.9 Instructional Material and Learner Autonomy..40
1.9.1 Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) ..40
1.9.2 Information and Communication Technology(ICT) .....41
1.10 Conclusion.42
Notes to Chapter One.....43

II

CHPTER TWO LEARNER AUTNOMY IN SECONDARY

EDUCATION IN ALGERIA: SITUATON ANALYSIS
2.1 Introduction .......44
2.2 An overview of ELT in Algerian Schools....44
2.2.1 A summary of ELT Methodologies . .46
2.2.2 Diachronic Overview of ELT Textbooks48
2.2.3 The Educational Context.....................................52
2.3 Final Objectives of ELT in the Secondary Education......54
2.3.1 General Objectives..55
2.3.2 Final Objectives of English Language Teaching for First Year Pupils..57
[Link] Entrance Profile.....58
[Link] Exit Profile ....58
2.4 The Notion of Learner Autonomy in the Algerian Educational Context 59
2.4.1 The Competency-Based Approach...60
2.4.2 The Rationale for Implementing the CBA in Algerian Educational System..62
2.4.3 Autonomy Whithin the CBA 63
2.4.4 Autonomy Competece Relatedness.63
2.4.5 Teachers Role in the CBA..65
2.4.6 Learners Role within the CBA...67
2.4.7 Learning Strategies for Learner Autonomy within the CBA.68
2. 5 Projects within the CBA ..70
2.6 Classroom Paradigm Shift.71
2.6.1 From Teacher- Centredness to Learner- Centredness .72
2.6.2 Classroom Autonomy......74
2.7 First Year ELT Textbook and Learner Autonomy75
2.7.1 General Presentation of the Textbook At The Crossroad.76
2.7.2 The Notion of Autonomy within At The Crossroad ...78
2.8 The System of Evaluation and Learner Autonomy...81
2.9 Conclusion ...83
Notes to chapter Two.......84

III

CHAPTER

THREE LEARNER AUTONOMY IN SECONDARY EDUCATION:

DATA ANALYSIS

3.1 Introduction .85

3.2 Sampling ...85
3.2.1 Teachers Profile..85
3.2.2 Pupils Profile ..86
3.3 Instruments for Data Gathering..87
3.4 Limitation of Data..89
3.5 Data Analysis......90
3.5.1 Questionnaire Addressed to Secondary Teachers91
[Link] Teachers Responses and Suggestions..92
[Link] Results Interpretation...102
3.5.2 Questionnaire Addressed to 1AS Pupils..104
[Link] Pupils Responses...105
[Link] Interpretation of Pupils Responses..111
3.5.3 Classroom Observation112
[Link] Type of Data Collected...113
[Link] Results and Interpretation of the Observation....113
3.5.4 The Interview...117
[Link] Types of Data Collected....118
[Link] Data Interpretation..119
3.6 The Research Findings.121
3.6.1 Pupils Readiness for Autonomous Learning ...122
3.6.1 Secondary Teachers and Learner Autonomy ..123
3.6.5 Promoting Autonomy in English Learning ....125
3.7 Conclusion ...127
Notes to Chapter Three...128

CHAPTER FOUR : RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR

PROMOTING LEARNER AUTONOMY IN ALGERIAN SECONDARY EDUCATION
4.1. Introduction....129
4.2 Recommendations: How can Learner Autonomy be Promoted?...............130
4.2.1. Preparing Teachers to Promote Learner Autonomy130
[Link]. Learner Autonomy in Teachers Training programs.130
[Link]. Teachers Development ..131
[Link]. Reflective Approach to Foster Autonomy in Learning..132
[Link].1 Professional Development Portfolios...133
[Link].2 Diaries And Journal Writing...134

VI

4.2.2 Preparing Learners for Autonomy in Language Learning..136

[Link] Creating Basic Motivational Conditions136
[Link] Persuasive Communication for Altering Learner Beliefs and Attitudes140
[Link]. Stages in the Process of Developing Learner Responsibility.142
[Link] Keeping Learning Journals Self-reports..144
[Link] Writing Diaries144
4.3 Promoting Learner Autonomy Through Strategy- Based Instruction(SBI)145
4.3.1 Goals for Strategy Based Instruction ..146
4.3.2 Models and Methods of Strategy Instruction...147
4.3.3 A Step by Step Design for Strategy Based Instruction.150
4.3.4 Activities for Strategy -Based Instruction..151
4.3.5 Teachers Roles in Strategy Training154
4.4. Steps towards a Successful Project Work156
4.4.1 Teachers and Students Role in the Project..159
4.4.2 Project Assessment and Evaluation..160
4.5 Suggestions for Promoting Learner Autonomy162
4.5.1 Suggested Materials for Promoting Learner Autonomy..162
[Link] How Computer Technology can Promote Leaner Autonomy...163
[Link]. The Internet as Tool in the Development of Learner Autonomy.165
4.5.2 Semi-Autonomous Learning as a Preparatory Phase..166
4.5.3 Staying In Touch with Language Outside Classroom Settings.167
[Link] Self -Study Tasks168
[Link] Homework168
4.6 Conclusion170
Notes to Chapter Four .171
General Conclusion..172
Bibliography...175
Appendices
Appendix 1: Teachers Questionnaire186
Appendix 2: Learners Questionnaire.187
Appendix 3: A Sample of Pupils project work... ...191
Appendix 4: A Suggested Lesson for Journal Writing194

LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES AND DIAGRAMS

Chapter One
Table 1.1: Levels of autonomy
Table

1.2: Childs four developmental stages

Diagram 1.1: Characteristics of experiential learning method

Table1.3: Comparison between autonomous and non-autonomous Classroom.
(Nunan, 1996:21)
Table1.4: Classification of Language Learning strategies
Table1.5: Maximal List of strategies (O Malley and Chamot, 1990)

Chapter Two
Table 2.1.: English Textbooks (1970-1980)
Table2.2: English textbooks (19980-2003)
Table2.3: New English books.
Table 2.4:Time allotted,coefficient of English in secondary education
Diagram2:1 Needs for self-determination theory
Table2.5: Teachers role in new teaching approaches.
Diagram2.2: Learning strategies in the CBA.
Table2.6: Comparison between teacher -centred and learner -centred paradigms.
Table2.7: Teaching Units in At The Crossroads
Table 2.8:Evaluation section in the 1AS textbook

Chapter Three
Diagram 3.1 : Data collection procedure
Table 3.1:Teachers gender
Table 3.2 :Teaching experience
Table 3.3: Pupils level of autonomy in English learning
Graph 3.1: Pupils level of autonomy in English learning
Table 3.4: Pupils attitude towards learner autonomy
Graph3.2: Pupils attitude towards learner autonomy
Table3.5: Pupils readiness for autonomy
Graph3.3: Pupils readiness for autonomy

VI

Table3.6: Teachers readiness for autonomy

Graph3.4 Teachers readiness for autonomy
Table3.7: Promoting learner autonomy
Graph3.5: Promoting learner autonomy
Table3.8 Teachers training programs adequacy for autonomy
Graph3.6: Teachers training programs adequacy for autonomy
Table3.9: Textbook adequacy for learner autonomy
Graph 3.7: Textbook adequacy for learner autonomy
Table3.10:Pupils enjoyment in studying English
Graph3.8 Pupils enjoyment in studying English
Table3.11: Responsibility perception in ELT
Graph 3.9: Responsibility perception in ELT
Table3.12:Identifying pupils weakenesses
Graph3.10: Identifying pupils weakenesses
Table3.13: Pupils weaknesses in the language skills.
Graph3.11: Pupils weaknesses in the language skills.
Table3.14: Time for English learning out of classroom
Graph3.12: Time for English learning out of classroom

Chapter Four
Diagram 4.1: Promoting learner autonomy.
Diagram 4.2: Creating basic motivational conditions.
Table 4.1 : [Link] philosophy
Table 4.2: Counter-measures against demotivating factors .
Table4.3: Stages in the process of developing learners responsibility.
Table4.4: Models of Language learning strategy instruction
Table4.5: Suggested steps for Strategy based instruction. (Oxford, 1990)
Table4.6: Suggested activities for SBI
Table4.7: Teachers role in SBI
Figure4.1: Developing a project in language classroom

VII

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AF: Absolute Frequency
AM:

Anne Moyenne

AS :

Anne Secondaire

BBC

British Broadcast Channel

BEF

Brevet dEnseignement Fondamental

BEM

Brevet dEnseignement Moyen

CALL Computer-Assisted Language Learning

CBA

Cometency-Based Approach

CEF

The Common European Framework

C.L.A.S.S Confidence- Link- Association- Security -Self governance

CLL

Community Language Learning

CLT

Communicative Language Teaching

CRAL Centre de Recherches et dApplications en Language

EFL

English Language Learning

ELT

English Language Teaching

ESP

English for Specific Purposes

ICT

Information and Communication Technology

LA

Learner Autonomy

L2

Second Language

MKO More Knowledgeable Other

PAL Project for Autonomy in Learning
RF

Relative frequency

SBI

Strategy- Based Instruction

ZPD

Zone of Proximal Development.

VIII

ABSTRACT

This research is concerned with learner autonomy in formal language learning

contexts (secondary education). It is a case study designed to investigate learners
readiness for autonomous learning. The purpose of the study is to discover whether or
not pupils attending English Language in secondary school

are ready to take on an

autonomous language learning. Before any interventions aiming at fostering autonomy

are implemented, it is necessary to explore learners readiness for autonomous
learning. The study contains four chapters: Chapter one is a literature review that
covers general areas of learner autonomy. Chapter two provides an overview of ELT
in Algeria. It sheds light on the notion of learner autonomy in the newly introduced
approach in Algerian schools, i.e, the Competency- Based Approach. Chapter three
deals with a methodological design in order to answer the research questions. A
triangulation method is used in this work; it includes data collection from
questionnaires that have been put to both secondary teachers and pupils. In addition
to a classroom observation and an interview with a general inspector of English.
Chapter four provides suggestions and recommendations about how to promote
learner autonomy for learners and teachers. The research argues that ELT in Algeria
should aim at cultivating learner autonomy through attributing new roles for the
language teacher and learning strategy training for the learner. Finally, this study
insists on the need to integrate learner autonomy in English learning not only as a topdown decision but as a gradual procedure based on training of EFL teachers and
learners towards the development of autonomy.

IX

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

In order to bridge the gap between the knowledge acquired at school and real life,
new approaches have been introduced in language teaching throughout the world,
mainly because the traditional ones have proved to be inadequate to meet the
demands of modern society. This society is not only requiring the mastery of language,
but also a life- long study skill. This is the aim behind introducing the notion of learner
autonomy in the educational context. It intends to develop responsible learners who
are capable to take charge of their own learning. That is to say learners who share
responsibility with the language teacher in the classroom and, moreover, do further
research in real life situations so as to improve their level in language learning. An
autonomous learner is that sort of learner who continues learning when teaching
stops. This is in fact, one of the fundamental objectives of the new approaches in
language teaching. In this context, and in order to make the educational system more
developed and more fruitful Algeria has implemented certain reforms in the field of
education.

The Algerian Ministry of Education launched educational reforms in the academic

year 2002-2003 so as to change the teaching methodologies. And as a result the
Competency-Based Approach was implemented in Algerian schools. It is supposed
that the CBA has reshaped teacher and learner roles and their responsibility in the
language classroom. This approach aims at producing responsible and autonomous
learners who are expected to take charge of their learning. This does not mean that
learner autonomy aims at marginalizing the teacher; on the contrary, the teachers role
is essential in setting a suitable atmosphere that encourages learners to be gradually
autonomous in English learning.

There is no doubt that the notion of autonomy in English learning can be partially or
gradually implemented in the secondary education. When learners reach university
they find themselves able to take charge of their own learning. However, Algerian
English learners who reach university do not have the capacity of learning English
autonomously. This is because they have been accustomed to spoon- feeding in the
secondary education. They consider English as a secondary subject (except for those
in foreign languages stream). For this reason, they are not highly motivated and feel
that the teacher is more responsible for the learning process. And even for their
success or failure in English learning. Though teachers in the secondary education
invest endless amount of energy in their students and they generally get a very little
response. In other words, learners are over reliant on the English teacher. One of the
solutions lies on promoting learner autonomy so that learners become gradually
independent from the teacher, and rely much more on themselves in English learning
both inside and outside the classroom.
Fostering learner autonomy aims at changing learners attitudes towards English
class and making them assume more responsibility in learning. However, English
teachers need to investigate first how much learners view themselves as responsible
for their learning, whether or not they are aware of the importance of learner
autonomy, and are ready to develop it in learning. Just after doing this, looking for
ways to foster learner autonomy seems to be highly recommended. The present
investigation is carried out under four research questions:
1-

Are first-year pupils in secondary education ready to be involved in

autonomous learning?

2-

How do learners perceive their own and their teachers responsibilities in

learning English?

3-

Are they using learning strategies that help them become more independent
from the teacher?

4-

In what ways can learner autonomy be fostered in an EFL context?

These are but a few questions that arise when one addresses the notion of learner
autonomy in English learning. All in all, the above questions investigate whether or not
learner autonomy is a reality in our educational system and more particularly in
secondary education. The answer to these questions concerns two levels: the first one
is concerned with a brief description and an analysis of ELT in Algeria with reference
to teachers and learners attitudes and roles. The second concerns the requirements
and ways for fostering learner autonomy in secondary education and how to make it a
reality. These two elements govern the general layout of this dissertation in which we
try to give evidence to the following hypotheses:
1-

First year pupils are not yet ready to be involved in autonomous learning.
Their over reliance on the language teacher is the main cause of this
behaviour.

2-

Pupils consider the teacher as more responsible in the learning teaching

process. The reason why they may be reluctant to take responsibility, i.e,they
have teacher-dependent learning characteristics.

3-

Learners generally do not know which strategies to select and how to use
them in order to learn English independently.

4-

Autonomy can be fostered only if learners change their attitudes towards the
language learning, and if both teachers and learners have autonomy-oriented
training.

To follow up this study, chapter one presents different theories, findings and
assumptions underlying learner autonomy, the rise of it in the educational contexts,
and how it has become a desirable goal in language learning. Chapter two provides

insights on English language teaching in Algeria and describes the notion of learner
autonomy in secondary education in Algeria with reference to the CBA and the ELT
textbook for 1AS. Chapter three addresses the research methodology used in this
dissertation. This chapter deals with a sampling of English secondary teachers and
pupils and a general inspector of English. The reason behind this choice first lies on
the fact that English teachers and the inspector of English are aware of pupils level of
autonomy. And second, pupils of 1AS who have already finished four years of English
learning and are supposed to have developed a certain level of autonomy. Moreover,
these pupils are having lessons on computing in schools that will help them to be selfreliant in doing research far away from the teachers presence. Furthermore, pupils of
1AS are about to decide which stream to join in their second year. Thus, they are
aware of their strengths and weaknesses in learning. As for research instruments, we
have used a questionnaire for teachers and pupils, classroom observation and an
interview with the general inspector of English.

Finally, this research work is an attempt to contribute in promoting learner

autonomy in secondary education in Algeria. It is in fact an attempt to expand an
awareness of teachers and students concerning the necessity of autonomy in English
learning. No doubt autonomy is essential; however, this concept often causes
frustration among teachers and learners, because they are not in the best position for
implementing it, due to the lack of formation, training and preparation for change. This
may justify why change in educational setting is often resisted and difficult to
implement. In fact, what both teachers and pupils really need is autonomy-oriented
training.

Chapter One

A Literature

Review

CHAPTER

ONE

A Literature Review

1.4 Introduction
1.5

What is Learner Autonomy?

1.2.1 Autonomy Terms in the Literature
1.2.2 Individual and Group Autonomy
1.2.3 The Rise of Autonomy in Language Education
1.2.4 Levels of Autonomy
1.2.5 Main Versions of Autonomy in ELT Context
1.2.6 Learner Autonomy the Let Me Learn Drive

1.6 Reasons for Learner Autonomy

1.4 Dominant Philosophies Underlying Learner Autonomy
1.4.1 Developmental Learning
1.4.2 Humanism and Learning Theory
1.4.3 Constructivism
[Link] Cognitive Constructivism (Piagets Theory)
[Link] Social Constructivism ( Vygotskys Theory)
1.4.4 Experiential Learning
1.5 Classroom Autonomy
1.6 Learner Autonomy and Language Proficiency
1.7 Conditions for Learner Autonomy
1.7.1 Learners Attitudes and Motivation
1.7.2 Language Learning Strategies
[Link] Classifications of Learning Strategies
[Link] Learning Strategies for Learner Autonomy
[Link] Strategy Training for Learners
1.7.3 Materials of Learning
1.8. Teacher Autonomy and Learner Autonomy
1.9 Instructional Material and Learner Autonomy
1.9.1 Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
1.9.2 Information and Communication Technology(ICT)
1.10 Conclusion
Notes to Chapter One

1.1 Introduction
Language teaching nowadays is seen not as an ability to teach but as an ability
to make learners learn. For this reason, learner centred education puts the learner at
the center of classroom organization. There is a change in the view of language
learning from a set of rules to be transmitted to learners from teachers to a process in
which the learner takes more responsibility in learning. By doing this, the learner
becomes autonomous in language learning. Autonomy is one of the bases on which
learner centredness stands on because: autonomy is a precondition for an
effective learning.(Benson, 2001:24). In fact, learners nowadays are expected to
assume responsibility and take charge of their learning. However, this does not mean
that learner autonomy aims at establishing a teacher less learning. On the contrary,
the teacher role is necessary in fostering his learners autonomy. In this context Little
says that: in formal educational contexts learners do not

automatically accept

responsibility for their learning, teachers must help them to do so. (Little,
1996:176). So, teachers help is essential in promoting learner autonomy through
giving a helping hand to learners.

1.2 What is Learner Autonomy ?

There is no consensus on the concept of autonomy in education. It is a

multifaceted concept whose meaning has been discussed from many perspectives.
One of the fields in which the concept of autonomy was firstly developed is politics.
Autonomy as a political concept originated in the Ancient Greek, philosophers such as:
Aristotle, and Socrates who claimed for citizens right to self-government. Cities were
governed according to citizens own laws. In this sense, individuals were considered
free beings in command of themselves and not subjected to others authority. In the
same context, Yule (1996) says that the autonomous person (like the autonomous
state) must not be subject to external interference or control but must rather freely
direct the course of his own life.

In the field of education some consider it as taking charge of ones learning. Others
see it as a decision making, and others think autonomy is a cognitive and selfmanagement process.

Imported originally from the fields of politics and moral philosophy, autonomy as a
political concept was popular in the Enlightenment period and the French revolution in
1789. The word autonomous comes from the Greek words "autonomus" referring to
someone or something which lives by his/her own rule. It is therefore understood that
autonomous learning is related to self directed studies. The concept of autonomous
learning has been given a great importance since the 1970s; it is one of the most
valuable spin-offs of communicative language learning environment. It is generally
agreed that the concept of autonomy first entered the field of learning and teaching
through the council of Europe s Modern Languages Project which was founded in
1971. The current debate about autonomy in second and foreign language learning
originated in Holecs Autonomy and foreign language learning first published in 1979,
where he provides a definition of learner autonomy as:
To say of a learner that he is autonomous is to say
that he is capable of taking charge of his own learning
and nothing more ...to take charge of ones learning is
to bear responsibility for all the decisions concerning
all aspects of this learning.
(Holec , 1981:3)
Holec supports his definition by a set of roles the autonomous learner is supposed to
play such as:
- Determining the objectives.
- Defining the content and progression.
- Selecting the method and the techniques to be used.
- Monitoring the procedure of acquisition.
- Evaluating what has been acquired.
According to Holec learners take their first step towards autonomy when they
recognize that they are responsible for their own learning. This can be achieved
through the involvement in all aspects of the learning process such as: planning,
implementing and evaluating. The above mentioned roles cannot all be played by the
Algerian pupils in secondary education, (mainly those of 1AS level). Thus,
6

learner autonomy as viewed by Holec is really a far reaching aim in the Algerian
context.
Although Holecs (1981) definition covers all the areas that involve the transfer
of control over learning from the teacher to the learner, other researchers do not agree
with him and maintain that Holecs account of learner autonomy does not take into
consideration the nature of the cognitive capabilities underlying effective selfmanagement of learning.(Benson, 2001:49). Little (1991) also realizes this

in

Holecs definition and argues that:

Autonomy is a capacity - for detachment, critical
reflection, decision making, and independent action. It
entails that the learner will develop a particular kind of
psychological relation to the process and content of
his learning.
( Little , 1991: 3-4)
For this reason, Benson (2001) is for Littles definition and argues that this
definition adds a vital psychological aspect to Holecs one in that it describes
autonomy as a cognitive and self - management processes of learning. In fact,
learners will develop and their autonomy grows as a result of their never ending effort
to understand theWhy, the What and the How of their learning. (Dam, 1995)

Dickinson (1987) on the other hand, views learner autonomy as decision making
in leaning context. According to him autonomy refers to the situation in which the
learner is responsible for the decisions concerned with his or her learning and the
implementation of these decisions. ( Dicknison, 1987:81). A more elaborated definition
of learner autonomy is also put forward by Jeffries (1990) who views it as learning
in which an individual or a group of learners study on their own possibly for a
part or parts of a course, without direct intervention from a tutor, so that to take
a greater responsibility for what they learn.(Jeffries, 1990:35). Jeffries definition
of learner autonomy seems to be the most suitable for the purposes that are dealt with
in this dissertation. This is because we are much more concerned with this kind of
partial autonomy not with the full or total autonomy, i.e, absence of

the teacher either throughout all the phases of the overall learning process (total
autonomy ) or throughout one or a number of these phases (partial autonomy).
The difficulty of defining learner autonomy is mainly due the fact that there are
degrees of autonomy, and that the behaviour of autonomous learners can change
depending on their age, and how far they have progressed with their learning.

1.2.1 Autonomy Terms in the Literature

Learner autonomy in this study is not synonymous to self-instruction. Because
self-instruction as applied to foreign language learning has been defined as

:"a

deliberate long-term learning project instigated, planned and carried out by the
learner alone, without teachers

intervention". (Benson, 2001: 131). This means

that the process of learning is carried out individually by the learners without teacher
intervention. While the key concern of learner autonomy is not so much whether
learning is carried out by the learner, but whether it is controlled by the learner.
In autonomous learning, learners should have the ability to take charge of their own
learning. However, self-instruction is the techniques used in order to direct ones own
learning (Pemberton,1996). Thus, autonomy is the capacity for learning while selfinstruction is a way of learning. What needs to be stressed is that autonomy is a
universal human capacity that cannot be created in the educational setting; it can only
be encouraged, nurtured, promoted, or fostered ( Benson, 2001). Moreover, autonomy
should be seen as an essential goal of learning.
Dickinson (1987) and Benson (1996) identify different terms in the literature on
autonomy, some of which are used synonymously, and some others with separate
meanings:
1. Individualized instruction: designed to meet the needs of individual learners, but
the teacher prepares materials, sets objectives and evaluates the learners.
2. Flexible learning: the teacher or department provides materials and activities;

the learner has some choice over what to do and when, but there is usually little
negotiation about learning goals.
3. Self-Access learning: learning from materials and facilities that are organized to
facilitate learning. The term is neutral as to : how self-directed or other-directed
the learners are. (Dickinson, 1987:11).
4. Self-direction: a particular attitude to the learning task, where the learner
accepts responsibility for all the decisions of his learning, it is: the process or the
techniques used in directing ones own learning. (Dickinson, 1987:11).
5. Distance learning: involves a teacher who, though physically removed from the
learners, still oversees their learning. Distance teachers and learners traditionally
communicate by post and telephone, but now e-mail and web contact is more
common.

1.2.2 Individual and Group Autonomy

Learner autonomy is not only individual but also collaborative and entails some:
capacity and willingness to act independently and in cooperation with others.
(Dam, 2003:1 ). Learning does not necessarily imply learning individually, in fact,
interaction; negotiation and collaboration are important factors in promoting learner
autonomy. Littlewood (1999) attributes two characteristics to the practice of autonomy,
which he calls proactive and reactive autonomy. Proactive autonomy according to
Littlewood (1999) is when: learners take charge of their own learning, determin
their objectives, select methods and evaluate what has been acquired.
(Littlewood, 1999:75). whereas reactive autonomy is: the kind which does not
create its own directions but one direction has been initiated. (ibid). This is an
important distinction since it allows the practice of autonomy as a matter of individual
expression, and a feature of collaborative environments such as the project
workshops which are introduced in the middle and the secondary school. The
individual is supposed to interact negotiate and share responsibility and work within
the parameters laid down by the group.

Another distinction is made by Dam (2003) who puts forwards full and partial
autonomy. With full autonomy learners are in charge of their own learning decisions
and actions. With partial autonomy a learning programme combines autonomous and
non-autonomous elements. This may happen in the classroom (Classroom Autonomy
see 1.5), where autonomous activities are done both individually or in peer and group
work, within the interference of the teacher so as to provide guidance. Before dealing
with full autonomy in the Algerian context, partial autonomy should be fostered as a
first step in the long journey towards full autonomy.

1.2.3 The Rise of Autonomy in Language Education

It was not until the beginning of the 1970s that the word autonomy started to be
used in the field of language learning. But it has been long used in other fields such
as Philosophy, Religion, and Medicine. Then in the early 1970s, Benson (2001) says
that : the idea of autonomy first appeared in language learning along with the
establishment of Centre de Recherches et dApplications en Language (CRAL),
which was aimed at adult education. (Benson, 2001: 8). Autonomy in language
learning has become a necessity since then. Galileo has affirmed the importance of
autonomy saying you cannot teach a man anything; you can help him find it within
himself. In other words, teachers should not provide learners with knowledge but
rather help them finding it.
The concept of autonomy in language learning is linked to the communicative
approach both historically and theoretically. The rise of autonomy in language learning
in the 1970s and 1980s was connected to a broad rejection of behaviorist
assumptions about the nature of second language acquisition. Some researchers
started looking at language as a tool for communication. Individuals learn to express
themselves as members of their groups. Indeed the communicative approach has put
an emphasis on communicative functions of language, individuals needs, social
norms and autonomy. In the 1990s, several researchers associated with the
development of the communicative approach have explored the relationship of
autonomy to their work ( Littlewood, 1997, 1999; Nunan, 1995). By doing research on
autonomy in language learning, researchers within the sociology and psychology of

10

education have argued persuasively that the idea of autonomy and self-direction are
beneficial in general and to second language acquisition in particular. Similarly, Little
argues that:
Over the past twenty years or so, the concept of
autonomy together with related concepts such as
independent learning, self-direction and self-regulation,
has become increasingly important in the educational
literature, where it has been viewed as both a desirable
goal of education and a constituent element of good
teaching and learning.
(Little, 1991: 4)
Therefore, autonomy starts to be used in the educational context as goal of
learning rather than just a philosophy, i.e, cultivating language learners to be both
competent and autonomous in their learning of a language.

1.2.4

Levels of Autonomy
In the late 1990s a number of researchers claimed that the notion of autonomy

is

matter

of

levels,

there

are

several

models

of

autonomy

levels.

First, Nunans (1997) attempt involves a model of five levels of autonomy in the learner
action: awareness, involvement, intervention, creation and transcendence. At the
awareness level, for example, learners would be made aware of the pedagogical goals
and content of the materials. In the involvement and the intervention level learners
identify strategy implications of pedagogical tasks. Then identify their own preferred
learning styles and strategies. At the transcendence level, learners would make links
between the content of classroom learning and the world beyond.

Second, According to Littlewood (1997) there are three dimensions of autonomy

that involve first, an ability to operate independently with the language and use it to
communicate personal meanings in real, unpredictable situations,(autonomy as a
communicator). In the context of classroom organization, it involves learners ability to
take responsibility for their own learning and to apply active strategies (autonomy as a
learner). And in a broader context, it involves a higher and a greater generalized
autonomy as individuals (autonomy as a person).

11

Third, at around the same thing, Macaro (1997) proposed a somewhat similar
three-stage model (as stated in the table1.1 below) and finally, Scharle & Szab os
(2000) proposes three phase model involving: raising awareness, changing attitudes,
and transferring roles.
The above mentioned classifications are summarized in the table 1.1 below:

Nunan
Model
(1997)
- Awareness.
- Involvment
- Intervention.
- Creation.
- Transcendence

Littlewoods Model
(1997)
- Autonomy as a
communicator
- Autonomy as a
learner
- Autonomy as a
person.

Macaro Model (1997)

- Autonomy of
language
competence
- Autonomy of
language learning
competence
- Autonomy of choice
and action.

Scharle
&
Szabos(2000)
-Raising Awareness
-Changing attitudes
-Transferring roles.

Table 1.1 : Levels of autonomy.

In this study we are much more concerned with Litlewoods model mainly its
second stage autonomy as a learner. The aim of this research, in fact, is as stated in
Scharle and Szabo s model, to rise teachers and learners awareness of the
importance of learner autonomy, changing their negative attitudes towards it and
transferring roles.

1.2.5 Main Versions of Autonomy in EFL Context

Benson (1997) is the first to introduce the idea of different versions, or ways of
representing the idea of autonomy. The terms technical, psychological and political
are used to describe three major versions of autonomy in language education circles.
Other writers have cut the cake in different ways. In the recent literature Smith (2003)
has made a more general distinction between weak and strong pedagogies for
autonomy. While other researchers make a distinction between narrow and broad
views of autonomy. These models are again related to

12

the movement of the idea of autonomy in language education. Smith (2003), for
example, associates weak pedagogies with the idea of autonomy
As a capacity which students currently lack (and so
need training towards). Strong pedagogies on the
other hand, are based on the assumption that students
are already autonomous to some degree, and focus on
co-creating with students optimal conditions for the
exercise of their own autonomy.
(Smith, 2003: 131)
According to Smith(2003) stronger versions are more legitimate than the weaker
ones. From this perspective a gradual step by step approach may foster the
development of autonomy. According to Smiths view of pedagogies, we can say that
the pedagogy implemented in Algeria is not strong enough or not well developed,
since pupils in the secondary education really lack autonomy and need training to rely
on themselves and be independent in English learning.

1.2.6 Learner Autonomy The Let- Me- Learn Drive

If a learner cannot apply the knowledge acquired in the classroom in real life
context, the teaching procedure as well as the approach should be put to question. In
fact, learning a language does not mean learning grammar and vocabulary only, but
also learning how to use the language to communicate and develop a set of
autonomous competences. According to a study made by Heyworth (2004) The
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEF) provides important
insights into the range of different competences in learning a language, beyond the
narrowly linguistic ones. More specifically, these competences include [1]
-Pragmatic competence.
-Sociolinguistic competence.
-Intercultural competence.
-Strategic competence.
-Existential competence.
13

A question to be asked, Who is called on to develop these competences? In

other words, who is expected to plan, monitor and evaluate his or her learning with the
aim of achieving the above mentioned educational goals? The answer is the learner,
the autonomous learner, who will take control of his learning and will be able to learn
how to learn, once teaching stops. According to CEF(2004) by learning how to learn,
they ensure life-long learning, which allows them to learn independently from teachers.
Learner autonomy is not only a major goal but also a social and educational priority.
That is to say, the aim behind implementing autonomous learning all over the world
and in Algeria is to produce learners who do not stop learning when teaching stops.
But continue learning by relying on themselves, by doing this learners do not become
autonomous learners only but also autonomous responsible citizens. This is just one
of the reasons behind autonomy in education.

1.3 Reasons for Learner Autonomy

Many scholars and researchers in the domain of language teaching have believed
that autonomy is a very essential characteristic of successful learners. The fact that
justifies the rationale behind introducing it into the language classroom. Autonomy has
become a desirable goal for three reasons: psychological, practical and philosophical.

First, the psychological rationale is the most appealing to educationalists, simply

because learners in general learn better when they are in charge of their own learning.
In this context, Candy states that: When learners are involved in making choices
and decisions about the content and the mode of what they are studying,
learning is more meaningful, and thus, effective.(Candy, 1991:24). Moreover,
learners involved in the process are more likely to feel motivated in their learning and
motivated learners are generally successful learners.

14

We find an illustration of this in Dickinson (1987) who says that

...there is convincing evidence that people who take
the initiative in learning (proactive learners) learn more
things and learn better than do people who sit at the
feet of teachers, passively waiting to be taught (reactive
learners)...they enter into learning more purposefully
and with greater motivation.
(Dickinson ,1987:14)

Similarly, In EFL classrooms in Algeria, one can notice that successful learners
are to some extent psychologically free and independent from the teacher. This feeling
will motivate them more and more to be involved in their learning. While the
unsuccessful ones just wait passively to be provided with knowledge.

The second rationale behind autonomy is practicability which emerges from the
need of more suitable teaching situations. The traditional approaches are not practical
according to Van Lier (1988) there is a wide gap between knowledge obtained at
school and the real life outside of it. i.e, learners could use the language neither in
conversation nor in writing tasks. For this reason, a continuous adoption of
new approaches is now one of the distinctive feature in the field of language teaching
and learning.

Another problem that faces teachers even recently is that in the

classroom the teacher may not always be available to assist, due to the large number
of students in a classroom, so learners need to be able to learn on their own (this is
the case in Algerian schools in which sometimes the number of pupils in one class is
more than 40). A society may not provide the necessary resources to all its members
in every area of learning as an example the computers and even the internet provided
for pupils in secondary education may be insufficient or in a bad quality. In such
circumstances, learners need to obtain their own learning needs, either individually or
cooperatively, so as to get the knowledge and skill they desire.

15

Third, the philosophical rationale behind autonomy is the belief that the individual
has the right to be free to make his or her own choices not only in learning a language
but also in other subjects. According to Knowles (1975) societies are
happier and healthier with free individuals who have not become victims of choices
made by social institutions. He has emphasized that it is important to prepare learners
for a swiftly changing future, where independent learning will be indispensable for
effective functioning in society. With such preparation for independent learning,
learners will also maximize their life choices, since the attitude and the conception of
the role of the individual in society has been a move from: man as product of his
society to man as the producer of his society (Janne, 1977: 15 In Holec,
1981:3). If democratic states are to develop and flourish as democracies, they must
undertake educational measures to develop the capacity of their citizens to think and
act as free and self - determining individuals. So if Algeria is to flourish as a
democratic country, plenty of educational measures should be made first so as to
make Algerian learners and from an early age autonomous in their learning, free and
self-determining simply because children of today are men of tomorrow. Once they
have developed their autonomy as learners in a later stage they develop their
autonomy as persons and citizens.

1.4 Dominant Philosophies Underlying Learner Autonomy

The notion of autonomy in learning has long been part of a wide range of
educational philosophies and has recently been identified in educational policy as
crucial to the development of lifelong learning. Three dominant philosophies of
learning connecting up with learner autonomy have been discussed. They are:
humanism, constructivism and experiential learning. But before dealing with the above
mentioned theories, it is necessary to refer learner autonomy to its natural context or
what is known as biological autonomy. That is to say, before being an autonomous
learner the human being has passed through stages in which he has developed his
biological autonomy first (autonomy as a human being)
develops his autonomy as a learner.

16

and

in later stage he

In this context, Varela in his book Biological Autonomy says: Scientists would
benefit if they take a look at principles of biological autonomy before doing
research in cognition and social sciences. (Maturana & Varela, 1979:55). In
fact, as the human being starts his life by over reliance on the mother and develops his
self reliance gradually. The learner of a language also starts his learning by over
reliance on the teacher and in a later stage develops his self- reliance and be
gradually independent from him.

1.4.1 Developmental Learning

The term autopoesis was introduced to semiotics in 1973 by the Chilean
Biologists Maturan and Varela. It refers to :the self-producing organization that is
unique to living things. (ibid). According to the theory, the living system has a selfproducing or autopoetic organization. Autonomy in living systems can be noticed as
an example through what the American physiologist W. Bradford Cannon (1975) called
homoeostasis. It is the ability of mammals as an example to keep the body
temperature constant in the changing circumstances as the temperature of the
external environment varied.
Biological autonomy is a universal characteristic an unavoidable part of what is
to be human. According to Ushioda (2001) in biological terms we are autonomous in
two related sense: First, according to our own laws which are encoded in our genes
we grow. Our personalities and abilities grow as a process of maturity. They are in no
way the ones our parents or teachers decide to impose on us. Second, we are
autonomous in the sense that we are self-contained, for example, we can think our
own thoughts but not any ones else. We are autonomous even in the level of to which
we can express ourselves and communicate ideas to others. However, Biological
autonomy does not mean that the human being is cut off from his environment. Little
puts that: human beings do not produce themselves in [Link]
depends on nurture-the provision of physical or emotional care-with a particular
environment. (Little, 2002:8).Thus, the child while acquiring a language is
influenced mainly by the speech of his mother, and the learner while learning starts by
over-reliance and try gradually to be independent from the teacher.
17

1.4.2 Humanism and Learning Theory

Since the early 1970s language teaching methodologists and teachers have
been influenced by insights from humanist psychology, which emphasizes the
importance of affective factors in learning, such as: motivation, age, aptitude, and
learners attitudes towards the language. Humanism as a philosophy is a paradigm
that emphasizes sensitivity and compassion towards learners, and the rejection of
whatever makes pupils feel not at ease while learning. That is to say, to remove any
obstacle or a psychological barrier that can undermine learning a language such as:
stress, anxiety, and shyness, etc . In this vein,
affective aspects of language learning

Roberts et al. claim that: the

are as important as the cognitive

aspects, [and therefore] the learner should be treated in some sense as a 'whole
person. (Robert et al. 1994:101).

That is to say, the teacher should not be

concerned with the mental or the cognitive side of the learner personality only but also
with him as a whole person with fears, needs and desires.

According to this approach of philosophy Moskowitz (1988) provides a list of

characteristics which are supposed to be found in learners taught by the humanistic
approach, they :
- are natural and spontaneous rather than conforming.
- accept themselves and others.
- have a strong sense of responsibility.
- are independent and look to themselves for their own growth.
- have a mission in life. (adapted from Moskowitz ,1988:12 In Candy, 1991)
Thus, humanism as an approach of language learning encourages taking
responsibility and being independent in learning a language. The most famous
methods illustrating the humanistic approach in ELT are the Silent Method

and

Community language learning (CLL ). The techniques of the silent method make it
possible for the teacher to say less and the students to say more for the reason to
produce autonomous learners and speakers of a language. CLL views learning as a
collective experience in which learners engage in various group tasks for promoting
group dynamics to lower their anxiety and the impact of other affective factors.
18

As for the application of this theory in ELT context, humanistic teachers should
look for how to motivate their learners. To find out whether they are learning English
because it is a part of the curriculum and they have to. Or because they like it and
want to be integrated in its speech community . Certain roles are attributed to the
humanistic language teacher such as:
-To foster an emotional secure environment.
-To search for how to motivate learners to learn effectively.
-To develop learners awareness and develop their independence.
-To be comprehensive and play the role of facilitator and mainly that of a counselor.
Generally speaking teachers in secondary schools are aware that treating pupils
with consideration and compassion is really motivating. Because pupils quite often
repeat for instance: We like Physics because we like the teacher and we do not like
learning English because of the teacher. In this context Candy (1991) views that: In a
language course, success depends less on materials, techniques and linguistic
analyses, and more on what goes on inside and between the people in the
classroom. ( Candy ,1991:45). That is to say, if the atmosphere of the classroom
does not make learners relaxed and the relation between teachers and learners is not
based on mutual respect, and humanistic side, motivation and success in this context
are hard to be achieved.

1.4.3 Constructivism
Constructivism is a philosophy of learning which considers learning as an active,
constructive process. In other words people actively construct or create their own
knowledge. Constructivism is founded on the basis that, knowledge cannot be taught
but only learnt (that is to say constructed). In other words, knowledge is built up : by
reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world
we live in. (Thanasoulas, 2000:12). Constructivism is the label given to a set of
theories about learning which fall somewhere between cognitive and humanistic views.
It is often articulated in contrast to the behaviorist model of learning. Unlike
behaviorism, the constructivist cognitive theory recognizes the importance of the mind
19

in making sense of the material with which it is presented. It is interested in changes in

mental states of learning on which Richardson (1997) argues that from the
constructivist perspective, learning is not a stimulus-response phenomenon. It requires
self-regulation and the building of conceptual structures through reflection and
abstraction. (Richardson, 1997:14).
Furthermore, there are several guiding principles of this theory, some of them
are put by Jacqueline and Martin (2008 ) as follows:
1- Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues
around which students are actively trying to construct meaning .
2- Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. And parts must be
understood in the context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on
primary concepts, not isolated facts.
3- In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to
perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support those models.
4- The purpose of learning is to construct his or her own meaning, not just memorize
the right answers. The only valuable way to measure learning is to make the
assessment part of the learning process what is referred to as continuous evaluation
that is used in secondary education in Algeria in which pupils are evaluated while
engaging in learning tasks in the classroom.
We can distinguish between:
- Cognitive constructivism: which is about how the individual learner understands
things in terms of developmental stages. Starting from the work of Piaget who
demonstrated empirically that childrens minds were not empty, but actively processed
the material with which they were presented.

- Social constructivism: emphasizes how meanings and understandings grow out of

social encounters. The most significant bases of a social constructivist theory were laid
down by Vygotsky (1896-1934) in his theory of the ZPD (zone of proximal
development). It is the difference between what a learner can do with help of teachers
and peers and what he can do without help, i.e, the child first follows adults example
and gradually develops the ability to do certain tasks without help.
20

[Link] Cognitive Constructivism (Piagets Theory)

Formalization of the cognitive developmental theory is generally attributed to Jean
Piaget (1896-1980) a Swiss biologist and psychologist, most of his studies dealt with
the development of childrens understanding. His view of how children minds work and
develop has been enormously influential particularly in educational theory.
His particular insight was the role of maturation (simply growing up) in childrens
increasing capacity to understand their world. They cannot undertake certain tasks
until they are psychologically mature enough to do so. Piaget proposes four stages in
human development: the sensorimotor stage in which children discover the reality of
their environment, the preoperational stage, the concrete operational stage and formal
operational stage. These stages are better summarized in the table1.2 below:

Names of stage
Sensorimotor
Stage

Age
Newly born
to Two years
old

Characteristics
- Constructs set of concepts about reality and
how it works.

Preoperational
Stage

Between two
and seven
years

-The child cannot conceptualize abstractly

-The child needs concrete physical situations

Concrete

Between

- Child starts to conceptualize.

operations Stage

seven and

- Create logical structures which give meaning

eleven years

to physical experiences.
- Solves problems like arithmetic equations with
numbers not just with objects.

Formal operations

Between

- Child cognitive structures are like those of an

stage

eleven and

adult and include conceptual reasoning.

fifteen years
Table 1.2 The Childs four developmental Stages.( source: [Link]/constructivism/piaget/html)

21

It is noticed that just like child maturation, the learner of the language develops his
autonomy as a process of maturation too. In the beginning he is too much reliant on
the teacher and later on develops his self-reliance.
According to Piaget, three fundamental processes contribute to the childs cognitive
development. These are assimilation, accommodation, and equilibrium.
When individuals assimilate, they incorporate the new experience into an already
existing framework without changing that framework. Accommodation is the
adjustment involved in the formation of new mental structures needed to
accommodate new information. Equilibration involved the person striking a balance
between him and the environment, between assimilation and accommodation.
Richardson summarizes Piagets idea as follows:
When a child experiences a new event, disequilibrium
set in until he was able to assimilate and accommodate
the new information and thus attain equilibrium which
varied with the levels of development and the problems,
which needed to be solved.
( Richardson, 1997:18)
Thus, Piaget brought a mechanism by which knowledge is constructed. Individuals
construct new knowledge from their experiences. Here the notion of autonomy is
clearly stated through the construction of knowledge in a cognitive way relying on
assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium.

As far the implications of the theory in educational context are concerned, Piaget
maintains that the ultimate aim of education is for the individual to develop the
autonomy of thought to create new original ideas rather than just recycle old ones.
Similar aim is stated by Jarvis& Chandler who say that:the development of a
kind of person whose thought and action in his life are to be explained by
reference to his own choices, decisions, reflections, deliberations in short, his
own activity of mind. (Jarvis& Chandler, 2001 :139 ). Therefore, as a first step
towards autonomy in learning a language the learner should first develop his own
reflections and activity of mind, in other words, the learner is supposed to be

22

responsible for his actions and thoughts and independently capable to justify them.

[Link] Social Constructivism ( Vygotskys Theory)

Learning a language is not only a cognitive but also a social activity, through which
children learn to interact with other people such as family members, friends, teachers
and peers. Therefore, learners construct understanding together that wouldnt be
possible alone. This idea is the basis of Social Constructivism a theory
led by Vygotsky (1896-1934) a Russian psychologist and philosopher who suggests
that knowledge is first constructed in a social context and after it is appropriated by
individuals. In 1962, he published Social Development Theory , This theory stresses
the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition, that is to say
community plays a central role in the process of making meaning.

According to Vygotsky the major themes of this theory are as follow:

1- Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development.
In contrast, to Jean Piagets understanding of child development (in which
development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky thinks social learning precedes
development. He states: Every function in the childs cultural development
appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first,
between

people

(interpsychological)

and

then

inside

the

(intrapsychological). (Vygotsky, 1978:124).

child
.

2- The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): refers to anyone who has a better
understanding or a higher ability level than the learner. The MKO is normally thought
of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, or even
computers

3- The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the distance between a students

ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the
students ability solving the problem independently.
According to Vygotsky, humans use tools, such as speech and writing, to mediate
their social environments. Vygotskys theory promotes learning contexts in which
students play an active role in learning from each others in peer and in group

23

work and from the teacher. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a
teacher should collaborate with his or her students in order to facilitate meaning
construction in students. Learning, therefore, becomes a reciprocal experience for the
students and teacher.
Both Piaget and Vygotsky are regarded as constructivists. The key ideas of their
theories differ. Piaget found that children act independently on the physical world to
discover what it has to offer. Vygotsky, on the other hand, thought that human mental
activity is the result of social learning. As children master tasks, they will engage in
cooperative dialogues with others. Finally, we have no interest in arguing the virtues of
one man's ideas over the other, however, both include the notion of learner autonomy
in somehow different ways in their theories.
Learning activities in constructivist setting are characterized by active
engagement, inquiry, problem solving and engagement with others. Accordingly the
teacher here is a guide and facilitator. (The actually implemented approach in Algerian
context CBA is referred to as constructivist approach) . Constructivism tends to value
learners freedom to think as they wish; it encourages and promotes learner
centeredness and learner autonomy as necessary conditions for success in language
learning.

1.4.4 Experiential Learning

Kolb (1984) is a Professor of Organizational Behavior, he is known

by his highly influential book entitled Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source
of Learning and Development. It was first published in 1984, his ideas have had a
dramatic impact on the development of lifelong learning models. Of course, Kolb's
work can be traced back to that famous dictum of Confucius around 450 BC:

"Tell

me, and I will forget. Show me, and I may remember. Involve me, and I will
understand." Experiential learning is the process of making meaning from direct
experience. Aristotle once said, for the things we have to learn before we can do them,
we learn by doing them.

24

Similarly David Kolb believes that: learning is the process whereby knowledge is
created through the transformation of experience. (Kolb, 1984: 38).

Kolb

presents a cyclical model of learning, consisting of four stages. One may begin at any
stage, but must follow each other in the sequence:
- Concrete experience (or DO)

where the learner actively experiences an activity

such as reordering, summarizing, and doing a project work.

- Reflective observation (or OBSERVE) When the learner reflects on that experience.
-abstract conceptualization (or THINK) to form a model of what is observed.
- Active experimentation ( PLAN) To plan how to deal with next similar experiences.
Kolb identified four learning styles which correspond to these stages. The styles
highlight

conditions

under

which

learners

learn

better.

These

styles

are:

- Assimilators, who learn better when presented with sound logical theories to
consider.
- Converges, who learn better when provided with practical applications of theories.
- Accommodators, who learn better when provided with hands-on experiences.
- Divergers, who learn better when allowed observing and collecting a wide range of
information.
Kolbs four-stage learning cycle shows how experience is translated through reflection
into concepts, which in turn are used as guides for active experimentation and the
choice of new experiences.
As far as the application of experiential learning in the process of teaching and
learning is concerned, learners need to manage their own learning by taking
responsibility, by doing this, they will be producers rather than consumers of language
courses. So, experiential learning, which is basically learning-by-doing gives learners
freedom to use their capacities independently. Project work is a common practice of
experiential learning in language learning. It is supposed to be an effective method of
facilitating autonomy. In fact, through it learners have the opportunity to learn
autonomously. Other characteristics of the experiential method are provided in the
diagram 1.1 below :

25

Independent learning
Problem solving

Project work .

Activity based

Personal development
Experiential
Learning
Methods

A Prior learning

Social change

Non traditional

Diagram 1.1 :Characteristics of experiential Learning methods .( Source:

[Link] )

Creating an experiential learning environment in the Algerian secondary schools

can be seen as a challenging task. Since most teachers have been taught through the
traditional classrooms. It has been always a difficult task to get pupils out of their
chairs and involve them in experiences. This is due to the lack of motivation and the
noise made by pupils. So teachers have to do their best in order to provide direct
experience. Sometimes they need the use of written, audio and visual materials. One
of the major aims of experiential learning is developing students as individuals who are
capable to use their capacities independently to do experiences and reach results.
Thus this theory encourages the notion of autonomy in learning a language.

1.5 Classroom Autonomy

Autonomy of the classroom is a relative concept with multi-dimensional meaning.
It is relative in the sense that students cannot be completely out of the control of
teachers

and

teachers cannot go beyond the existing educational system. The

teacher is still the main source of learning materials. The syllabus is still an important
document to guide students to learn. In order to create the real autonomy of the
classroom, we must foster a truly learner - centered philosophy of education.
Benson (2007) discusses the implications of the rise of classroom autonomy by
arguing that it has led to a re-conceptualization of autonomy from a theory or a
26

philosophy to a usable construct for teachers who want to help their learners develop
autonomy . The teachers attitudes towards the learner change from considering them
passive recipients to collaborators as it is put by Reinders & Lamb : While
introducing

autonomy

in

the

classroom

teachers

consider

students

collaborators in the learning process.( Reinders and Lamb, 2006:47).To see

learners as collaborators and partners means to share responsibility with them in
language learning.

Reinders and Lamb (2006) further explain that autonomy support can be
manifested in the classroom in at least 3 distinct ways:
- Organizational autonomy support e.g, allowing students some decision-making role
in terms of classroom management issues.
- Procedural autonomy support e.g, offering students choices about the use of different
media to present ideas.
- Cognitive autonomy support, i.e, affording opportunities for students to evaluate work
. correct their mistakes, correct each others, etc.

In addition to fostering time management and organization, teachers can lead

discussions in which they help students plan, schedule, and prioritize their tasks and
activities, making daily lists of tasks to complete, writing reminder notes, carrying a
notebook, scheduling weekly events and preparing for the next day the night before,
etc. so the teacher s role is very important because:
In formal educational contexts learners do not
automatically accept responsibility for their learning
teachers must help them to do so; and they will not
necessarily find it easy to reflect critically on the
learning process, teachers must first provide them
with appropriate tools and with
opportunities to
practise using them.
(Little ,1991:176-77)
English teachers have plenty of roles to play in establishing an atmosphere that really
encourages autonomy and enhance learners motivation.

27

Nunan (1996) presents a picture of what an autonomous classroom and nonautonomous classroom look like (see the table1.3 below):

Autonomous classrooms

Non-autonomous classrooms

- Decisions are made with much

- Teachers make all decisions about

reference to students.

content and classroom norms.

- Teacher introduces range of

- Students are exposed to the

activities by taking students needs

activities they are expected to

and interests into consideration.

perform.

- Students are allowed to reflect on, - The assessment and evaluation

assess and evaluate their learning part are structured in a traditional
process.

manner in a way that tests and

exams are carried out.

Table1.3: Comparison between autonomous and non autonomous classrooms

( Adapted from Nunan, 1996: 21)

As far as secondary classes in Algeria are concerned, they are supposed to be

learner-centered with a gradual application of learner autonomy. This is what the CBA
advocates, but reality is different, since nearly most of these classes are nonautonomous in which the teacher makes all the decisions. Therefore, in order to
promote autonomy and integration, pupils in secondary education are required to
take more responsibility in the classroom through selection of the material to work,
time management, and self-evaluation. All these requirements cant be achieved
unless the language teacher gives a hand to the pupils so as to step in the
autonomous learning environment.

1.6 Learner Autonomy and Language Proficiency

Autonomous learning is more effective than non-autonomous learning. In other
words, the development of autonomy implies better language learning. This is one of
the bases almost all research in the field of autonomy is based on.

28

There are researchers who explore the relationship between learner autonomy and
language proficiency among them: Ablard and Lipschultz (1998), Corno and
Mandinach (1983), Risenberg and Zimmerman (1992), and

Zhang and Li(2004).

First, Corno and Mandinach (1983) initially proposed that learner autonomy could help
to improve the language proficiency of learners and concluded that autonomous
learners were the learners of high language proficiency.
- Risen berg and Zimmerman (1992) further pointed out that a high degree of
learner autonomy among the high-achieving students would achieve high scores and
the learner with low degrees of learner autonomy achieves low scores. Thus learner
autonomy could augment the academic scores.

Deng Dafei a Chinese EFL teacher, has conducted a study in 2004 to

investigate the relationship between learner autonomy and English proficiency in a
sample of 129 secondary pupils in different schools in China among which 42 are male
and 87 are female. They have studied English for seven years. By means of a
questionnaire, proficiency tests and an interview. The results of the study indicate that
the students English proficiency is significantly and positively related to their learner
autonomy.

To sum up, research can help to test the hypothesis that autonomy in language
learning is equivalent to better language learning, and
.. research is likely to be most valuable if it establishes
proficiency criteria and assessment tools relevant to
autonomous learning, and documents the ways in which
the development of autonomy and proficiency interact.
(Benson, 2001: 191-192)

The research conducted give a legitimacy of asking for autonomy to be a fundamental

goal in language learning. This is another reason that pave the way to the notion of
learner autonomy in educational context. (See Reasons for Learner Autonomy 1.3).

29

1.7 Conditions for Learner Autonomy

Learner autonomy is not a product readymade for teachers to apply, nor is it an
article of faith (Bassou, 2008). Learner autonomy is obtained when certain conditions
are available: motivation and attitudes and learning strategies on the part of the
learner, and materials. To attain autonomy there has to be a teacher on whom it will be
incumbent to show the way to autonomous learning. Thus, in our secondary schools
without the teachers role and learners positive attitudes, maintaining autonomy in
EFL classroom seems to be difficult if not impossible.

1.7.1 Learners Attitudes and Motivation

It is evident that people learn differently and at different paces because of their
biological and psychological differences. Success of a learning activity is, to some
extent, contingent upon learners' attitude towards the learning activity and their desire
to learn. In other words, language learning has an affective component. Jhonson
(1998) claims that meeting and interiorizing the grammar of a foreign language is not
simply an intelligent, cognitive act. It is a highly affective one too. Affective variables
can impact the process of learning either positively or negatively Gardner and
MacIntyre (1993) define affective variables as the: emotionally relevant
characteristics of the individual that influence how she/he will respond to any
situation. (Gardner and MacIntyre, 1993:128). So it is necessary to shed some light
on learners attitudes and motivation.
Wenden defines attitudes as: learned motivations, valued beliefs,
evaluations, what one believes is acceptable, or responses oriented towards
approaching or avoiding. (Wenden, 1998: 52). For her, two kinds of attitudes are
crucial: attitudes learners hold about their role in the learning process and their
capability as learners. In a sense, attitudes are a form of metacognitive knowledge. At
any rate: learner beliefs about their role and capability as learners will be
shaped and maintained by other beliefs they hold about themselves as
learners. (ibid, 54). For example, if learners believe that certain personality types
cannot learn a foreign language such as English and they believe that they are
30

that type of person (Iam not good at language learning), then they will think that they
are fighting a "losing battle" . Furthermore, if learners think learning is successful only
within the context of the traditional classroom, where the teacher knows best, they
must follow in the teacher's footsteps. Therefore, they are likely to be resistant to
learner-centered strategies which seem for most of them as unsecure steps, though
these strategies are aiming at autonomy. In this situation success is likely to be
undermined.
It seems clear that positive attitudes are conducive to increased motivation, while
negative attitudes have the opposite effect. Thus, motivation also is a basic condition
for autonomous learning, it is one of the key factors that influence the rate and
success of second or foreign language. According to Gardner and MacIntyre (1993),
motivation is comprised of three components: desire to achieve a goal, effort extended
in this direction, and satisfaction with the task. As a second condition, motivation plays
a key role in the learners readiness for autonomous learning. The more motivation
they have, the more effort they tend to put into learning the language. So, it is very
important to motivate learners to learn a foreign language. A strong link between
motivation and autonomy is perceived by Dickinson (1995) who concludes that:
Enhanced motivation is a conditional on learners taking
responsibility for their own learning, noticing that their
successes or failures are related to their own efforts
rather than to the factors out of their control.
(Dickinson, 1995:14)
There is clearly an intimate but rather a complex relationship between the
concepts of autonomy and motivation. On a simple level, we can state with confidence
that autonomy relies on motivation, but we cannot state with equal confidence that
motivation relies on autonomy. According to

Ryan and Deci, (2000) Intrinsic

motivation decreases as autonomy decreases. Autonomy is the opposite of being

controlled. According to them there is a difference between I choose to do this and I
have to do this. Autonomous learners become highly motivated and autonomy leads
to better and more effective work.

31

In this context Knowles' claim is illustrative:

There is convincing evidence that people who take the
initiative in learning (proactive learners) learn more
things and learn better than do people who sit at the
feet of teachers, passively waiting to be taught (reactive
learners). They enter into learning more purposefully
and with greater motivation.
(Knowles, 1975 : 14)
Thus, one cannot talk about fostering learner autonomy without solving the problem of
motivation. If pupils are not motivated in learning English they will not succeed, no
matter how well the teacher does his job.

1.7.2 Language Learning Strategies

Research into language learning strategies has begun in the 1960s. In most of
the research the primary concern has been on identifying what good language
learners do to learn a second or foreign language. Rubin (1975) has focused on the
strategies of successful learners, once identified; such strategies could be made
available to less successful learners. Rubin (1975) has classified strategies in terms of
contributing directly or indirectly to language learning. Naiman et al. (1978), Cohen
and Aphek (1981), Wenden (1982), Chamot and O'Malley (1987), and many others
have studied strategies used by language learners during the process of second and
foreign language learning.
The term language learning strategy has been defined by many researchers. Rubin
(1975) defines learning strategies as any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines
used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information.
Similarly, Wenden (1998) defines them as follows:learning strategies are mental
steps or operations that learners use to learn a new language and to regulate
their efforts to do so. (Wenden, 1998: 18). All language learners use language
learning strategies either consciously or unconsciously when processing new
information and performing tasks in the language classroom, this one feature of
language learning strategies [2]. In English learning our pupils are using certain
strategies which they learn to use in the middle school and learn how to use others in
32

the secondary level. Learners can face challenging tasks that present a real difficulty
for them. So they attempt to find the quickest or the easiest way to do tasks. That is to
say, using language learning strategies is inescapable.

[Link] Classifications of Learning Strategies

Language learning strategies have been classified by many scholars (Wenden
and Rubin 1987; O'Malley et al. 1985; Oxford 1990; Stern 1992, etc.) Rubin has
pioneered much of the work in the field of strategies. Some of these classifications are
illustrated in the table 1.4 below:
Rubin (1975)

OMalley et

[Link] (1990)

Stern (1992)

al(1990)
- Learning

- Metacognitive

- Direct Strategies

- Management and

strategies

strategies

memory, cognitive,

Planning Strategies

- Cognitive

compensation.

- Cognitive Strategies

- Communication

strategies

- Indirect strategies:

- Communicative -

strategies

- Scio-affective

metacognitive,

Experiential Strategies

strategies

- Affective and

- Interpersonal

social.

Strategies

- Social strategies

- Affective Strategies.

Table1.4 Classification of Language Learning Strategies.

It is noticed from the table that (other than Sterns classification), the other
classifications reflect more or less the same categorizations of language learning
strategies without any radical changes.
A central research project on learning strategies is the one surveyed in O'Malley
and Chamot (1990). According to them, learning strategies are special thoughts or
behaviours that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new
information. We will briefly discuss some of the main learning strategies:
Cognitive strategies are used for manipulating information to be learned in ways that
33

enhance learning, as examples of these strategies: translation, note-taking and

deduction, etc. While metacognitive strategies are used for planning, monitoring, and
evaluating the learning activity such as; self-monitoring, self-evaluation. In addition to
social affective strategies which are used for controlling emotional reactions, and to
reduce anxiety and promote self-motivation and for cooperating with others some of
the strategies included in this category are: cooperation, questioning for clarification,
feedback and reinforcement. The table 1.5 below illustrates OMalley and Chamot
maximal list of strategies.
Metacognitive
Strategies

-Directed attension: deciding in advance to concentrate on

general aspect of a learning task.
-Selective attension: deciding to pay attention to a specific part
of the language input
-Self-management: trying to arrange the appropriate conditions
for learning.
-Advanced preparation: planning the linguistic components of
the language task.
-Self-Monitoring: checking ones performance as one speaks.
Self-Evaluation: checking how well one is doing .

Cognitive
Strategies

-Self-Reinforcement: giving oneself rewards for success.

-Resourcing: making use of language materials such as
dictionaries.
-Deduction: conscious application of rules to processing the L2.
-Translation: using the first language as a basis for
understanding and producing L2.
-Note taking: writing down details of a text.
-Key word: using key words memory techniques
-Transfer: using previous knowledge to help language learning.
-Inferencing: guessing meaning of a word from the context

Social
Affective
strategies

-Cooperation: working with fellow students on language

-question for clarification: asking a teacher or native for
explanation, help, etc.

Table:1.5 Maximal list of learning strategies. (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990: 44)
34

The selection of this classification is due mainly to the fact that we are
concerned with pupils of secondary education mainly those of 1AS, and these
strategies seem to be suitable for them, their age and their level of language
proficiency. According to Oxford (1990) the choice of strategies used among students
learning a second language differs according to certain factors such as: Motivation,
age, Gender, etc. Learning style also, for example, global students used strategies to
find meaning such as guessing, predicting , etc. Cultural background as well for
example, in a culture that prizes individual competition and has organized its
educational system around competitive tasks. Successful language learners may
prefer strategies that allow them to work alone rather than social strategies that call
for collaboration with other. In addition to the attitudes and beliefs, i.e, negative
attitudes and beliefs often cause poor strategy use. The nature of the task also helps
in determining the strategies to be employed.

[Link] Learner Strategies for Learner Autonomy

Rubin and Thompson (1982) have developed a set of strategies that help
language learners becoming more successful and more autonomous:
- Self-management Strategies: key strategy recommended by Rubin and Thomson,
they include the identification of ones successful learning experiences and
organizing ones study approach.
- Planning strategies: students are provided with suggestions on how to plan and get a
general idea of the content.
- Monitoring strategies: students are advised to use their own errors in the language to
identify their areas of weakness, what is referring to as self-evaluation.
Learning strategies improved learning among students. According to oxford the
use of certain language learning strategies made the process of learning more selfdirected that is to say more autonomous. Learning strategies are regarded by Oxford
as : "specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more
enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferrable to new
situations." (Oxford, 1990: 8). In foreign language teaching and learning there is a
shift from teacher centered to learner centered instruction.
35

Language learning strategies are made in the center of attention for some educators
because the use of such strategies can broaden the horizons of the learner and may
empower him or her to become autonomous in some or all aspects of language
learning.
in order to help learners enhance learner autonomy, Wenden (1998) illustrates
five general strategies:
- Directed attention, when deciding in advance to concentrate on general aspects of a
task
- Selective attention, paying attention to specific aspects of a task.
-Self-monitoring, i.e, checking one's performance as one speaks.
-Self-evaluation, i.e, appraising one's performance in relation to one's own standards.
-Self-reinforcement is rewarding oneself for success.
Pupils of 1AS level are supposed to develop certain strategies in the middle
school, and they are required in this level to consolidate the strategies already
acquired and to learn how to use new ones. This research will investigate whether or
not some of these strategies are used by these pupils in EFL classroom.

[Link] Strategy Training for Learners

It has been said that teaching is nothing more than showing someone that
something is possible, and learning is merely discovering that something is possible.
In this process learners need learning how to learn or what is referred to as learner
training. Dickinson (1995) adds that learner training should aim to help learners
develop the ability to take more responsibility for their own learning. Thus, help
learners become autonomous. So what is Learner Training?
Learner Training is not a term which is accepted by everyone working in the field of
autonomy in language learning. (Sinclair, 1989). Those who object to the term
training for being too narrowly and too functionally focused, tend to use other terms,
such as learner development, learning to learn, learning learning and promoting
autonomy. It is training learners to use specific strategies in order to function
successfully without a teacher.

36

It is also referred to as strategy training. In this context Ellis and Sinclair (1989) define
learner training as enabling learners of English to discover learning strategies that suit
them best. So they can learn more effectively. Effective strategy training according to
Ellis and Sinclair (1989) should be based on the followings:
- Learners attitudes, beliefs and needs.
- It should fit learners styles of learning.
- Affective issues such as: anxiety, motivation and interests all of which influences
strategy choice should be directly addressed by strategy training.
To sum up, learner training is seen as a technical approach for promoting learner
autonomy. The focus is on how to learn not on what to learn.

When strategy

instruction is done successfully, students will be able to use some of the strategies
independently. As example pupils will be able to correct themselves, to evaluate their
learning, and to apply the knowledge obtained in the class outside of it successfully.
Strategy training is effective in promoting the establishment of learner autonomy.

1.7.3 Materials of Learning

One of the most important conditions of learner autonomy is the availability of
authentic materials and study aids so as the learner can work independently far away
from the teacher, there are many materials such as:

- Monolingual and bilingual dictionaries that help learners finding the meaning of
words, they build learners confidence and benefit them greatly while reading and
writing.
Grammar books

make students more responsible for their learning, and since not

all activities can be done in the classroom because of the lack of time, learners can
consolidate the knowledge acquired in the classroom and do further practice, they can
as well prepare the next grammar lesson. Thus, learners can be autonomous and
independent and

get away from the idea that the teacher knows best.

- Homework allows learners to check their understanding and progress in learning and
rely on themselves to solve activities.

37

-Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is a form of computer-based learning

- The Internet also may be an excellent source of authentic listening and reading
texts, blogs, chat rooms, etc.

- Authentic reading and listening texts provide opportunities to develop reading and
listening strategies, (i.e. reading in the target language). Authentic texts, and authentic
experiences, are by far the richest source of language. Navarro and Brady note that
authentic texts: can play a key role in enhancing positive attitudes to learning,
in promoting a wide range of skills, and in enabling students to work
independently of the teacher. (Navarro and Brady, 2003:7). Learners in Algeria,
being not in the target language country, they are presented with somehow
considerable opportunity to raise to this challenge of independence so that to learn
English effectively.( See Suggested Materials for Promoting Learner Autonomy 4.5.1)

1.8 Teacher Autonomy and Learner Autonomy

According to Little (1995), It has been stressed that learner autonomy and teacher
autonomy are interdependent, and that teachers wishing to promote greater learner
autonomy need to: start with themselves, reflecting on their own beliefs,
practices, experiences and expectations of the teaching/learning situation.
(Little, 1995:47).

Teacher autonomy is one of the most significant and problematic

concepts that have emerged from the field of autonomy in recent years. The idea has
been introduced into the language teaching literature by Allwright (1988) and later
developed by Little (1995). Teacher autonomy appears to be understood somewhat
differently in language teaching and broader educational contexts. It primarily refers to
teachers freedom in curriculum implementation.

Teacher autonomy has been

generally referred to as teachers control over their own teaching (Smith 2003). Little
(1996) describes teachers with autonomy as having a strong sense of personal
responsibility for their teaching, with continuous reflection and analysis for better
control of the teaching process, and exploring the freedom that this confers. Aoki
(1999), for example, suggests that teacher autonomy could be defined by analogy with
learner autonomy.

38

If learner autonomy is
The capacity, freedom, and/or responsibility to make
choices concerning ones own learning . . . teacher
autonomy, by analogy, can be defined as capacity,
freedom to make choices concerning ones own
teaching.
( Aoki, 1999:111)

She finds this analogy problematic, because it does not imply in itself that teacher
autonomy has a relation to do with the development of the autonomy of learners. The
shift of autonomy to classroom contexts has raised complex issues concerned with the
teachers role as a mediator between educational authorities and students. From one
side the teacher is asked to follow the curriculum made by the educational authorities.
And from the other hand, he has to assure his freedom so as he can cultivate it in his
learners. Clearly said, the notion of freedom of teachers is relative. It can be seen in
freedom of choice of reading texts as an example, different project works other than
those proposed in the textbook and different materials to be used. Generally speaking
applying the theme of a file or unit in the textbook relying on his artistry and
skillfulness. Though sometimes insufficient formation is provided by authorities,
autonomous teachers find it better to rely on themselves so that to improve their
teaching.
Users of the term teacher autonomy have focused on different dimensions, as it
is clear from the following examples (Little, 1995):
1- Self-directed professional action: Teachers may be autonomous in the sense of
having a strong sense of personal responsibility for their teaching, exercising via
continuous reflection and analysis . . . affective and cognitive control of the teaching
process. (Little, 1995).

2- Self-directed professional development: one who is aware of why, when, where and
how pedagogical skills can be acquired in the self-conscious awareness of teaching
practice itself. (Little, 1995).
3- Freedom from control by others over professional action. Undoubtedly this is the
most widely accepted sense of the term teacher autonomy in the general educational
literature. In this sense the term means freedom from external control

39

this freedom seems to be relative, since the teacher may be free in the selection of
the techniques of teaching not in the choice of the content and the approach. In this
sense the term teacher autonomy may be employed in the field of second language
education.

There is a fine balance between supporting students on the one hand, and being
too prescriptive or directive on the other. It is part of the tension described by
McDonough (1999) as the double-edged relation between teaching people to learn
and learner autonomy as: every learner-trainers dilemma is how to best help
learners discover their most satisfactory way of learning without stifling the very
independence they are trying to develop.( McDonough, 1999:12) . However we
may notice that teaching learners how to learn is just a first step in the process of
promoting learner autonomy, and later they will be gradually independent.

1.9 Instructional Materials and Learner Autonomy

The field of language teaching and learning could not be far from the huge
technological advance. In the modern world computers are becoming more and more
indispensible and powerful means in education, the internet also. A common
justification of the establishment of such a powerful presence of both in foreign
language learning and teaching is that they promote learner autonomy which
researchers now set as a very important goal in the field.

1.9.1 Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)

CALL was invented in 1960s. It puts a strong emphasis on student-centered
lessons that allow the learners to learn on their own, it is essential in the sense:
- It helps teachers to facilitate language learning process.

- CALL can be used to reinforce what has been learned in the classrooms.
- It can also be used as remedial to help learners with limited language proficiency.
- It carries two important features: individualized learning and bidirectional learning.
The focus of CALL is learning, and not teaching that is why it helps at accelerating
self-directed learning (autonomous learning). CALL is generally referred to as just one
part of information and communication technologies.
40

1.9.2 Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

According to Davies and Hewer (2008) ICT is a term that is currently favoured by
most businesses and educational institutions. It describes the new technologies and
reflects the important role that computers and the web play in the educational context.
ICT has been introduced in Language teaching and learning since the 1980s. It is
originally intended to serve as a means of improving efficiency in the educational
process. Certainly ICT in modern EFL classroom could help learners.
For many students, learning English via e-mail or working on the Internet may appear
to be motivated and interesting. The use of the World Wide Web as a tool may change
not only the contents, but also the teaching procedures. Some learners (not all of
them) use the net as a source of authentic material for the study of English and doing
project work.

Emails and internet in general can be attractive, they offer students the opportunity
to use writing and speaking skills out of the classrooms. One example is provided in
the textbook of 1AS in the secondary education, in which pupils learn how to open an
e-mail account. They are asked to write a reply to an e-mail sent to them from an
English speaking key-pale.

E-mail is a useful teaching tool that helps students

develop their language awareness and allows for learner autonomy, since students
participate in real communication. They also decide by themselves what topics to
discuss and so become more aware of their language needs. Last but not least, they
keep up with the rapid changes in modern communication technology.

41

1.10 Conclusion
Most of the relevant research studies highlight the importance of promoting
learner autonomy in language classrooms. No matter what kind of research it is. Most
of the autonomy studies emphasize the importance of changing teacher-dependent
learning habits, increasing learners motivation, and the use of effective learner
strategies throughout the development of learner autonomy in language classrooms.
Autonomous learning is seen by Holec(1981) as a double process. On the one hand, it
entails learning the foreign language; on the other, learning how to learn.
The task of promoting learner autonomy in EFL classroom in Algeria is not an
easy struggle, and it would be a mistake to expect too much soon from the teachers
who have traditional experience and learners to be involved in autonomous learning
environment. In fact, promoting learner autonomy can be seen as a burden which is
so much heavier on the English teachers in Algeria, because he or she should change
his role, reshape his responsibility in the classroom as well as inculcating in his
learners the sense of autonomy so that they become able to take charge of their own
learning. And since the research is concerned with the Algerian context, chapter two
will provide a birds eye view of ELT in Algeria and shed light on the notion of
autonomy in the Algerian educational context.

42

Notes to chapter One

1- Autonomous Competences
- Pragmatic competences:
The users knowledge of the principles according to which messages are:
- organised, structured, and arranged (discourse competence).
- used to perform communicative functions (functional competence) .
- sequenced according to the users internal models of how communication takes
place (design competence).
- Sociolinguistic competence:
The knowledge and skills required to deal with the social dimension of language use.
- Intercultural competence:
Knowledge, awareness, and understanding of the relation between the users world
and the world of the target language users.
.- Strategic competence:
Being aware of the communicative process and being able to manage it.
- Existential competence:
The users personality features, motivations, attitudes, beliefs, and so on.

2- Features of Language Learning Strategies Oxford (1990)

- Allow learners to become more self- directed (autonomous) .
- Are specific actions taken by learners.
- Support learning both directly and indirectly.
- Are not always observable.
- Can be taught.
- Are flexible.
-Are influenced by a variety of factors.

43

Chapter Two
Learner Autonomy in Secondary
Education in Algeria: Situation
Analysis

CHPTER TWO
LEARNER AUTNOMY IN SECONDARY EDUCATION IN ALGERIA:
SITUATON ANALYSIS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 An overview of ELT in Algerian Schools
2.2.1 A summary of ELT Methodologies
2.2.2 Diachronic Overview of ELT Textbooks
2.2.3 The Educational Context
2.3 Final Objectives of ELT in Secondary Education
2.3.1 General Objectives
2.3.2 Final Objectives of English Language Teaching for First Year Pupils
[Link] Entrance Profile
[Link] Exit Profile
2.4 The Notion of Learner Autonomy in the Algerian Educational Context
2.4.1 The Competency-Based Approach
2.4.2 The Rationale for implementingthe CBA in the Algerian Educational System?
2.4.3 Autonomy Whithin the CBA .
2.4.4 Autonomy Competece Relatedness
2.4.5 Teachers Role in the CBA
2.4.6 Learners Role in the CBA
2.4.7 Learning Strategies for Learner Autonomy Within the CBA
2. 5 Projects within the CBA
2.6 Classroom Paradigm Shift
2.6.1 From Teacher Centeredness to Learners Centeredness
2.6.2 Classroom Autonomy
2.7 The First Year ELT Textbook and Learner Autonomy
2.7.1 General Presentation of The textbook At the Crossroad
2.7.2 The Notion of Autonomy within The textbook At the Crossroad
2.8 The System of Evaluation and Learner Autonomy
2.9 Conclusion
Notes to Chapter Two

2.1 Introduction
The English language enjoys a great importance as a world language. It is spoken
now by more than 508 million people. No one can consider himself as part of this
globalization if he does not master two things: English and computing. Concerning the
first skill, Burchfield believes that: "Any literate, educated person on the face of the
globe is deprived, if he does not know English." (Bruchfield, 1998: 14). English is
the world's language not because it is the most widely spoken as a native language
(Mandarin is the first more than 1 billion speakers), but because it is widely spoken
outside its native countries, either as a second or a foreign language. The importance
of English is due to its wide use rather than to the number of its speakers.

The necessity as well as the wide spread of English over the world may justify the
constant changes and developments of teaching methods and approaches. This can
be justified also by the fact that a given method or approach carries certain limitations
which render it unable to meet the needs of the learners. Each new method or
approach is built on the limitations of the preceding one. The Algerian education
system was not far from this shift. The continuous adoption of approaches made
Algerian schools experienced different methodologies of teaching. The CBA is the
approach currently used in ELT in Algeria. This chapter deals with autonomous
learning in the CBA as well as autonomy within the 1AS Textbook. The aim is to shed
light on the notion of learner autonomy in the Algerian educational context in general
and the level of first year pupils in the secondary school in particular.

2.2 An Overview of ELT in Algerian Schools

After the Algerian independence in 1962, French became the official language.
Giving such value to French language led to a revolution undertaken by the
Arabophones, which attempted to marginalize the French language and the local
variety Tamazight through the process of status planning called Arabisation process.
(Benmoussat, 2003).
44

At the time of independence in 1962, the Algerian government inherited an

education system focused on European content and conducted in a foreign language
by foreign teachers. Algerian authorities have tried to make the system more suited to
the needs of a developing nation. The focus was on arabization, and on scientific and
technical studies so as to meet the needs of Algerian industrial and managerial
sectors. ( Lekhal, 2008). They look for increasing literacy, provide free education,
make primary school enrollment compulsory, remove foreign teachers and curricula,
and replace French by Arabic as the medium of

instruction. Regarding the English

language, Algeria like many other countries has witnessed changes in objectives,
syllabuses as well as the teaching methodologies from 1960s onwards.

As far as its linguistic map is concerned, Algeria enjoys a linguistic plurality (or
diversity). The national language used in administration and the media is Modern
Standard Arabic. Algerian Dialectal Arabic and Berber are spoken in everyday life and
informal situations. For historical reasons, French stands as a second language.
Though many laws and policies were followed so as to weaken the influence of the
French language in favour of Modern Standard Arabic. This did not succeed to make
it disappear from the Algerians' lives and culture. English on the other hand stands as
a foreign language in Algeria. Learners meet it only in the classroom. The teaching of
English as a foreign language in Algeria can also be another way to diminish French
interference. In the same vein Miliani claims that:
In a situation where the French language has lost much
of its ground in the sociocultural and
educational
environments of the country; the introduction of English
is being heralded as the magic solution to all possible
ills-including economic, technological and educational
ones.
(Miliani, 2003: 13)
Whatever the cause may be, English is actually taught in Algerian middle, secondary
schools and in most Algerian universities. The first English Department was founded
in the University of Algiers in 1964.

45

2.2.1 A Summary of ELT Methodologies in Algeria

The Grammar Translation Method dominated English language teaching in
Algeria in the 1960s. It was based on rote learning of grammar rules and on
translation tasks. It was criticized by favoring accuracy rather than fluency. After the
Second World War, there was a general feeling of discontent with traditional methods
namely the Grammar translation. It was a necessity to develop new methods such as
audio-lingual method that implies the acquisition of oral language skills through oral
practice based on repetition and learning by analogy.

However, this approach was criticized: according to Rivers (1981) the audiolingual is a mechanical way of teaching language that gave birth to well- trained
parrots able to recite whole utterances while given a certain stimulus, but uncertain of
what they were saying. This Approach was used in Algeria through Succes With
English Course book I 1970 and Success With English II 1971.

The ever growing need for good communication skills in English paved the way to
the implementation of Communicative Language Teaching. CLT aims to develop
fluency in language use. This approach began a movement away from traditional
lesson format where the focus was on the mastery of different items of grammar and
practice through controlled activities. It includes both the usage and use of the
language. Therefore, the approach does not deny the importance of mastering
grammatical forms, so long as they are taught as a means of carrying out meaningful
communication. In Algerian schools in the 1980s, many ELT textbooks had been
designed : Newlines (1981), Midlines (1981) and Think it Over (1982-1983) And later
My

New

Book

of

English,

New

Midlines,

and

Comet

in

the

1990s.

.
The communicative approach had been in use in secondary educaton until the
recent educational reform which was launched in 2003. In fact, the CBA

has been

implemented first in middle schools during the year 2003-2004 and two years later in
secondary schools.

46

The CBA, as its name suggests, seeks to establish competences in learners so as

they can put in practice the skills that have been acquired in school, in other extra
school settings. The CBA according to the Algerian Ministry of Education aims at
establishing three competences in learners:
1. To interact orally in English.
2. To interpret authentic, oral or written documents.
3. To produce simple, oral or written messages.
In addition to the three targeted competences, the CBA also seeks to help learners
act as effective users of language in real- world contexts, through the establishment
of: a know-how-to-do, and a know-how-to-be in learners. (Programmes de la
Deuxieme Anne Moyenne: 43).The textbooks illustrating the approach in

Algeria

mainly in secondary schools are as follows: At The Crossroad ( for 1AS), Getting
Through ( for 2AS) and New Prospects (for 3AS).

As far as our research is concerned, and throughout the history of teaching

methods in Algeria, the notion of autonomy is about to be absent in certain
approaches such as: the grammar translation method. Though learners were asked to
do plenty of activities on translation at homes for which they us bilingual dictionaries.
Thus, autonomy was not fully absent in this method. However, in the audio lingual
method the notion of autonomy was more reduced no room is left for learners to learn
autonomously as teaching was based on repetitions and drillings. Autonomy is
supposed to be gradually implemented in CLT, since learners were encouraged to do
self-study tasks so as to improve their pronunciation and communicative skill in
general. Autonomy is now highly esteemed and very much emerged with the CBA in
secondary education. Partly due to the shift from teacher-centeredness to learnercenteredness. In the CBA autonomy is one of the bases of language learning mainly
through doing project works and the use of self-evaluation strategies.

47

2.2.2 Diachronic Overview of ELT Textbooks in Algerian Schools

During the first period of the post-Independence. Hayane (1989:45) points out the
prestigious image the English language holds in Algeria, even by governmental
authorities, who never equated it with the language of colonialists and imperialists, in
contrast to French. This is explained further by Fishman (1987):
The relative unrelatedness of English to ideological
issues in much of the Third World today must not be
viewed as a phenomenon that requires no further
qualification. Westernization, modernization, and the
spread of international youth culture, popular technology
and consumerism are all ideologically
encumbered and
have ideological as well as behavioral
and econo-technical consequences.
(Fishman, 1987: 8)
In fact, In Algeria the Arabophones did not fight English but French since according to
them French is no more than a remaining of a long and painful colonial era.

However, according to Hayane (1989), the educational authorities had a lack of

confidence in the textbooks used in the 1960s such as LAnglais Langue Secondaire
1 and 2 and LAnglais par La Literature 1 and 2 books authored by Richard and Hall
(1960/1961/1962/1963) because the level was too high for the pupils. The textbooks
were originally designed to suit French pupils, and consisted of four manuals. But
since in Algeria, the pupils started studying English two years after their French
counterparts, it was thought that a-two-year program could not meet Algerian pupils
needs. On that ground the authorities prompted the design of an Algerian textbook. (
Lekhal,

2008). Moreover, most English teachers in the mid of the 1960s were

foreigners. They knew no Arabic. On this ground, a revision of pupils needs in terms
of the language they know was required. But it seems to us that at the time, students
were much more competent in French (considered as the first language) than Arabic
which was rather the foreign language. ( LekhaL, 2008).These textbooks were not so
Algerian, since they were written by a foreigner to all foreign language learners, not
specifically Algerian.
48

Period from 1970 to 1980

From 1970, many changes took place in the educational system. The Ministry of
Education was split into two ministries: the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of
Higher Education. The first objective of the new textbook designers aimed at improving
the standards in English as well as meeting the pupils needs. Three textbooks
designed by Alexander (1967a, 1967b) were provided for the Secondary cycle:
Practice and Progress, Developing Skills, and Fluency in English. But the latter was
never used as it was considered too much difficult for the learners. Instead, Practice
and Progress was used for the first two grades and Developing Skills for the third
grade.

In 1975, the first really Algerian textbook was published: Andy in Algeria. It is the
result of the experience of Success with English method ( see the table 2.1 ). The
Algerian textbook is a more precise adaptation of the method and techniques in use
since 1969, to the particular situation of English teaching in Algeria (Hayane,1989).
Only now we can say ELT in Algeria has become an autonomous process itself since
it has ceased to rely on textbooks designed by foreigners.

Grade

4eme

3eme

Title

Authors

Year

of Number of

Publication

pages

1968

303

Education

1975

303

-Success with English

- Broughton

1968

303

-Madjid in England

-Ministery of 1976

-Success with English1

-Broughton

-Andy in Algeria

-Ministery of

Education

303

2eme

Practice and Progrss

Alexander

1967

232

1ere

Practice and Progress

Alexander

1967

232

Terminals

Developing Skills

Alexander

1967

145

Table 2.1 English textbooks (1970-1980) ( source: Hayane, 1989)

49

Period from 1980 to 2003

A major change took place with the 1976. The whole school system was
reviewed, with the implementation of the Fundamental School. As for English, a new
textbook New Lines 1 was published, intended for the 1st year Secondary Cycle, and
would be used for all streams. The textbook consisted of 18 units. The allocation of
time a week for literary and scientific streams was naturally different: four for the
former, and three for the latter. There was a major drawback concerning this textbook
because literary streams used it in the first grade and finished it in the beginning of the
second grade and naturally, neither stream would actually finish the program.
Teachers had no other choice than to go back to Alexanders Practice and Progress.
( Lekhal, 2008). We can see further details in the table 2.2 below:

Grade

Title

Authors

Year
Publication

3AM

Spring One

Belkaid et 1984

of Number
pages
182

al
4AM

Spring Two

Belkaid et 1985

235

al
1AS

-Newlines 1

Kisserli

-My New Book Of Breksi

1981

277

1998

160

English
2AS

3AS

Menasseri 1988
Midlines

et al

Comet

Benzian

1997

143

et al

Table 2.2 English Textbooks( 1980/2003). ( source: Lekhal, 2008)

50

of

Period from 2003

Algerian authorities have decided to make new reforms. A Higher Council for
Education was appointed, charged with the reorganization and reorientation of the
Algerian educational system. The national commission in charge of the reform was
assigned to work on the revision of the programs. This commission, often referred to
as Benzaghou Reform, under the name of the person at its head ( [Link] 2008).
This made changes to the teaching of foreign languages. French would be taught
starting from the second grade in the primary school (however, this experiment was a
total failure the reason why French is recently taught until the fourth grade). And
English from the first grade of the middle school. Educational reforms were launched
in 2002, first applied in primary and middle school and later in the secondary schools.
New textbooks have been designed. Details concerning them are shown in the table
2.3 below:

Cycle

Grade

Intermediate First

Secondary

Title

Authors

Spot Light On Merazga et

English 1
al.

Year of
Publication
2004

Number of
pages
189

Second

Spot Light On Merazga et

English 2
al.

2004

125

Third

Spot Light On Arab S A et

English 3
al.

2005

188

Fourth

On The Move

Arab S et al.

2006

192

First

At The
Crossroads

Arab S A et
al.

2005

155

Second

Getting
Through

Rich B et al.

2006

208

Third

New
Prospect

Rich B et al.

2007

270

Table 2.3 New English textbooks. ( source: Lekhal, 2008)

51

2.2.3 Educational Context

The Algerian school system consists of thirteen years grouped in three main
cycles:
- The Primary Cycle which is divided into two levels. There is only one national exam
at the end of the fifth year, unjustifiably called The Sixth Grade Exam . Pupils pass
from one class to another on the basis of their yearly evaluation. The New reform has
not affected this cycle in the number of grades.
- The Intermediate Cycle consists of three years, at the end of which pupils were
examined nationally in order to pass into the following cycle, and get their certificate
(B.E.F) Brevet dEnseignement Fundamental. From 2003, this cycle consists of four
years. At the end of which a national exam (B.E.M.) Brevet dEnseignement Moyen
(equivalent to the BEF) is held.
- The Secondary Cycle which lasts three years, at the end of which pupils sit for the
Baccalaureate which is a national exam that gives access to university.

English in the Curriculum as a subject has had a different status in the period
before and after independence. During French colonization, English was taught as a
first foreign language, sharing this status with Arabic, and introduced in the first year of
the Intermediate Cycle. Once pupils reached university, they would have spent eight
years studying English. During the first years of the Independence, English was still
taught as a first foreign language, but no longer in the first but the third year of the
Intermediate Cycle. At the end of the Secondary level, pupils would have studied
English for five years (two years in the Intermediate Cycle and three years in the
secondary cycle), as it was still the case until the New Reform in 2004. With the New
Reform, nothing is being said on the place of English as a second foreign language.
French in fact regains its original position as the privileged first foreign language.
Nowadays, English is taught from the first year in the middle level. By the time they
reach university, pupils will have studied English for seven years.

Before teaching English as a foreign language, the Algerian learners study Arabic
for five years in the primary school, and French language as first foreign language
starting from fourth year at the same level.
52

- In middle school the ultimate goal for studying English consists in helping students
solve the various difficulties they frequently encounter throughout their language
studies. As regards the time devoted to teaching English in middle schools, it does not
generally exceed four hours per week for first and second years, and five hours perweek for third and fourth years.

- In secondary school there are different streams: scientific & technological, and arts
every learner holding B.E.M degree is put into one of these streams according to his
average. English is part of the curriculum in all streams taught for three years until the
Baccalaureate exam, with different coefficient and weekly time allotted for each stream
(details are provided in the table 2.4 below). At this level the teaching of English
consolidates linguistic items some are new and others already acquired in middle
school: syntax, vocabulary, study skills, grammar, etc. The teaching method is
supposed to encourage learner centeredness, it varies according to each level.
Grade
1 AS

2AS

3AS

Stream
Literary stream

Time
allotted
4 hours

Coefficient
3

Science and technology

3hours

Experimental science
Economy and
management
Technique and Maths
Literary and philosophy
Foreign languages
Experimental science
Economy and
management
Technique and Maths
Literary and philosophy
Foreign languages

3 hours

4hours
4hours
3

3
4
2

4
4

3
5

Table 2.4 Time allotted and coefficient of English in secondary education

In this dissertation the empirical phase concerns the teaching/learning of English

is done in Tafna secondary school situated in Hassi El Ghella, in the wilaya of Ain
Temouchent. This school was founded in 1996. The material used for
53

teaching English in this school, in addition to the routinized materials textbooks, white
boards and pens, there are other materials such as: tape -recorders and data-show.
There are three teachers of English each one is in charge of five classes. Pupils of first
year are 164 pupils divided into (95) in the science and technology stream whereas
(69) in the literary stream. There is a library in which several books are available
(about 329 English books) mainly

those of grammar and exams.

2.3 Final Objectives of ELT in Secondary Education

The objectives of English language teaching, as they may be envisaged by the
Algerian authorities can be specified as follows:
- To provide the learners with a cultural experience via the English language. This will
enable them to adapt a mature view of the world around them.
- To provide the learners with an ability to speak, understand, read and write the
English language with sufficient accuracy and fluency to enable them to obtain access
to the literary, scientific and commercial worlds.
-Teaching English at the secondary school aims at consolidating the objectives that
have been reached at the middle school and to reach other complementary objectives
through the three years of secondary education.
According to the Ministry of Education. By the end of secondary education,
students should be able to:
- Listen to, comprehend English text, and distinguish between different intonations.
- Participate in conversations discussions using paper English.
- Read and comprehend English texts through different reading types (e.g. loud
reading and silent reading) and reading strategies (e.g. scanning, skimming)
- write a free-essay of three paragraphs using correct English.
- Realize the importance of English in the local job market.
- Appreciate

the

importance

of

English,

as

an

international

language

of

communication, for introducing Islam, our culture and our culture achievements to
others.
- Appreciate

the

importance

of

English,

as

an

international

language

communication, to benefit from the achievements of other cultures in accordance

54

of

with ours, through texts representing various life situations. And gain a reasonable
command of English in order to be in a better position to defend Islam and participate
in the dissemination of Islam culture.

According to the educational reforms in 2003 the teaching of English must

participate in the development of the learner in all dimensions. They must also favor
national values, open-mindedness, mutual respect with others and the development of
tolerance. Therefore, the final objectives of teaching /learning of the English language
in the secondary education is to allow the learner to communicate, to keep in touch
with the latest scientific and technological research and to get in touch with the
culture presented within this language. Thus, to make the learner use the English
language as cultural, scientific and technical tool.

2.3.1 General Objectives

In accordance with the general objectives set to the teaching and learning of the
English language in Algeria, the learner should achieve communication in its various
forms, aspects, and dimensions, three main categories of objectives can be
distinguished: linguistic, methodological, and cultural objectives. The Ministry of
Education affirmes that:
La deuxime langue trangre est couvrant sept Annes
dtudes (quatre dans le cycle moyen et trois dans le
cycle secondaire) lenseignement de la langue anglaise
se propose dasseoir et de dvelopper des comptences
dordre
communicatif,
linguistique,
culturel
et
mthodologique qui permettront a lapprenant de faire
face a des situations de communication orale et / ou
crite compte tenu de ses besoins futurs et de ceux de la
socit dans laquelle il volue.
(Ministry of Education, 2005:4)
Linguistic Objectives
- To consolidate and develop the basic knowledge acquired in the intermediate school
to help the learners carry on with their learning of the English language.
- To keep them equipped with the necessary tools to pursue their general training.
-To consolidate and develop the strategies of learning and of self evaluation that the
55

learners have already acquired in the intermediate school.

- Reinforce and strengthen the study skills and techniques of what has already been
acquired.

Methodological Objectives
- Promoting the learner with autonomous learning strategies which will allow him to
deepen and broaden his knowledge.
- Reinforcing the learners mental and intellectual aptitudes such as analysis,
synthesis, and evaluation through pertinent activities.
- To place the learners in an environment which suits their needs and interests in
conceiving and planning activities in real-life situations.

- Cultural Objectives
To favor the pedagogy of success by creating an environment in which the
learners will develop positive attitudes towards learning English. From this angle, the
teaching of English is seen as a means to broaden the learners cultural outlook.
By giving them a clear understanding of different cultures other than their own which
will help them to understand the differences between world cultures, and develop more
positive attitudes towards other cultures. In this context Wilkins stresses that:
Whereas the second language learner needs language for
use within his own community, the foreign language
learner needs it so that he can form contacts with the
community other than his own. The context of his
learning therefore should be not his own culture, but that
of the group whose culture has provided the justification
of his language in the first place.
( Wilkins ,1972:154)
So, to put the general objectives into practice, the learners must be equipped with
basic language acquisition in order to cope with it fluently and accurately. They must
not only acquire the skill and knowledge of the target language, but also the practice
and use of the language and how to learn. Promoting learner autonomy is stated
above at the top of methodological objectives of ELT in the secondary [Link] is to
say according to the Ministry of Education learner autonomy is an objective to attain.

56

2.3.2 Final Objectives of English Language Teaching for First Year

Pupils
The Algerian learners at the end of 1AS have different needs which will vary from
one stream to another. What will the learners do with the English they will have learnt
is a worth asking question. At the end of the first year in secondary education, a
decision is made by pupils to join either literary or scientific streams. This is based on
the wishes of the pupils, their average, and the exigencies of the academic program.
As far as the learners choosing the literary stream are concerned, they feel greater
need for English since they will use it in their university studies and professional
careers. They will use it for oral communication, teaching, interpreting, journalism, and
for written communication as well. However, those who choose the scientific streams
will use it basically for scientific research purposes and experimental reporting.
Furthermore, they will use it to consult and exploit documents and literature written in
English.
For consolidating, deepening and developing the skills and the knowledge
acquired at the level of the middle school, the Teaching English at the 1AS according
to the Ministry of Education aims at reaching the followings:
Linguistic Objectives
Consolidating and developing the bases acquired at the middle school level and
providing learners with tools so as to follow up the general formal education.
- Methodological Objectives
- Consolidating and developing the self-assessment strategies acquired at the middle
school.
-Reinforcing the working methodologies used to work with in the middle school.
- Cultural Objectives
- Exposing the learner to diverse civilization contexts and cultures.
-Stimulating pupils curiosity and contributing to his open-mindedness.
-Encouraging interdisciplinary learning by studying themes seen in other school
subject matters .
Thus, the syllabus for English as the foreign language in 1AS is to follow up the
syllabi in the middle school. So, the pupil will be exposed to nearly the same
theoretical and methodological principles. That is to say the Competency-Based

57

Approach. It is supposed that this latter is taking into account the needs and the
interests of the learners for whom it is destined. Even the textbook designers of fourth
year in middle school and the first year in the secondary school are the same ( Arab
et al 2005-2006) so as to assure the continuation of the program.

From the above mentioned general objectives, we notice that promoting the
learner through the use of autonomous learning strategies is one basic objective of the
teaching and learning English in the secondary education. And as far as the objectives
of that process for 1AS, it is stated that consolidating and developing the selfassessment strategies acquired at the middle school level is also a basic objective.
Thus, promoting learner autonomy in teaching and learning English in general and for
1AS in particular is considered one of the basic objectives of secondary education in
Algeria.

[Link] Entrance Profile

Pupils of 1AS have already accomplished four years of English learning, they are
supposed to have developed the following strategies:
-To face problem solving situations.
-To broaden their knowledge about the culture of the English speaking countries.
-To be able to produce a piece of writing of about 100 words (about ten lines) in
relation to a given instruction. And to communicate using simple correct English.

[Link] Exit Profile

The basic objectives of 1AS are to consolidate the knowledge acquired in the
middle school, as well as acquiring a new knowledge. By the end of the year pupils in
this level should be able to deal with simple communicative tasks. And to produce a
piece of writing of about 120 words (about twelve lines). Using several writing styles
such as: narrating, describing, instructing and comparing in close relation to the text
they read and with the communicative situation suggested in the instruction. (1 AS
program, 2005:4-5).
58

2.4 The Notion of Learner Autonomy in the Algerian Educational

Context
Autonomy is now a defining characteristic of language learners around the world,
and in Algerian schools, autonomy is also supposed to be a defining characteristic of
learner- centered classrooms, as major educational objective in language learning
resulting from the shift from traditional to learner-centered models of teaching as
Allright puts it: the idea of learner autonomy was associated with a radical
restructuring of language pedagogy that involved the rejection of the traditional
classroom and the introduction of wholly new ways of working.(Allright,
1988:35). However, he adds that autonomy needs to be re-conceptualized if it is to be
applied to the classroom. Autonomy could, for example, be recognized in students
unpredictable contributions to classroom activities that could temporarily throw the
teachers plans off course.

Dickinson (1992) also argues that learners often act

independently, both cognitively and behaviorally in the classroom, while Dam (2003)
demonstrates how principles of autonomy could be integrated into secondary school
classrooms without self-access or formal learner training. This turn towards classroom
applications led a second wave of interest in autonomy in the 1990s.

As far as the Algerian educational context is concerned, the Competency-Based

Approach focuses on measurable and useable skills and abilities. It claims that
learners should mobilize their values, knowledge, attitudes and behavior in a personal
way (autonomous) to address the challenges successfully. In other words,
this alternative approach applied in the Algerian educational system is to allow
learners to attain a level that makes them rely on themselves (to be independent ),
and to compete with other people around the world either in the field of work or in
other situations. So what is CBA? And what is the rationale of implementing such
approach in Algerian educational context?

59

2.4.1 The Competency- Based Approach

Language teaching field witnessed the emergence of various approaches which
rise, either as an extension or a reaction to one another. In this chapter we will
examine one of those approaches, that is the CBA in Algerian secondary education,
and try to give an overview of how learner autonomy is viewed under the CBA. In fact,
the CBA is an approach that revolves around three main concepts that are
-Competence.
- Problem situation.
-Transfer of knowledge.
First, In Programme de La Deuxieme Anne Moyenne (2002), Competence is
defined as: a know how-to-act process which integrates a set of capacities,
skills, and knowledge mobilized to face problem- situations. Second, problem
situation is an obstacle to surmount, or a problem to solve. Teachers are urged to
place learners in front of problems to reflect on, instead of receiving passively
information presented by the teacher. In front of problem-situations learners rely on
their previously acquired knowledge to find a solution, and this will result in the
construction of new knowledge. (see constructivism1.4.3). Learners are also put in
their Zone of Proximal Development (see [Link]). Vygotsky termed the ZPD as a
difference between what learners can do on their own, and what they can do with
assistance of more competent adults or peers .Third, the application of knowledge
acquired in one situation to new situations is one of the main objectives of the CBA.
But this transfer of knowledge from one situation to another, or to real- life situations
should not be taken for granted. It is not because students do well on tests that their
teachers can ensure that they can transfer to real life contexts what they have learned.

60

In this context Slavin (1998) beholds that

students must receive specific instruction in how to use
their skills and information to solve problems and
encounter a variety of problem- solving experiences if
they are to be able to apply much of what they learned in
school.
(Slavin, 1998:241)
Accordingly, problem- based learning provides training in transfer of what has been
learnt to other contexts. (this is lacking in our secondary schools ).
To sum up, the CBA is typically a learner -centered approach. The latter
according to Nunan (1988) has these objectives:
-To provide learners with efficient learning strategies. [1]
-To assist learners to identify their own preferred ways of learning
-To develop skills needed to negotiate the curriculum
- To encourage learners to set their own objectives
- To encourage learners to adapt realistic goals and time frames
- To develop learners' skills in self-evaluation. (Nunan, 1988: 13)
As it is clearly mentioned above the objectives of the CBA such as providing
learners with efficient strategies, encouraging them to set objectives, negotiating the
curriculum, and develop their self-evaluation all these are objectives of learner
autonomy in the secondary education. So, learner autonomy is fundamental within the
CBA which is actually used in the Algerian secondary education without asserting
firmly that these objectives have been achieved, though the approach has been
implemented for nearly a decade. Thus, we consider the above mentioned objectives
far reaching ones as regard to learners level of proficiency as well as their perception
of responsibility in teaching and learning English in secondary education in Algeria.
For this reason: there is an apparent dissatisfaction with regards to the quality
of English language learning that students come with to university. (Lekhal,
2008:1).That is to say, we cannot assert firmly that once they reach university,
students are fairly autonomous in English learning. The CBA will reach
61

these aims if Algerian EFL learners can be sufficiently self-reliant and take charge of
their English learning at least partially in secondary education and fully at university.

2.4.2 The Rationale for implementing CBA in the Algerian

Educational System
The schools incapacity to form effective adults, able to transfer to real- life
situations what they have been inculcated, an opinion backed by Slavin (1998) who
says that if a student can fill in blanks on a language arts test but cannot write a clear
letter to a friend or a prospective employer. Or can multiply with decimals and percents
on a math test but cannot figure sales tax. Then that student's education has been
sadly misdirected. For Slavin (1998) if a student cannot apply what has been acquired
in school, in extra school contexts then his or her education needs reconsideration. An
approach, namely the CBA came in an attempt to bridge the gap between school life
and real life, by relating school acquisitions to varied contexts of use inside as well
outside school.
According to the general objectives assigned to the teaching of English in the
Algerian Educational System, the implementation of the CBA is due to according to
chellei (2010) the failure of the communicative approach to enable the learners to
reach an acceptable level of performance which allows them to communicate
whenever it is needed, especially in the era of globalization and job requirement. Why
choosing CBA according to Chellei (2010) This logic has a series of implications:
- Making the school acquisition viable and sustainable.
- Developing the thinking process of the learner.
- Presenting learning contexts in relation to the needs of the learner.
- Putting an end to disciplinary barriers.
- Choosing a personalized pedagogy.
- Adopt increasingly autonomous conducts and responsible behaviors.

62

To sum up, educational experience in many countries shows that one way of
updating the content of education is the orientation of the training programs towards
the CBA. Scientists in European countries consider that knowledge, skills, working
habits acquired by young people if transformed into competencies would enable
intellectual development of an individual and the formation of the ability to quickly
respond to the demands of the time. According to Chellei (2010) in order to integrate in
the globalized world, Algeria underwent such a reform to enable young people to
reach an international level in terms of required competencies.

2.4.3 Autonomy Whithin the CBA

According to the principles of CBA, an important part of mastering a foreign
language is mastery of the fundamentals of learning:
(1) consolidating vocabulary,
(2) acquiring basic structures and
(3) accumulating the necessary linguistic and communication skills.
Such mastery of learning skills puts the learner in active control of their own learning
processes. The process of becoming successful at learning nurtures learners who
are autonomous and seek individualized approaches to specific learning objectives.
Clearly said learning a foreign language is not only learning grammar and vocabulary
but developing certain competencies such as the autonomous competence[2] which
is characterized by relying on oneself in the use of strategies to perform activities and
transferring knowledge in real contexts. The autonomous competence is referred to as
a central feature not only in language learning but also in modernity, democracy and
individualism.

2.4.4 Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness

According to the American social psychologist Deci (1996), autonomy is one of
three basic needs that we must satisfy in order to achieve a sense of self-fulfillment.
We are autonomous, he proposes, when we are: fully willing to do what [we] are

63

doing when we are: fully willing to do what [we] are doing and [we] embrace
the activity with a sense of interest and commitment. (Deci&Ryan1996:2). Three
needs are important in educational context: autonomy,(defined see1.2) competence
and relatedness. Competence is defined as a know how-to-act process which
integrates a set of capacities, skills, and knowledge mobilized to face problemsituations (Programmes de La Deuxime Anne Moyenne :44). Competence is being
effective in dealing with the environment a person finds hiself/herself in, and
Relatedness is the universal want to interact, be connected to and experience caring
for others. (Deci& Ryan,1996:15)
According to Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 1996), autonomy
and competence are essential for growth and well-being in any learning environment.
Educational contexts differ in their relative support for these two needs. The authors
have examined the role of autonomy and competence in various educational settings
(Germany and Japan).Though the research made in this field, it is now difficult to
assert firmly which one enhance the other autonomy enhances competence or vice
ver sa. That is to say are autonomous learners

more competent or

competent

learners are more autonomous ?

The Self-Determination Theory, as to be applied in the context of language learning
encourages the competence (know how to act process) of the learner, his autonomy(
relying much more on oneself) in learning as well as his relatedness, i.e, interaction,
cooperation and respect for successful and fruitful language learning , this theory is
summarized in the diagram 2.1 below:

64

Competence

Autonomy

Relatedness
Self
Determination
Theory

Diagram 2.1 Needs for self-determination theory ( source:

[Link]
In the secondary education throughout Algeria, learning second and foreign
language is based on the theory of self-determination. This is what the CBA advocates
but we cannot say that all language learners (in this level) are competent, autonomous
and have a sense of relatedness. Moreover, if this theory is applied successfully in our
educational context, one can say that the CBA will reache its aims.

2.4.5 Teachers Role in the CBA

Since CBA is learner-centered and action oriented, it requires teachers in action.
Teachers who will reflect on their professional skills, and be continuous inquirers on
the validity of their teaching. The teachers role in any approach is closely related to
the assumption about language theory and language learning theory. The teacher in
the CBA is no more just a transmitter of knowledge whose unique duty is to fill in
empty vessels. But rather is assigned the role of facilitator who engages learners in
tasks, and helps them develop learning strategies for an effective learning. He is a
counselor and a resource person consulted about information or advice. He is a very
important element in this new approach.

65

In fact : The teacher must guide, help, and encourage the learner to take part in
his own learning. (Document daccompagnement 2AM:80-81) a comparison
between the traditional as well as the newly attributed roles of the teacher is provided
in the table 2.5 below:

Traditional approach

Competency-based approach

- Holds knowledge

- Gives guidance

- Provides knowledge

- Facilitator

- Takes decisions

- co-learner

- Authoritarian

- Aware of learners needs and

strategies
- Develops learner autonomy.

Table 2.5 Teachers role according to language approaches ( source : Document

daccompagnement des programmes de la 3AM:77)

The CBA brought new roles for language teachers; from the table above we
notice that one of the new roles of the teacher is developing learner autonomy.
Therefore: the role of the teachers changes. They are not presenters of
language elements as lesson planners; autonomy shifts the teacher more into
the role of counselors. ( Edwards, 1998: 80). But a question is posed here: are
teachers really informed on how to develop their learners autonomy? Or it is just a
role put by authorities? It seems that most EFL teachers in Algeria are not provided
with techniques and strategies so as to develop their learners autonomy.
The approach based on competency leads to a serious revision of the teachers
profession. This implies a change in the teachers attitude toward knowledge and
towards teaching. The teacher will have to:
- Do more than teaching as merely communicating knowledge
- Make the learner learn.
- Quit his function of monitoring and evaluating in order to get involved in all activities.
- Create various means of teaching.
66

- Share his power, negotiate with the learners and accept their point of view.
- Work on projects, and to do so, he must have a perfect knowledge of the project
procedures.
- Enhance the value of co-operation between the learners.
- Be able to conduct discussions, to act as a mediator between the learners and
learning.
- Encourage and guide the learners efforts by showing the learner that he is allowed
to make errors and to have doubts.
- Open to other disciplines and have discussions with his colleagues about methods
and interdisciplinary concerns.
In short, the teacher needs to help learners feel responsible for their learning. If these
are the roles attributed to teachers under the CBA what roles are assigned to
learners?

2.4.6 Learners Role Within the CBA

The CBA is learner-centered. The learners are no more passive receivers of
knowledge. They play an active rather than a reactive role in the learning process.
They are required also to construct and mobilize their resources to face sufficiently a
problem-situation. Hence, learners have to develop strategies to overcome such
obstacles, acquire problem- solving skills. Additionally, they are required to collaborate
and negotiate information.
The CBA initiates learners into self- assessment, in an attempt to render learners more
responsible for their learning, and to help them evaluate their acquisitions , in the CBA
learners role can be summarized as follows:
- To know what to learn.
- Act upon what he learns.
- Build strategies.
- Solve problems.
- Learn to cooperate and collaborate.
- Work autonomously and puts into question his learning process.
-Assess oneself. (Programme de la 3AM, 2006:79)

67

The language learner is supposed to create situations of learning and assessment

relating both to the interactions with his classmates and his teacher, he should be
able:
- To make a representation of situations.
To find various ways of performing tasks.
To construct and call upon various resources.
To proceed to an assessment of his progress during the activities and at the end of
activities.
Therefore, within this approach, the notion of autonomy brings along new roles
of the teacher as well as a change in the teachers attitude towards knowledge and
teaching. Edwards explains,
When students
responsibility for
gradually learn to
their own learning.
not other-initiated.

are compelled to assume greater

directing their learning , they will
see themselves as the controllers of
Learning is seen as self-initiated and
( Edwards, 1998: 80)

The CBA

aims at developing the learners awareness of his learning and of his

progress. This approach calls for a more independence and autonomy for learners to
do research and use resources independently others than those brought by their
teachers. In fact, these are the roles advocated by the CBA . Whether or not these
roles are really played by both teachers and learners in the Algerian secondary
education, we cannot assert firmly. We may say that they are to a larger extent
keeping the traditional way of teaching and learning, simply because they used to do
so, and the alternative is new and they are not informed how to apply it.

2.4.7 Learning Strategies for Learner Autonomy within the CBA

To learn effectively and more autonomously learners are supposed to use
certain learning strategies

such as: self-monitoring, self-evaluation and learning

through action. However learners in the secondary education are not fully aware of
68

these strategies, their use and their importance(utility) in facilitating learning.

The learner-centered approach to instruction is characterized by :
(1) a focus on how students learn .
(2) explicit instruction in learning strategies.
(3) explicit goal setting by students for themselves, and
(4) student self-evaluation.
Pupils in the secondary education in Algeria are not yet capable of setting goals
themselves and engage successfully in self-evaluation. When the language teacher
explicitly teaches learning strategies. He or she shares responsibility for the students
learning with the students themselves. To help them gain greater independence. The
case of Algerian English teachers, they often tend to focus more on how they teach
than on how their students learn. Learning strategies instruction forces us to examine
not just what we do to teach effectively, but what our students do to facilitate their own
learning( Oxford,2003). They think most of the time about curriculum, lesson design,
and less on how to respond to student questions, and teaching learning strategies
which are fundamental in establishing an autonomous environment in the language
classroom as shown in the diagram 2.2 below:

Learning Strategies in the

CBA
Altering teachers
behaviour

Teaching
learners
how to
learn

More
autonomy in
learning

Sharing
responsibility
and decision
making

Altering learners
behaviour

Selfmonitoring
learning

Diagram2.2: Learning strategies in the CBA ( Adapted from Belouahem,

2008:134)
69

Selfevaluation
through
action

As shown in the diagram above, the explicit teaching of language learning

strategies pave the way for altering teachers and learners behavior and roles in the
classroom and establishing a more autonomous language learning.

2.5 Projects within the CBA

Project work involves a group of learners working together, and investing their
school acquisitions so as to achieve a common end product. The aim behind
introducing project works for 1AS pupils is to develop autonomous learning and
cooperation, this is what the Ministry of Education claims: The projects boots the
learners

sense

responsibility,

of

achievement

self-esteem,

resulting

self-confidence,

in
and

an

increasing

autonomy in

sense

of

learning.

(Teachers guide of 1AS, 2003:21). Pupils of 1AS present a project at the end of the
unit to prove that they have learnt information and that they can use it adequately out
of the classroom. A good project requires learners to do autonomous research to find
information for their project, they can look for information in books, magazines from the
school library, they can ask their parents, friends or each others. If they have access to
the internet they can search there. They may add pictures or posters.

The project work is a real - world task, a suitable teaching method that links
knowing with doing. Projects change radically the relationship between school and all
the social practices. It is more than writing what has been learnt in the classroom, it
has some typical features that distinguish it from other learning activities. Project work
emphasizes learners involvement and [Link] of the most distinctive
features of the CBA is its integration of project work as part and parcel of learning
strategy. Over all, if the CBA expands on communicative approaches, it is in the sense
that it seeks to make the attainment of objectives visible, i.e, concrete, through the
realisation of projects in selected domains of instruction. It is all good to fix specific
learning objectives . (Teachers guide of 1AS, 2003:26).

70

Pupils of 1AS are required to present a project at the end of each teaching unit,
as an example at the end of unit one entitled: Getting through, they present a job
application booklet. In unit two they are expected to write a book review in which they
write a biography of the writer, a short summary of the book, characters, setting (time
and place) and a short appreciation of the story. In unit three pupils should be able to
conduct a survey and write an interview. In unit four, pupils make an invention profile
in which they write an evolution of the invention, its models, and biographies of
different inventors. The last project is about making a consumer guide in which they
analyze the product and made adverts and labels. The layout of the project is
presented at the end of the unit. However, the project is assumed to run in parallel with
the courses. The fact that makes the learner start to think with his peers about what to
do and where to get information from. It is worth mentioning that letting learners free to
join the group they want is highly recommended so as to foster learner autonomy.

However, whether or not the projects in secondary education are really fostering
learner autonomy a question is to be answered in chapter three of this dissertation
(see 3.6.3). It seems that neither teachers nor pupils have the necessary ingredients
for the realization of a project work. This is what Bassou (2008) confirms in his
research in which he found that most of secondary teachers seem not to have prior
knowledge on the way the project should be done. Their attitude is negative towards
the project.

2.6 Classroom Paradigm Shift

Theories of Piaget and

Vygotsky focused on how students learn, they are

primarily responsible for the move to student-centered learning which means reversing
the traditional teacher-centered understanding of the learning process and putting
students at the centre of the learning process.

71

2.6.1 From Teacher -Centredness to Learner- Centredness

The teacher-centered model views the teacher as active and the student as
fundamentally passive. The teacher is responsible for transmitting all of the information
to the students. The teacher talks; the students listen and absorb.
The teacher-centered model may be still attractive to some teachers in Algeria for
several reasons:
- It is the method by which they were taught.
- The teacher should be the focus of the classroom, since the teacher knows the
language and the students do not.
- It requires relatively little preparation, all the teacher needs to do is present the
material outlined in the appropriate chapter of the book.
- It requires relatively little thought about student or student activities. Student listen to
the same (teacher) presentation, then do related exercises. However, experienced
language teachers who reflect on their teaching practice have observed that the
teacher-centered model has certain drawbacks such as:
It gives students knowledge about the language, but does not necessarily enable them
to use it for purposes that interest them. To overcome the drawbacks, a new model of
teaching and learning has been introduced.
A number of learner-centred approaches to language education emerged in the
1980s and 1990s, all of which include autonomy and independence of learning in
their aims. Nunan compares teacher and learner-centeredness and finds that:
The key difference is that in a learner-centered
curriculum, key decisions about what will be taught, how
it will be taught, when it will be taught, and how it will be
assessed will be made with reference to the learner.
( Nunan, 1995:134)
Learner- centered environment is communicative and authentic. It trains students to
work in small groups or pairs and to negotiate meaning in a broad context. It
advocates also taking more responsibility in ones learning. That is to say more
autonomy in learning.
72

Algerian secondary education is supposed also to witness a shift from teacher

centeredness to learner-centeredness, and a gradual implementation of autonomous
learning, though not all secondary classes in the country are typically learner- centered
ones. The table 2.6 bellow compares in details between the two paradigms:
Teacher-centered paradigm

Learner-centered paradigm

Knowledge is transmitted from professor Students construct knowledge through

to students

gathering, synthesizing information

problem solving and so on

Students passively receive information

Students are actively involved

Emphasis on acquisition of knowledge Emphasis is on using and

outside the context in which it will be used communicating knowledge effectively to
address emerging issues and problems
in real life contexts
Professors role is to be primary

Professors role is to coach and

information giver and an evaluator

facilitate. Professor and students

evaluate learning together.

Teaching and assessing are separated.

Teaching and assessing are intertwined.

Emphasis is on right answers

Emphasis is on generating better

questions and learning from errors.

Desired learning is assessed through the Desired learning is assessed through

use of objectively scored tests.

papers, projects, performances,

portfolios and the like.

Culture is competitive and individualistic

Culture is cooperative, collaborative and

supportive.

Only students are viewed as learners

Professor and students learn together.

Table 2.6 : Comparison of teacher-centered and learner-centered paradigms.

(adapted from Huba and Freed, 2000).

73

The above table has illustrated basic differences between teacher centeredness
and learner centeredness. Learner autonomy is highlighted and esteemed in the
learner centered approach unlike the teacher -centered one.

2.6.2 Classroom Autonomy

English teachers in general and Algerian ones in specific use different
techniques so as to establish a suitable climate for learning in the classroom. Those
techniques are based mainly on teachers artistry and skillfulness. Borich (1996)
identified three types of classroom climate that the teacher can use in different
situations: competitive, co-operative and individualistic.
- In competitive classrooms, students are encouraged to compete with one another.
These classrooms are usually teacher led with little autonomy for students. As for 1AS
pupils the teacher asks pupils to compete in doing tasks so as to see who is going to
finish first and does the task correctly. There may be also competition between pupils
about whose paragraph is the best so that to be written on the black board and other
techniques.
- In co-operative classrooms, cooperative learning skills are developed effectively.
students are encouraged to collaborate with one another which can enhance their
achievement. Another example in the textbook of 1AS there is a task called pair
work and your turn in which pupils are somehow independent from the teacher in
doing tasks through cooperation for instance: in unit one pupils are asked to write a
dialogue about their country Algeria (location, area, borders, population and
climate.) They divide the task into one asking and the other answering. The teacher
provides guidance only.

- In individual classrooms, the emphasis is on individual work with a minimum of

teacher intervention. This type of classrooms can help in developing independent
learning skills. This type is not generally used in Algerian secondary schools.

74

But language learning in Algeria is not autonomous, but relatively traditional. The
autonomy of learning highlighted the dominant and the active participation of students.
However the teacher is still the dominant and the active figure in the classroom. For
this reason, we can say that there is no well-designed and appropriate guidance or socalled autonomous mode that will enable students and teachers alike to step towards
classroom autonomy in Algerian schools. Even though, pupils of 1AS in Algeria are
required to take more responsibility in the classroom through selection of the material
to work, time management, and self-evaluation. All these requirements cant be
achieved unless the language teacher gives a hand to the pupils so as to step in the
autonomous learning environment as it is stated in teachers guide of 1AS:
the classroom becomes a stage for learners dress
rehearsal of the targeted competencies wherein the
teacher plays the role of director setting stage directions,
assessing, and giving feedback to the players in order to
bring the final touch to the performance.
( Teachers Guide of 1AS, 2003: 12-13)

The teachers are required to be as the directors of films and pieces of theatres, their
touch is so important in the realisation of the final performance of pupils.

2.7 First Year ELT Textbook and Learner Autonomy

In EFL settings, materials are of paramount importance as they may be the only
contact that learners can have with English and provide them with opportunities to
study target texts. The instructional materials are described as: anything which is
used by teachers and learners to facilitate the learning of a language, and which
is deliberately used to increase the learners' knowledge and experience of the
language. (Reinders and Lamb,2006: 22). In fact, Textbook is a form of printed
ELT instructional materials, commercial or non-commercial, Textbooks include course
books, self-access materials, supplementary materials and workbooks.

75

As far as the 1AS pupils are concerned, the ELT textbook designed for them is
called At The Crossroads. It compels with the relevant Ministry of National Education
curriculum as laid down in January [Link] are two reasons why the textbook is
called At The Crossroads. First, it is intended for learners who have come at a
crossroads in their educational career. Indeed, at the end of 1AS they will choose to
specialize in different streams. Second, the course places the learners at a crossroads
of disciplines (school subjects) and cultures in that it seeks to establish cross curricular
and cross-cultural linkages.(teachers guide:3)The overall aim of At The Crossroads
is to: consolidate and extend the competencies acquired at the Middle School
level. (teachers guide, 2003:5). These broad competencies are worded in the
syllabus as follows:
- Interacting orally in English.
- Interpreting oral and written texts.
- Producing oral and written texts.
It has to be observed that the notion of competency in the first year syllabus is viewed
as an on-going process extending from the first year in middle school until the first
year of the secondary education.

2.7.1 General Presentation of the Textbook At The Crossroad

The textbook is basically designed for learners aged 15 to 16, who have already
four years tuition in English at middle school. In the section To the Teacher, the
author (Arab) explains that the textbook is designed to comply with the relevant
Ministry of Education curriculum, on the basis that these students have completed the
four years of English in the new middle school EFL syllabus. At the crossroads is
composed of:

Contents (p.2)

Map of the book (pp 3-7).

A note to the teacher (pp 8-9)

A note to the pupil. (pp 10-11)

Phonetic symbols (pp 12-13)

5 Units (pp 15-175)

76

From the general presentation, it can be noted that although it introduces clearly
who the textbook is addressed for, its purpose, and its contents. It has not presented
techniques and useful ideas on how to use it, how to teach different language skills,
how to plan and manage texts, how to handle evaluation. We can conclude, therefore,
that the presentation of the textbook is rather poor and does not provide firm
methodological guidelines to facilitate the learning / teaching process.( Belouahem,
2008).This textbook is intended for all streams and consists of five units. The units can
be detailed in the table 2.7:

Unit Titles
1 Getting through
2 Once upon a time
3 Our findings Show
4 Eureka !
5 Back to nature

Number of pages
33
30
30
30
32

Table 2.7 Teacing units in At The Crossroads.

The textbook has five units distributed on the basis of 20 hours teaching load per
unit, each unit comprises four sequences and includes the following sections:
sequence 1: listening and speaking
sequence 2: reading and writing
Each according to its own specificity aims to encourage pupils to anticipate before
listening and reading, check out their prediction ,communicate with the proper
pronunciation, stress and intonation. That is to say they aim at producing oral and
written discourse.
-sequence 3: developing skills
At The Crossroads follows the principles of a multi skills syllabus and therefore
attempts to cover both productive (speaking and writing) and receptive skills (listening
and reading). A sequence called Developing Skills is devoted to achieve this purpose
wherein the learners are encouraged to apply the basic skills of listening, speaking,
reading and writing together with the functions and language forms they have learnt in
the previous sequences. We find for example: telephoning,

77

conducting a meeting, writing a letter of application, etc.

-Stop and consider : a language reference section, exercises based on the
implementation of grammar rules.
-Sequence 4: It is called Extension and Consolidation, consisting of two rubrics,
write it out, and work it out, its aim is to elaborate language and social skills acquired
earlier so as to flesh out in writing their communicative abilities; the two rubrics
Combine knowledge and know-how to obtain objectives conducive to a
competency.

( 1AS textbook, At The crossroads, 2005 )

-Check your progress: is a self-evaluation section.

-Project workshop: the learners are assigned projects to carry out and are asked to
follow a checklist of instructions for its realization. Different projects throughout the
textbook are as follows:
1- Making a job application booklet
2- Writing a book review
3- Conducting a survey
4- Making an invention profile
5- Making a consumer guide

2.7.2 The Notion of Autonomy within At The Crossroads

In the 1AS textbook and in the beginning of each unit there is an anticipating phase
in which pupils predict the units theme. This technique renders them somehow more
autonomous since they try to rely on their previous knowledge and predict. We may
notice that the notion of autonomy can be observed also in project workshop, in which
pupils will do autonomous research without direct interference of the teacher who will
be just a guide and advisor. Learners, through the project work, learn some kinds of
behaviors

in

the

class

that

are

required

of

them

in

real

world.

Though these projects as mentioned earlier are actually done in non-autonomous way,
just getting information from the internet and copy them, sometimes only one of the
group members takes in charge.

78

Self-assessment in At The Crossroads offers the learners the opportunity to

assess their progress on a unit-by-unit basis in a section called Check your progress.
Learners are supposed to measure their own progress by themselves. This section
comes naturally at the end of the unit. It comprises a series of assessment tasks built
around a master text as well as a checklist to be completed by the learners on the
basis of their level of performance in the tasks.

The self - assessment grid, to be completed by the learners at the end of each
unit,

closes up the whole procedure teachers and learners go through in the whole

unit. Self- assessment seeks to render pupils more responsible for their learning as it
is stated in the teachers guide of 1AS
Its aim is to give learners and teachers alike the
opportunity to monitor progress and decide whether
remedial work is needed before moving on to the next
unit.
(Teachers Guide of 1AS, 2003 :21).

Check your progress also helps teachers in programming a remedial work if

needed. Whether or not this evaluation section is done by the learners and the
teachers alike, this will be investigated in chapter three of this research. An example
of this evaluation section is provided in the table 2.8 below:

79

I can
Describe

peoples

Very well
regular

activities

Fairly well

A little

using

frequency adverbs.
Describe a process using sequencers.
Express obligation using have to and had to
Read and write short notes to invite, refuse and
accept invitation.
Read and write short notes to express sympathy
and apology.
Write a short letter of inquiry.
Fill in a rsum form.
Write a letter of application.
Hold a telephone conversation.
Pronounce two-syllable words with the right
stress.
Express purpose using in order to so as to
and to.
Use degree adverbs (very, extremely...).
Send message through the internet.

Table2.8

Evaluation section in 1AS textbook.

Though check your progress is so much important for both teachers and
learners, we cannot say firmly that teachers and learners are sufficiently aware of its
usefulness so not all of them are using it in our secondary schools.

80

In conclusion, the above presentation of the At The Crossroads enables us to

deduce three main flaws :
-First, the textbook is so crammed with sequences and activities that the teachers do
not have much time to cover the whole unit adequately. English program being
distributed on the basis of 20 hours teaching per unit. Secondary teachers cannot
teach,

finish

their

programme

and

direct

pupils

in

doing

project

work.

-The second serious flaw of the textbook has to do with the autonomous use. It is
difficult for pupils to use the book alone without the teachers help and guidance just
like physics and Maths textbooks. So At The crossroads cannot be used without
external help.

-The third flaw is that the textbook is not so rich by reading passages and activities
(self-study tasks) so that pupils can practise doing them independently .
Though the above mentioned flaws of the textbook, some teachers insist on following
it blindly. They sometimes rely heavily on it and dare not change or supplement
anything even if necessary.
Learners should see the textbook as a framework or guide that helps them to
organize their learning both outside and inside the classroom. While doing activities
and exercises, doing homework and preparing for tests. A good textbook enables
them to learn better, faster, clearer, and easier. Thus, materials should also allow
learners to make choices from a variety of activities. They should contain self study
tasks to study outside the class as well (this does not exist in the 1 AS textbook). We
believe that certain aspects of learner autonomy can be promoted with the textbook as
a useful tool. By encouraging pupils to anticipate, to guess and to prepare the lesson
before coming to school. Moreover, pupils may be capable of evaluating the units
content. In addition to self-evaluation in which they are supposed to determine their
strengths as well as their weaknesses while learning a language.

2.8 The System of Evaluation and Learner Autonomy

Not only textbooks can impact learner autonomy in Algeria, the system of
evaluation also has a certain impact. Pupils in the secondary education emphasis is
not on how well they progress in a language skill but rather on scores. They seem
81

not interesting in course participation since it was not marked and focus on exams
only. In fact, course participation is an important factor to judge pupils progress in
language learning.
Within the CBA, there is a reform in evaluation. In the past, pupils were evaluated
three times in a term: one exam and a test (devoir surveill). In the new system, a first
difference appears at the number of tests and continuous evaluations: two for the main
subjects (Mathematics, Arabic, Natural Sciences and Physics) and the other subjects
(such as English) are evaluated once. Except for the stream of foreign languages. The
continuous evaluation is supposed to make pupils more motivated for course
participation, doing homeworks, and projects since all these tasks can be marked.
Within the secondary school evaluation, the passage to the next level is based on the
results obtained. Parents are told the results of the evaluations periodically by means
of regular bulletins containing each teachers observations and a report at the end of
the academic year stating whether the student passed, would repeat, or would be
excluded.
It is difficult to evaluate pupils in term of autonomy because levels of autonomy vary
dramatically from one learner to another. In Algeria pupils have a certain cultural
expectation about their roles and that of the teacher, who is supposed to impart
knowledge and their duty is to memorize it so as to have better scores in exams.
Questions of the exam require pupils to repeat what was written in their copy-books.
This undermines autonomy as no room is left for pupils to show their artistry and
skillfulness (except sometimes in writing essays in which it seems apparent for the
language teacher that the pupils is doing further reading). Moreover speaking and
listening skills are not so focused on while evaluating pupils in the secondary
education. As a result pupils do not do the least of effort to improve their level in these
skills since they are not marked. Here lies the impact of the system of evaluation on
our pupils autonomy.

82

2.9 Conclusion
This chapter provides an insight on the notion of autonomy in the Algerian EFL
context. We have found that the notion of autonomy is not so valued in certain ELT
methods implemented in Algerian schools. It has started to gain popularity

as soon

as the CLT is adopted in Algeria. And now it is clearly stated as a goal of the CBA due
mainly to the shift from teacher- centeredness to learner- centeredness, which is
supposed to open a larger room for pupils to take more responsibility in their learning
and to be (to certain extent ) independent from the teacher.
The Ministry of Education considers developing Learner autonomy as one of the
objectives of ELT in the secondary education in general and for 1AS in particular. The
reason why project works are introduced so as to foster learner autonomy. However,
these projects are not done in a way that really contributes in promoting learner
autonomy. Moreover, the EFL textbook designed for 1AS At The crossroads lacks selfstudy tasks to be done independently, besides the fact that this book cannot be used
by pupils alone without external help of the teacher. Moreover, the system of
evaluation undermines autonomy more than it fosters it. All these factors show that
learner autonomy is still in its infancy in ELT in Algeria. In order to promote it a great
work is waiting for book designers, authorities, as well as teachers and learners whose
attitudes towards autonomy are analysed in the next chapter. It is more concerned
with the research methodology used in this dissertation. It deals with the sampling,
instruments used in data collection, and finally the analysis of data obtained both
quantitatively and qualitatively.

83

Notes to Chapter Two

1- Examples of learning strategies used in the CBA

Example 1 : In order for students to learn effectively, they must make connections
between what they already know (prior knowledge) and new content to which they're
exposed. Such strategies stimulate students' thinking and prepare them to learn. One
useful strategy is to open the lecture with a question. Present an "opening question.
Example 2 :"Think-Pair-Share" is an active learning strategy that engages students
with material on an individual level, in pairs, and finally as a large group. It consists of
three steps. First, the instructor poses a prepared question and asks individuals to
think (or write) about it quietly. Second, students pair up with someone sitting near
them and share their responses verbally. Third, the lecturer chooses a few pairs to
briefly summarize their ideas for the benefit of the entire class.
Example 3 : Focused listing is a strategy in which students recall what they know
about a subject by creating a list of terms or ideas related to it. To begin, the instructor
asks students to take out a sheet of paper and begin generating a list based on a topic
presented.
Example 4 : Most instructors set aside time for student questions when planning
their lectures. In the heat of the moment, When brief question breaks or other active
learning strategies are planned every fifteen minutes throughout the lecture, students'
attention is less likely to wander and they're more likely to understand and remember
the material after the lecture is over.
Example 5: Question and answer pairs is an exercise in which teams of students
practice asking and answering challenging questions. To begin, the instructor asks
students to partner with someone nearby. Each student takes a minute to formulate
one question based on the information presented in the lecture or course readings.
Student A begins by posing her question for student B to answer. Then the roles are
reversed, with student B becoming the questioner. The instructor may choose to ask
for a sampling of student questions.

2- Autonomous competence: involves the cognitive strategies needed to perform

cognitive activities and apply the gained knowledge and skills to processing
information, adapting and transforming knowledge , to construct knowledge and
judgements. This is viewed as a central feature of modernity, democracy and
individualism.

84

Chapter Three
Methodology: Learner Autonomy in
Secondary Education:
Data Analysis

CHAPTER

THREE

METHODOLOGY: LEARNER AUTONOMY IN SECONDARY

EDUCATION: DATA ANALYSIS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Sampling
3.2.1 Teachers Profile
3.2.2 Pupils Profile
3.3 Instruments for Data Gathering
3.4 Limitation of Data
3.5 Data Analysis
3.5.1 Questionnaire Addressed to Secondary Teachers
[Link] Teachers Responses and Suggestions
[Link] Results Interpretation
3.5.2 Questionnaire Addressed to 1AS Pupils
[Link] Pupils Responses.
[Link] Interpretation of Pupils Responses
3.5.3 Classroom Observation
[Link] Classroom Autonomy
[Link] Results and Interpretation of the Observation.
3.5.4 The Interview
[Link] Types of Data Collected
[Link] Results Interpretation
3.6 The Research Findings
3.6.1 Pupils Readiness for Autonomous Learning
3.6.1 Secondary Teachers and Learner Autonomy
3.6.5 Promoting Autonomy in English Learning
3.7 Conclusion
Notes to Chapter Three

3.1 Introduction
The present chapter of this work is concerned with the research design and
methodology. During this phase we have tried to gather data that enable us to
investigate learners view of autonomy and teachers role in promoting it. The data
collection has been carried out in an analytic approach. By analytic we mean: .. an
approach that will identify and investigate a single factor or a cluster of factors
which at some level are constituents of one of the major systems. (Seliger and
Shohamy, 1989:27).Thus, during the gathering of data we have collected information
to analyze learners readiness for learner autonomy and how can this autonomy be
promoted. That will be done through the following research instruments: a
questionnaire to learners and teachers, because autonomy in learning is a process
resulting first from interdependence between teachers and learners. Questionnaires
are addressed to both of them, and an observation of the classroom practices, in
which learners autonomy and their dependence on the teacher will be observed and
analyzed. In the same vein, the General inspector of English language is interviewed
about teacher training programs and how much they are helpful in putting the teacher
in the right road towards autonomy.

3.2 Sampling
To follow up this study, we have chosen our informants among teachers and
learners, both of them are required to fill in respective questionnaire that would serve
as tools of data collection.

3.2.1 Teachers Profile

The informants are teachers of English in the Wilaya of Ain Temouchent. Their
teaching experience varies from one another, they are in charge of different levels
1AS, 2AS, 3AS. The questionnaire is addressed to randomly selected teachers
holding License in English language throughout the 16 secondary schools existing
in

the

wilaya of Ain Temouchent, without reference to their age, gender

85

or experience . Their number is estimated around 58 teachers, some of them are

trainees, others substitutes and others full time teachers. The choice of the secondary
teachers is due mainly to the fact that those teachers are much aware of their pupils
level of proficiency and their autonomy in learning English. These pupils are supposed
to be matured enough to take charge of their own learning. It is quite difficult to speak
about autonomy in middle school, since learners are still beginners they rely so much
on the teacher. The questionnaire is given to the teachers in an EFL seminar that was
planned by the Ministry of Education and supervised by the General inspector of
English in the 13th March 2011. Only 50 have filled and handed me the questionnaire
back.

3.2.2 Learners Profile

The study is concerned also with first year pupils, their age is about (16-17) years
old. They are holders of BEM degree. They have learnt the English language since the
first year in the middle school. As these pupils come from government schools, they
share nearly the same educational background. Arabic is their mother tongue. French
is their first foreign language and English is their second foreign language. The pupils
of first year in the lycee are exposed to basic knowledge in English along the lines of
the CBA. It is worth pointing that these pupils are supposed to start developing a
sense of self-reliance through the project works and a sense of awareness of what
they are learning.
During the study, data has been collected from First-year secondary school
learners. They have been chosen precisely because they have been learning English
through the CBA for five years. Moreover, these pupils are actually taking lessons in
computing in school, which would normally allow them to do individual researches on
the internet for their projects. Furthermore, these pupils are in the right age to decide
about their studies, either to join literary or scientific streams. That is to say, they are
aware of their strengths and weaknesses not only in language learning but also in
other subjects. The classroom that has been observed is 1AS literary stream 1, in
Tafna secondary school which is situated in Hassi El Ghella , an area 20 KM West of
Ain Temouchent.
86

3.3 Instruments for Data Gathering

The selection of the type of research is based mainly on the nature of the
research itself. Learner autonomy is a phenomenon that actually happens both inside
and outside the class. Yin (1984) states that : a case study is an empirical inquiry
that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real- life context.
(Yin1984 In Nunan, 1997:76) .Through the use of a case study we have tried to
discover learners view of autonomy as well as their perception of their role as well as
that of their teachers in learning. Before any intervention aimed at promoting learner
autonomy, an investigation about learners view and readiness for learning
autonomously should be made first. In this case study we have carried out a plan to be
used in collecting data and finally reporting the results obtained . According to Nunan
methodologically, the case study is : a hybrid in that it generally utilizes a range
of methods for collecting and analyzing data, rather than being restricted to a
single procedure. (Nunan, 1997:74 ). Thus, we use a questionnaire for teachers,
another one to learners, in addition to a classroom observation and an interview with a
General inspector of English.
First, teachers responses to the questionnaire are very essential data simply
because no one can be aware of pupils level, their motivation, and their readiness to
autonomy in learning more than the teacher himself. The data obtained are helpful in
answering the research questions which deals with learners readiness and teachers
role as well as ways for promoting learner autonomy in EFL classroom.
Second, the pupils of 1AS class are handed a questionnaire written in English and
translated into Arabic. They have carried the questionnaire and completed it at home
away from their friends so as not to have the same answers. Learners responses are
useful in answering one of the research questions related to learners readiness for
autonomy. Promoting learner autonomy should start first by the learners themselves,
their motivation, their attitudes as well as their views of autonomy. Without learners
readiness the language teacher may fail in fostering autonomous learning both inside
and outside the classroom, even if he or she does their best in teaching. Similarlarly,
the Chinese proverb says:: you can bring a horse to water, but you cant make
him drink.

87

Third, Classroom observation is pointed out as a complementary research tool

which will provide us with extra empirical data of teachers classroom practices. It is
held in Tafna secondary school in Hassi El Ghella with the aim to discover if the
classroom is really autonomous. And last, a semi-structured interview as another
contributory research instrument has been conducted during the correction of the
Baccalaureate exam held in Ain Larbaa in Ain Temouchent in 24th June. It was a fairly
good opportunity to conduct an interview with the General inspector of English who
has been asked to give his opinion on learner autonomy in secondary schools in
general. And asked as well about teachers training programs, and if they are prepared
in a way that helps teachers fostering their own as well as their pupils autonomy.
Oxford (2003) argues that: research on autonomy should combine as
many perspectives as possible and no single perspective should be
considered antithetical to any other. (Oxford, 2003:90). In fact, autonomy is
multifaceted process in which the learner, the teacher, book designers, and even
inspectors have a role to play so as to foster it in language learning. For this reason,
tools used in data collection are considered as a crucial triangulation component
aimed at obtaining a richer description of learner autonomy in the secondary education
in Algeria. This has been done to cross-check the validity of the results and to collect
as much data as to help us tackle the problem from different angles. This is similarly
stated by OMalley and Chamot (1990) who draw attention to the importance of using
multiple data collection methods in research. In the same line of thought Robert et al.
(1994) say that:
A combination of data source is likely to be necessary in
most evaluations, because often, no one source can
describe adequately such a diversity to features as is
found in educational settings, and because of the need
for corroboration of findings by using data from these
different sources, collected by different methods and by
different people(i.e triangulation).
(Robert et al. 1994:137 )
We are looking for ways to promote learner autonomy in the context of second and
foreign language learning. And as learner autonomy is the product of an interactive
88

process in which teachers, learners, and even inspectors are involved in, the three can
provide reliable data and they can help greatly in fostering learner autonomy in the
secondary education in Algeria. The different steps of data collection in this research
investigation are summarized in the following diagram:

Data Collection
Procedure

Teachers and
learners attitudes
towards learner
autonomy
(diagnostics)

A questionnaire
for teachers and
learners

Classroom
autonomy
Practice
(instruction)

A classroom
observation

Pedagogy of
promoting learner
autonomy

An interview
with general
inspector of
English
language

Diagram 3.1 Data collection procedure

3.4 Limitation of Data

The research instruments contribute somehow in the limitation of data due to
certain drawbacks. Our choice of the already mentioned research instrument is based
on Cohen (1997) summary in which he provides the main approaches used for
gathering information about behaviors that are not easily observed such the exercise
of autonomy.
89

Cohen (1997) summarizes these tools as: written questionnaires and interviews,
observation, verbal reports, diaries and dialogue. Cohen further notes that each
approach brings problems such as: distortion of the learning process being described,
producing data that are highly individualized and findings that are not easily
generalized. Thus, so as to limit the drawbacks of these tools, many writers suggest
that trustworthiness of data is enhanced by the use of triangulation. In this study the
data has been triangulated by employing three different instruments, each instrument
aims at collecting data from different angle.
The data collected in this research would provide an incomplete picture of
learner autonomy, and mainly ways to foster it. Because this study is based on only
one EFL classroom in one secondary school in Algeria. The selected sample size of
36 students and 50 English teachers might not be able to provide the qualitative data
support for any conclusive findings, which may be a representative of the whole
Algerian student population. Nevertheless, the results obtained from the selected
sample in this study can provide some useful insights in promoting learner autonomy
in Algerian EFL context.

3.5 Data Analysis

The selection of a specific data analysis technique according to Seliger and
Shohamy (1989) depends fundamentally on the nature of the research problematic,
the design chosen to investigate it, and the type of data collected. Data analysis is
sifting, organizing, summarizing and synthesizing the data collected to reach results
and draw conclusions. Both qualitative and quantitative methods are used so as to
treat the data collected. In quantitative analysis:
The data is in numerical form, or some form which can be
converted into numbers, and the analysis almost
utilizes statistics, qualitative data analysis techniques
deal with non-numerical data usually linguistic units in
oral or written form.
(Seliger and Shohamy, 1989:2001)
In this research both quantitative and qualitative analyses have been used for
analyzing results of teacher and learners questionnaires and the qualitative only in
90

analyzing the classroom observation and the interview .

3.5.1 Questionnaire Addressed to Secondary Teachers

The questionnaire is chosen as an instrument of research due mainly to the fact
that questionnaire saves time and effort; one can collect a huge amount of information
in a short time. Furthermore, if the questionnaire is well structured, processing data
can be fast and relatively straightforward. In the present investigation, a questionnaire
has been chosen for eliciting data from the informants to investigate the research
questions and hypotheses (see Appendix 1). It has been administered to around 58
teachers.
The questionnaire contains three types of questions: closed, open and mixed:
- Closed questions request the informant to opt for one of the proposed possibilities
without

commenting.

- Mixed questions: ask the informants to choose one of the proposed possibilities, and
then justify his answer.

- Open questions: invite the informant to express freely his point of view.
The teachers questionnaire comprises a set of twenty questions divided into three
rubrics:
- Rubric One: aims at eliciting data from the informants (teachers) about their teaching
experience and their beliefs about the learners level of autonomy. It attempts also to
give

information

about

learners

attitudes

towards

autonomous

learning.

- Rubric Two: intends to get an idea about classroom autonomy, whether or not
teachers view learners as capable of selecting the content and setting goals, and to
get an idea about the teacher opinion about learners use of metacognitive strategies.
- Rubric Three: at this level, the researcher draws teachers attention towards
promoting learner autonomy. Teachers are asked whether the teacher training
programs and the 1AS textbook really enable them to make their learners more
autonomous. And the project works as well. Teachers are asked also to propose ways
for fostering learner autonomy.
91

[Link] Teachers Responses and Suggestions

After collecting data through administering the questionnaire to the informants
(teachers and pupils) and after observing an EFL classroom as well as interviewing
the General inspector of English. It comes the phase of analyzing and interpreting the
collected data through tables, and statistics:
A common misconception of the novice researcher is that
not using statistics makes the research easier to
conduct. In fact, analyzing data with the aid of statistics
usually makes the research more manageable and more
efficient.
(Seliger and Shohamy , 1989: 202)
The researcher uses tables, pie charts and bar graphs for better illustration of the data
obtained and analyzed.
Rubric One: teachers and learners attitude towards learner autonomy.
The questionnaire is submitted to 58 secondary teachers . Only 50 teachers have
handed the questionnaire back, among those teachers 33 are females and 17 are
male. What is noticed in the table 3.1 is that in Ain Temouchent most English teachers
are female; their number is nearly the double of males as shown below:
Gender

Number

Ratio

Male

17

34%

Female

33

66%

Total

50

100%

Table 3.1: Teachers Gender

As for their teaching experience , it is stated by the Ministry of Education that 32
years is the teaching life time for secondary teachers. It is noticed through the table
3.2 that 62% of the teachers are still in the first half of their teaching career. Whereas,
38 % of them are in midway teaching experience ( see table 3.2 below).
92

Whereas,

38 % of them are in midway teaching experience. Some teachers are still

novice with only one or two years experience and others are experienced enough.
Some are veteran in the sense they taught through the traditional and the learner centered approach. Whereas others started their career within the new approach. We
wish this variety of informants made the data obtained more valid.
Experience per years

Number of

Ratio

teachers
From 1 year to 15 years

31

62%

From 16 years to 32 years

19

38%

Total number

50

100%

Table3.2 ; Teaching experience

Teachers are asked whether learner autonomy is important in English learning.
The aim is in fact to reveal their attitude towards learner autonomy. 96% of the
informants have given positive answer. According to most of them autonomy is
important except 04% claim the opposite. Generally most teachers have a positive
attitude towards learner autonomy. Question (04) is how teachers assess pupils level
of autonomy. The reason behind this question is to show to what extent pupils in 1AS
are actually autonomous. Teachers provide adequate answers since they are much
more aware of their pupils level. 04% only think that pupils have a good level in self
reliance. 26% of them consider 1AS pupils as average in autonomous learning. The
lions share 70% is that of teachers who consider their pupils as weak, i.e, not
autonomous or a low level of autonomy in English learning as shown in the graph 3.1
below:
Pupils level of autonomy
Good
Average
Weak
Total number

AF
02
13
35
50

Table 3.3 Pupils level of autonomy

93

RF
04 %
26 %
70 %
100 %

RF
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Good

Average

Weak

Graph 3.1 Pupils level of autonomy.

If secondary teachers attitude towards learner autonomy is positive, how about
that of 1AS pupils? To discover this, another question is addressed to teachers whom
10% consider their attitude positive, however, according to 40% of them, pupils
attitude is negative, and half of the informants 50% think they are indifferent. In a word
pupils of 1AS are either indifferent or have negative attitude towards learner
autonomy. Question (07) aims at elicitating teachers views of a possible change in
pupils attitude. Most of the informants are optimistic for a possibility of change, 80%
think that pupils attitude can be positive. They justify their answer by saying that
through motivating learners, raising their awareness as well as the use of variety of
materials inside and outside the classroom pupils attitude can be changed so they
enjoy English learning and become more and more independent. 20% seem to be
pessimistic, they claimed that it is not easy to change pupils attitude as they are much
more reliant on the teachers.

Pupils attitude towards autonomy

Positive

AF
05

RF
10 %

Negative
Indifferent
Total number

20
25
50

40 %
50 %
100 %

Table 3.4 Pupils attitude towards autonomy.

94

RF
60%
50%
40%

30%

R.F

20%
10%
0%
Positive

Negative

Indifferent

Graph 3.2 Pupils attitude towards autonomy

As for proficiency in English learning, teachers are asked whether there is a relation
between proficiency and autonomy. The aim is to discover to what extent autonomy
effects proficiency. 84% of the respondents claim that both are tightly related. They
argue that 1AS pupils are not in general highly proficient because they feel satisfied
with the knowledge provided in the classroom but if they do further research their level
will surely be improved. In the contrary, 16% of teachers do not find relation between
the two. According to them the pupils are neither autonomous nor proficient.
Furthermore, they claim that the notion of autonomy should be dealt with at the level of
university not in secondary education.
The question (08) is one of the pillars on which our research is built up on. It is
addressed to teachers so as to veil the ambiguity on pupils readiness for learning
autonomously. As expected 86% of the informants considered pupils not ready to take
responsibility in English learning. They think that they are so reliant on the teacher and
have no readiness for relying on themselves. Only very few teachers (14%) think that
pupils are ready to rely on themselves in English learning.
Pupils readiness for autonomy
Yes
No
Total number

AF
07
43
50

Table 3.5 Pupils readiness for autonomy

95

RF
14 %
86 %
100 %

RF

Yes

No

Graph 3.3 Pupils readiness for autonomy

Rubric Two: Classroom autonomy

The teachers are required to answer whether or not pupils are capable to select the
content and set objectives of the English lesson. And as it has been mentioned earlier
in chapter one according to Holec (1980) the autonomous learner is supposed to
select the content and set objectives (see, 1.2). Pupils are incapable to do such tasks
according to 62% of the respondents. On the contrary, it seems for 38% of them that
they are capable to do so.
Readiness of pupils is essential to foster autonomy. Teachers readiness too,
whether or not teachers are ready for such a change, the answers show that 70% of
them are not yet ready to make pupils more responsible in English learning. According
to 54.28% of them if responsibility is put in pupils hands learning is not going to
advance since most of them are indifferent. It seems to 24.12% that those pupils are
not highly proficient in English to the degree that allows them to be responsible
.11.42% of the informants think that responsibility should not be given to such pupils
since they are not provided with strategy based training in learning autonomously.

96

Teacher readiness
Yes
No
Total number

AF
15
35
50

RF
30 %
70 %
100 %

Table 3.6 Teachers readiness for learner autonomy

RF

Yes
No

Graph 3.4 Teachers readiness for learner autonomy

Teachers are asked if they are giving opportunity to pupils to choose techniques in
the learning practice such as choosing between working individually or in groups. In
fact, both are beneficial in language learning.12% of them give a freedom of choice
whereas 52% do not. 18% only give the opportunity from time to time. In fact,
providing pupils of 1AS at this phase with freedom to choose will allow them to be
more responsible in English and other subjects.
The autonomous learner uses certain learning strategies that allow him or her to
be to certain extent independent from the teacher (see Language Learning Strategies,
1.6), as example of these strategies self monitoring, and self evaluation. 84% of
secondary teachers believe that 1AS pupils are not using such strategies unlike 16%
who think the opposite.

In order to make pupils step towards learner autonomy,

teachers are supposed to train them how to use certain strategies.

97

To show whether or not teachers are actually doing this, question (14) is directed to
them,34.78% of them opt for explicit teaching of learning strategies, i.e, explaining
openly the strategy and show them how to use it. 65.21% of the teachers claim that
implicit teaching is better. That is to say the strategy is introduced within the activity, as
an example taking notes, 1AS pupils are supposed to be capable to take notes during
a listening session; some teachers explain how to take notes while others make pupils
taking notes without explanation.
Teachers who aim at promoting their learners autonomy should start by
themselves (Little, 2002). In fact, we cannot expect secondary teachers in Algeria to
foster pupils autonomy if they do not know what autonomy is. Unexpectedly 55.81% of
the informants considered that learner autonomy is dependent on that of the teacher.
In contrast, 44.18% of the teacher claimed that the notion of autonomy should be dealt
with at the level of university not in secondary education. Since according to them
English secondary teachers are not independent since the curriculum, the syllabus as
well as the approach of teaching are imposed on them, thus, no room for freedom is
left for them.
Since the general objective of this dissertation is looking for ways to promote
learner autonomy, secondary teachers are asked about the bases on which they
should rely in promoting learner autonomy. 40% considered learners readiness as the
first basis while 34% of them think that teachers role is basic in making pupils
gradually relying on themselves in English. Whereas 26% of the informants consider
that the availability of materials and study aids are the first condition that should be
provided for learners so that they become self-reliant and autonomous.(see graph 3.5)
Promoting learner autonomy
Teachers role
Learners readiness
Availability of materials
Total number

AF
17
20
13
50

Table 3.5 Promoting learner autonomy

98

RF
34 %
40 %
26 %
100 %

RF

Teachers role
Learners readiness
Availability of materials

Graph 3.5 Promoting learner autonomy

Rubric Three: Promoting learner autonomy

As for English teachers in the secondary school their pre-service training is mainly
done at universities. The informants are required to give their opinion towards the
training programs. Surprisingly 94% of the teachers consider themselves as poorly
trained towards developing pupils autonomy. Clearly said, the training programs did
not offer them any strategies or techniques so that they make their learners more selfreliant. Few other teachers opinion is dissimilar 06% of them consider the programs
beneficial in paving the way to autonomous learning.
Teacher training programs adequacy for autonomy
Yes
No
Total number

Table 3.7 Teacher training programs adequacy for autonomy.

99

AF
03
47
50

RF
06 %
94 %
100 %

RF

Yes

No

Graph 3.7 Teacher training programs adequacy for autonomy

The availability of materials and study aids such as textbooks, grammar books,
internet and other opportunities are useful for pupils in order to improve their level in
English. The textbook designed for 1AS pupils is At the Crossroads . It is dealt with in
details in chapter two (see 2.6). In this context teachers are asked whether or not this
textbook helps both teachers and pupils in fostering autonomy in learning. 74% of
teachers are not in favor of the textbook as a tool for promoting learner autonomy.
unlike 26%

who consider

it useful.

At the end of each unit, pupils of 1AS are

supposed to fill in a table called: check your progress, an example has been given
earlier (see 2.6.2). They tick in the appropriate box so as to discover how well they
master certain skills. This table is helpful for teachers since relying on them teachers
prepare remedial works. 28% of the informants use such tables and say that this task
help the teacher becoming aware of his strength and weakness as a teacher. 72% of
them do not use such task due mainly to the lack of time. Since 20hours allotted for
one unit are insufficient. Some others believe that the pupils are subjective in filling the
table; sometimes they copy the answers from each others.
1 AS textbook adequacy for learner autonomy
Yes
No
Total number
Table 3.6 Textbook adequacy with learner autonomy

100

AF
13
37
50

RF
26 %
74 %
100 %

RF

Yes
No

Graph 3.6 Textbook adequacy with learner autonomy

To investigate whether or not project works made by pupils of 1AS are really
fostering autonomy in English learning, teachers are required to answer question (19).
Only 26% of them think that project works benefit pupils and help them develop their
self-reliance. 74% of the informants do not agree with the others claiming that pupils
are just copying from the internet. They do not make any effort, sometimes one pupil
only take charge to gather money and get a readymade project from the cyber space.
Therefore, no autonomy can be achieved from such project works.
Finally, Relying on their classroom experience, teachers are required to make
suggestions on how to promote learner autonomy in and outside the classroom.
Teachers made the following suggestions:
1- Change the textbook or at least enrich it with self-study tasks, reading texts, games,
further activities, etc.
2- Provide teachers with autonomy oriented training and learners with strategy based
training.
3- Give secondary teachers a larger room for exercising freedom and do not impose
on them what and how to teach.
4- Provide teachers with step-by step project preparation and presentation.
5- Motivate learners and augmenting the coefficient of English.
6- Teachers must avoid being spoon feeders.

101

7- Train teachers to do needs analysis and accept the change in the way of
teaching.
8- Reducing the number of pupils in the classroom.

[Link] Results Interpretation

EFL teachers in Algeria seem not familiar with the notion of learner autonomy,
though they are aware of its usefulness in English learning. In fact, introducing learner
autonomy for teachers and learners who have used to certain roles in the classroom is
not an easy task at all. Miliani (1991) questions in his paper on self-access learning,
whether an educational system that is known for its conservatism could lead to
learners autonomy. Teachers have usually a domineering role and in order to create
environment which will develop learners emancipation, they have to move towards a
more tolerant role of counselors and guides. Miliani (1991) is rightly cautious about
teachers new role, they have to cater for the participative role of the learners, and be
themselves convinced. Besides, the Algerian reform of the educational system (2003)
has already predicted changes in curricula and methodologies and advocates the
autonomy of the learners together with the shift from a teacher-centered to a learnercentered approach. However, in secondary education, though the positive attitude
teachers hold about autonomy, they are not ready to apply it, because the teacher is
still considered the first and the most responsible element in English learning process,
so any change will not be easily accepted and applied, in this context Miliani (1991)
explains:
Some teachers see themselves as unique fountains of
knowledge not to be questioned. This means that any new
technique brought into such a pedagogical landscape
which seems to challenge the teacher's authority is
something of a blasphemy.
(Miliani, 1991:70)
Changing pupils attitude towards learner autonomy is in no way an impossible task.
On the contrary, pupils need training for such a change they should not be thrown in
the sea of autonomy without a serious training.

102

Moreover, Miliani (1991) think that teachers will lose nothing of their competence if
they release pedagogical partners from the shackles of routine and conservatism, by
offering their students various options in the mode of learning, even to the extent of
losing some of their power.
Fostering learner autonomy in secondary education is not based only on change in
both teachers and learners roles, but also on some pedagogical matters such as
teachers training programs, textbooks, and projects works. In fact, pre-service training
programs are the basis which the whole career of teaching stands on. Thus, teachers
should be well prepared and provided with the methodological and the pedagogical
techniques so as to be successful in their career, and help pupils becoming more
autonomous. However, the results obtained show diverse shortcomings of the
teachers training programs. The teachers questioned have highlighted the mismatch
between teachers pedagogical preparation and what actually happens in the
classroom ( Semmoud, 2007). Most teachers do not find these programs beneficial in
introducing and promoting learner autonomy. Similarly the textbook designed for 1AS
pupils is not appropriate if we deal with autonomy since they cannot use it without
teachers help. Moreover this textbook do not contain self-study tasks. Certain
innovations are added to the book such as a glossary at the end of each unit in which
words are translated in Arabic, but the innovations are not enough. The textbook can
be enriched by further reading texts, activities as well as games.
The project work first aim is promoting learner autonomy, however according
to the teachers no autonomy can be achieved from these projects since they are ready
made, they do not benefit the pupils. In this context Baiche (2008) ironically says : the
only person who benefits from the project works is the cyber space manager because
he is paid to do it. (Baiche, 2008:116). As for learners they are as Bassou (2007) puts
awkwardly guided, they appear to be in no

mans land, not knowing where to go

and how to reach their destination. In the minds of their teachers they are working in
groups, fairly dividing the tasks among themselves, doing their own research and
collaborating to construct their projects, but the reality revealed in the data has proved
the contrary. (Bassou, 2007:128).

103

In his research Bassou ( 2007) has deduced that 1AS pupils are not given the full
ingredients of classroom practices for project work realizations that make of them
more aware, responsible and autonomous learners. Similarly Baiche (2008) says:
We understand that the project is not carried out seriously, and seems to be
a useless work altogether. (Baiche , 2008:162). Moreover, the project work is a
demanding task on the language teacher. We conclude that the project is a
fundamental means of promoting learner autonomy in secondary schools this is why it
should be done seriously and effectively to contribute in promoting learner autonomy.
This was the interpretation of data collected from secondary teachers, how about that
collected from1AS pupils?

3.5.2 Questionnaire Addressed to 1AS Pupils

To see whether first year pupils are ready to engage in learning autonomously a
questionnaire is designed for them, it contains closed and mixed questions, (most of
the questions are closed). There is also an Arabic version (appendix 2) of the
questionnaire to ensure content validity and to avoid any misunderstanding. It is
formed of a set of eighteen questions grouped in two rubrics:
- Rubric One: is about classroom autonomy includes two parts:
- Part one: is reserved to questions about pupils motivation in learning English, and
how they view their responsibility in the class as well as that of the teacher. The aim is
to see whether pupils have a traditional view of English learning in the class where
the heavy responsibility falls on the teacher. Or they view themselves capable of
assuming more responsibility in learning.
- Part two: Aims to provide data about pupils use of metacognitive strategies
(autonomous strategies) while learning. Such as: self-monitoring advanced
preparation, self-management and self-evaluation.
- Rubric two: Is about outside classroom autonomy. Pupils are asked about how much
time they spend on learning English outside the classroom. And which activities attract
them most in promoting their English outside the classroom. The questions aim at
discovering how autonomous the pupils are in the absence of the teacher, and how
much they really take charge to improve their level in English.

104

[Link] Pupils Responses of the Questionnaire

The first question is about pupils age, it varies from 16 to 18 years old, in that
young age pupils of 1AS are still teenagers. If they start relying on themselves, they
will surely be successful language learners, because the first years of language
learning are crucial in determining the future of learning. The gender also varies, more
than half of the informants are female 55.55% whereas 44.44% of them are male.
Most of the informants enjoy learning English in a ratio of 77% while 22 do not. Those
who enjoy learning English claim that English is the global language. It helps them in
travelling, it is language of science and technology, some think that English is as
easier than French. And some others enjoyed learning English simply because they
love their EFL teacher. 02 pupils want to be English teachers in the future. However,
those who do not enjoy it justify their answer by saying that English is difficult, they
cannot communicate within it. They cannot understand what the teacher says. The aim
behind asking such question is to discover pupils attitude towards English learning in
general, unexpectedly pupils attitude seemed to be positive, though the results
showed that pupils were expressing their attitude towards English as a language in
general, not towards learning such language.

Enjoyment in learning English

Yes
No
Total number

AF
27
09
36

Table 3.8 Pupils enjoyment in studying English.

105

RF
75 %
25 %
100 %

RF

Yes
No

Graph 3.8 Pupils enjoyment in studying English

What is contradictory is that pupils have positive attitude, this makes us think that
they are to some extent taking charge of their learning or at least doing independent
research. However the informants while asked about the responsible of English
learning in the classroom most of them (72.22%) consider the teacher as the first and
the most responsible. 22% of them are somehow more autonomous while claiming
that the responsibility of English learning in the classroom is shared between pupils
and teachers. only 5.55% of the informants seem to be autonomous ( see graph 3.9).
The informants whose answers are negative justify this by saying that they used to rely
on the teacher since he knows best. Whereas 5 pupils do not know which strategies to
follow so that to be independent in ones learning in a ratio of 15.62%. 4 of them only
think that the lack of materials is the first cause of their over-reliance on the teacher in
a ratio of 12.5%. Moreover, 72% of the informants complain that the teacher does not
train them using techniques and strategies that help them becoming autonomous 27%
of them claimed the opposite.
Pupils perception responsibility
Teachers responsibility
Learners responsibility
Shared between the .....
Total number

AF
26
02
08
36

Table 3.9 Responsibility in learning English in the classroom

106

RF
72.22 %
05.55 %
22.22 %
100 %

RF
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
Teachers
responsibility

Learners
responsibility

Shared between the

.....

Graph 3.9 Responsibility in learning English in the classroom

As for decision making in the classroom, pupils of 1AS do not consider themselves
able to set the goal of the lesson. According to half of the informants (52%) setting
time for each activity as a decision can be sometimes taken by them. 27.77% of pupils
think themselves capable of selecting the materials, and for assessing the learning
progress only 04 pupils thought they can do such a task in the classroom in a ratio of
11.11%. only 03 considered themselves able to do so. Besides decision making other
classroom management procedures are questioned. The informants are inquired
whether or not they are given freedom in choice of the place of sitting down in the
classroom. Surprisingly no pupil has the right to choose, so the teacher is the authority
that decides even the place where pupils should sit in.
Grammar books, dictionaries play a role in making pupils more independent from
the teacher (see, 1.7.3), through the use of dictionary pupils can find meaning of words
themselves without referring to the teacher. Unexpectedly only 2 pupils bring with
them a dictionary in the classroom in a ratio of 5.55% and 94.44%did not. In order to
know whether or not pupils mistakes are self corrected and to which extent they are
reliant on the teacher in error correction. Pupils are asked whether they prefer their
mistakes to be corrected by themselves, their teacher or their classmates. The lions
share 83.33% is that of pupils preferring the teacher to correct them. 19.44% are
capable for self-correction.

107

Similarly when asked how to find the meaning of words in a reading task most pupils
ask the teacher for clarification while 07 rely on themselves in finding the meaning
through referring the concept in its context. 02 only use the dictionary in a ratio of
5.55% as mentioned above since only 2 bring with them a dictionary to the classroom.
Identifying pupils weaknesses & strengths
pupil
teacher
classmate

AF
03
33
00
36

RF
69.33 %
91.66 %
00 %
100 %

Table 3.10 Identifying pupils weaknesses and strengths in learning English

RF
100.00%
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
pupil

teacher

classmate

Graph 3.10 Identifying pupils weaknesses and strengths in learning English

The autonomous learner is the one who can discover his strengths and
weaknesses in learning English. Pupils of 1AS are supposed to be capable to do so.
However, only 3 consider themselves capable for such a task whereas no one thinks
the classmates could do so. Surprisingly 33 pupils point out that the teacher is the
responsible for assessing them in a ratio of 91.66% (see graph 3.10 above).
Preparing the lesson before coming to the classroom is beneficial for both teachers
and learners. However when they are asked if they really do so, 04 pupils only give
positive answer and that of 32 pupils is negative.

108

The autonomous learner is never satisfied with what he learns in the classroom
instead he makes efforts outside the classroom and makes further research.
Unfortunately, this is not the case of the informants since most of them 77.77% are
satisfied with the knowledge provided by the teacher and only few enrich it. What is
contradictory is that pupils point out that they are not capable to assess their learning
and find their strengths and weaknesses. However when asked which skill seem the
most difficult for them they answer and as shown in the graph 3.12 below writing skill
is the most difficult for 52.77% of them.
Language skills
listening
speaking
reading
writing
Total number

AF
03
10
04
19
36

RF
08,33 %
27,77 %
11,11 %
52,77 %
100 %

Table 3.12 Pupils weaknesses in the four skills

RF
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
listening

speaking

reading

writing

Graph 3.12 Pupils weaknesses in the four skills

English learning should not stop as the session finishes, instead the successful
language learners tend to work out, doing independent research. Pupils who
109

sometimes do are 15. Those who rarely do are about 13 and only 5 pupils always
learn English outside school. Those who never do are about 03 pupils. Since most of
them are not autonomous and independent enough in learning English. We try to
discover which activities they do outside the classroom so that to improve their level in
English. Most of pupils are watching films in English language 41.66%. 13 of them
navigate on the internet ,whereas, 5 of them read books and magazines in English,
only 3 pupils use dictionaries and grammar books. In fact, watching films is the easiest
and the most comfortable way for pupils to improve their English (of course if they
really do it for that purpose).

Learning English out of school

Always
sometimes
rarely
Hardly ever
Total number
Table 3.13 Times for learning English out of classroom

AF
05
15
13
03
36

RF
45.00%
40.00%
35.00%
30.00%

25.00%
20.00%
15.00%
10.00%
5.00%
0.00%
Always

sometimes

rarely

Hardly ever

Graph 3.13 Time for learning English out of classroom

110

RF
13,88 %
41.66 %
36,11 %
08.33 %
100 %

[Link] Interpretation of Pupils Responses

In basic terms autonomy is defined as taking the responsibility for ones learning.
However, this is not as simple as it may look. Pupils responses to the questionnaire
show that they are neither ready to be independent from the teacher nor to take
charge of their learning. This confirms the hypothesis made so far in the general
introduction of this research. They still consider the teacher as more responsible for
most of the tasks during their own learning process. This study has also showed that
pupils do not perceive themselves as sufficiently autonomous. They are unwilling to
take responsibility and continue to see the teacher as a dominant figure who is the
decision maker in the classroom. In fact, this is one of the remainings of the traditional
approach both teachers and pupils are used to. Therefore, the change in language
teaching and learning is not easily accepted and applied. That is to say

neither

teachers nor pupils are prepared for such a change towards autonomy. Moreover, the
pupils are not sufficiently motivated. If they lack motivation and the right attitude in
learning a language, pupils will deal with learning a language like English in an
uninteresting manner.
During learning English in the classroom pupils do not use strategies that help them
becoming more independent such as: advance preparation, self-monitoring and selfevaluation. Most of them do not prepare the English lesson before coming to school.
They are not aware of the benefits of using these strategies in learning English. The
pupils think themselves incapable to set objectives in their learning. This may be
justified by teachers resistance to change that is to say teachers seem not ready yet
to put some decisions on pupils hands.

As it was expected, most of pupils feel satisfied with the knowledge provided by the
teacher without doing further research so that to enrich it. This feeling of satisfaction or
indifference justifies the fact that these pupils spending only the least of the time
learning English outside school. Though English learning is vast to be dealt with in
classroom sessions only. For this reason, productive skills are considered as the most
difficult ones for the respondents. It is generally said that the good writer is a good
reader and since those pupils do not read much in English

111

they find great difficulty in writing which is according to them the most difficult skill.
Similarly speaking English was considered as highly complex for them, this is simply
because most of them stop listening and speaking English once the class session
ends.
Pupils weakness in certain skills is due to a lack of self-learning at home. Within
an approach aiming at autonomy, it is by no means necessary to motivate and prepare
pupils for self-learning at home (i.e, outside the classroom). The majority of pupils tend
to be spending quite little time for out-of-class activities to improve their English. Only
few pupils use the dictionary and the grammar book as study tools contributing to self
instruction. Whereas, most of them prefer watching films in English language, though
they do so generally for entertainment not for learning. Furthermore, most of pupils
seem interesting in doing research on the internet, reading books and magazines in
English is not an interesting task for them. As a conclusion, we may say that pupils
refuse to be independent from the teacher in English learning because they lack
motivation and training towards autonomy. There is a need to motivate learners and to
establish learner training or strategy training. What is referred to as learning how to
learn as a basic requirement if authorities wanted to make autonomy a reality in
secondary education.

3.5.3 Classroom Observation

Classroom observation is one of triangulation data-collection techniques; it
facilitates the gathering of various aspects of teachers teaching practices. It is worth
mentioning that in this study both teacher and pupils are targeted. It is not a way of
evaluation but rather a way of gathering information to what extent the observed
classroom is an autonomous one. The classroom observed consists of 36 pupils, 16
boys and 20girls. Their curriculum comprises 10 subject matters. They attend 32
lectures hours a week, four hours are devoted to the English lessons. The teacher is a
man who has been teaching English for twenty years.

112

[Link] Type of Data Collected

To collect the required data, we have attended different lessons of a teaching
unit prescribed by the syllabus. The observation has lasted more than two months.
The researcher selected the observation to have such length so as to observe learner
engagement, teaching method as well as learners use of learning strategies in the
four language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing).The observation aims
also to observe the different materials used by the teacher as well as how much the
pupils are engaged in collaborative work. We choose also the observation to have
such length because the notion of autonomy in the classroom needs sufficient time to
be observed, we need sufficient time to decide whether or not learner autonomy is a
part of the learning strategies used in the classroom activities.
During the period of classroom observation we have tried to collect information
about teachers as well as learners practices of autonomy in the classroom. The
observer while observing the class bears in mind to answer the following questions:
1- Does the teaching method make the pupils less dependent on the teacher?
2- Are pupils positively engaged in the learning activity?
3- Is the type of class activities really fostering learner autonomy?
4- How are learners errors corrected?
5- In which instructional activity pupils seem to be more independent (reading, writing,
speaking, grammar, vocabulary..)?
6- Does teacher plan classroom collaborative activities?
7- How does teacher teach learning strategies (explicitly or implicitly)?
9- Does he use appropriate material so that to make the lesson interesting?
10- Does he present the project in an appropriate way so that to foster learner
autonomy?

[Link] Results and Interpretation of the observation

After having observed this classroom over a period of nearly two months, the
observation confirmed that this classroom was far to be autonomous. Still the teacher
centeredness appears. The teacher was still the dominant and the most responsible
113

of learning. In fact, pupils are not motivated enough, the teacher talks more than
pupils do. What is clearly noticeable is that only few pupils are actively engaged in
their learning (about six). Surprisingly, the same pupils participate and answer
teachers questions. In other words only few of them are motivated whereas, most of
the others are not. Some of them cause noise and really disturb both the teacher and
the brilliant pupils. Though, most of them claimed before that they enjoy English
learning. While observing the classroom we discover how much it is hard to introduce
autonomy to pupils who are not motivated and not making the least of the efforts to
learn English.
It is said if the lesson is the journey the lesson plan is the map, in fact, after having
a look at the lesson plan, it is prepared in accordance with principles of the CBA.
However, during the lesson the teacher has found himself altering many techniques
and replacing many questions, because he has spent much time waiting in vain for
pupils responses. He started talking, explaining, and giving examples so that at the
end only six or eight seemed to understand. What is noticeable in this teacher is that
for the sake of making pupils learn he has talked a lot and explained every detail. His
intention is helping them; however, his method makes them more reliant on him. Most
of pupils are just listeners, they do not bother themselves to discuss, ask questions or
provide additions. Thus, the teaching method makes pupils more dependent on the
teacher. Most pupils are not positively engaged in the learning process, and here one
should mention that the low coefficient of English can be one cause since:
Low coefficient as well as limited teaching time and
resources allocated to French and English language
teaching..led the younger generations..to encounter real
learning problems in both foreign languages.
(Hamzaoui, 2006:73)
In secondary education pupils give much attention to subjects of high coefficient. In
English learning pupils in addition to the habit of overreliance on the teacher that they
develop in their middle school. They are also not aware enough that they are no longer
beginners and that it is high time for them to be responsible for their learning.
114

Self-correction and self-evaluation are the first steps in fostering learner

autonomy. However, in the observed classroom the teacher has stopped the pupils
and corrected them, even the smallest error has been corrected. While speaking
pupils did not correct each other. Even self-correction is rarely used (only by good
pupils) or sometimes in written tasks in which pupils have been asked to do selfcorrection, peer correction is in fact very rare. So in the whole unit peer and self
correction have been dealt with twice only.
Pupils interest and even their motivation vary from an instructional task to another.
Along my presence in the classroom I noticed that they have been active and so has
been the teacher in grammar lessons, by giving examples, deriving rules and doing
activities. In reading tasks they seem less motivated in answering comprehension
questions and filling tables. In speaking tasks they are poorly motivated since they fear
embracement and making errors. It has been clear that in writing tasks they feel
difficulty; sometimes they ask the teacher to translate certain words for them from
Arabic to English. Mainly because they do not bring dictionaries with them to the
classroom except two who have brought bilingual dictionaries.
All along my presence with him in the classroom the teacher has not given any
task where pupils work together, collaborate, negotiate and discuss. Nevertheless few
pair work tasks have been given. Because the classroom is overcrowded, the teacher
decides to keep order. However, the teacher has not prepared collaborative tasks for
his pupils, mainly because they are not presented in the textbook, and since he was
blindly following the textbook he dared not to change or add tasks missing in the
textbook such as collaborative tasks even if necessary[1].
One of the ways learners become actively involved in controlling their own learning
is by using strategies. In the results obtained from teachers questionnaire most of
them opt for implicit strategy instruction. Though the explicit instruction is better for
1AS pupils who should know the strategy: how is it used? And why? Those questions
could not be answered unless the teacher provided explicit teaching of strategies. This
what is lacking in the observed classroom. The teachers ask pupils to do certain tasks.
They use certain strategies unconsciously, example task listen and check they

115

Have been asked to take note (without explanation of how to take notes and why they
are using such strategy). In other task they have been asked to read information
written in bold type in a text and choose the most suitable title. However they are not
informed that those words are called key words and are used to give a title or a
general idea of a reading passage. Teachers must teach explicitly certain learning
strategies so that to help pupils becoming autonomous.

According to Julia Dobson (1981) teaching English without a language laboratory

is just like teaching swimming without swimming pool. In fact, the laboratory is of great
importance. However, it is not available in the secondary level, other than the
routinized materials: white board, pens and the textbook, the teacher use some
pictures of inventions (microwave oven, vaccume cleaner, washing machine,
telephone) and photos of inventors and scientists such as: Thomas Edison, Louis
Pasteur, Brothers Right,etc. Other than those visual aids no other material has been
used by the teacher. In fact, the existing of materials in the classroom made the
session more interesting since it breaks the routine and makes it more memorable
than other tedious class sessions.
In the first session with the teacher on February 20 th, 2011 at 08 am, I have
remarked that he did not introduce the topic of the project work[2], after finishing I
inquired why, the teacher answered that it was better to introduce the units theme first
and later to introduce the project. In fact, in the next session on February 21 st he has
introduced the project. He asked pupils to open their textbooks on page131where the
instructions were written. The project is about making a profile of an invention. After
referring them to the textbook the teacher took exactly 14 minutes to read and explain
the steps of the project .After this session neither the teacher has talked again about
the project, nor pupils have brought their works to be checked by the teacher. It was
until the day of presentation (March 07th ,2011) when the project was mentioned, we
attended two presentations, one about the typewriter and another one about the
[Link] typed with pictures, i.e, ready made from cyber space. (See appendix
4). Surprisingly during the presentation pupils were unaware of what they were
reading. They were incapable to answer their classmates questions. The teacher was
just listening and maintaining order.

116

It is true the aim behind introducing the projects in the Algerian schools is fostering
learner autonomy as stated by the Ministry of Education. However, most pupils do not
make sufficient efforts in them. In the contrary, according to Belouahem. R (2008):
seeking information from the internet never helps the learner to provide a
personal effort. It would be better if it was simplified into a simple report since
the learners are not ready to be in such a wide complex dimension. (Belouahem
R, 2008:211). According to him, simple reports written in pupils own style is better
than a readymade project work. Moreover, the project work is too demanding for both
the teachers and the pupils.
To conclude with what E. Ushioda (2003) says: The concept of autonomy in
the classroom invariably brings to mind the vision of learners working happily in
groups, pairs or individually while the teacher hovers in the background. (E.
Ushioda, 2003:9). Taking into consideration what she says and the results obtained
from the classroom observation we confirm that the observed classroom is not an
autonomous one. The problem is that neither teachers nor pupils can be blamed since
both have been poorly prepared for autonomy. English teachers should create an
atmosphere that foster autonomy such as introducing activities[3] that stimulate
learners and motivate them so that to make pupils more successful, As suggested by
Littlewood : for students, the ability to behave autonomously is dependent
upon their teacher creating a classroom culture where autonomy is accepted.
Littlewood (1999: 33). The success of the learner autonomy is, to a great extent,
determined by the educational system and the role of the teacher.

3.5.4 The Interview

In order to broaden the scope of research we have added an interview with the
General inspector of English in the Wilaya of Ain Temouchent. He has been asked
open-ended questions in order to collect data on his general understanding of learner
autonomy. Whether or not it is included in teacher training programs, and how can it
be fostered both inside the classroom and outside of it. He has been questioned about
how much autonomous the pupils in the secondary school are. Some
117

questions have already been prepared by the researcher so as to be answered by the

English inspector, though the questions have been modified according to the inspector
answers and comments.

[Link] Types of Data Collected

Thanks to his experience as an inspector and his visits to teachers in classrooms,
his observations to pupils engagement in learning activities as well as his knowledge
of problems teachers in secondary education are facing, make the general inspector of
English in a good position to answer the questions and provide a reliable data about
autonomy in English learning. Some of these questions are presented below:
1- What is your understanding of learner autonomy?
2- Do you consider learner autonomy important in the secondary level? Why? Why
not?
3- Are project works really helping pupils in the secondary school to be autonomous?
4- On the basis of your visits to several classes in the wilaya, how good are pupils at
learning English autonomously in secondary schools?
5- According to you does the teaching and learning environment in Algeria help or
hinder the development of autonomy? In what ways?
6- What should be done to encourage students to become more autonomous in and
outside the classroom?
7- At university, students in the first year came with no capacity to study independently
from the teacher, mainly because they are used to spoon feeding provided for them in
the secondary schools, according to you what are the solutions for this problem?
8- Are teacher training programs really helping English teachers to foster their
learners autonomy? How?
9- Do you provide teachers with techniques how to reduce learners dependence on
them, and fostering their independent learning? (During seminars or study days).
10- Which pieces of advice would you give English teachers in order to give their
learners more responsibilities and independence in learning English?

118

[Link] Data Interpretation

According to the General inspector of English, learner autonomy is very important
in English learning not only in the secondary education but in the middle school. It is
through autonomy that the skills and knowledge acquired can be reinvested in real life
situations. The project work if suggested in an appropriate way can prove to be a very
interesting tool to make students learn, be enthusiastic in their learning and

eager to

learn more. Unfortunately, added the inspector this rarely happens in our classrooms
as teachers seldom take time to foster autonomous learning. They rather deal with the
project work as a burden and suggest it to their students just because it is part of the
approach they are supposed to implement in their teaching. The students are left
without any assistance and make of their project a meaningless copy and paste
patchwork from the Internet which neither their teachers nor themselves have read
entirely.
According to the interviewee various factors prevent the teacher from implementing
the CBA in his teaching. This approach which has been adopted for a decade now and
which advocates autonomous learning meets some limits in the Algerian classroom for
a number of reasons:
a) Overloaded classes that do not leave much space to promote pupil-centered
teaching and autonomous learning.
b) Lack of equipment and material.
c) Insufficient teacher development.
d) Resistance to the new approach.
e) Fear to lose authority.
f) Use of official yearly distributions of the syllabus which are content-based.
g) Discordance between teaching which is meant to develop competences in using
a language and certificative assessment which is content-based: teachers choose
and concentrate on teaching what is tested in the baccalaureate at the expense
of enabling pupils to learn and use a language.
These obstacles, among others, hinder the development of learner autonomy in
Algerian schools.

119

Before answering the seventh question, the inspector liked to precise that spoonfeeding is present in all the schooling cycles, not specific to secondary teaching. The
remark is present in the majority of the teachers inspection reports but for the reasons
indicated above, student autonomy cannot be reached unless solutions to these
reasons are found.
Fostering students autonomy according to the inspector is at the heart of every
teacher development program whether during seminars or during teacher conferences
following an inspection visit to a teacher. Methods and techniques are provided to the
teachers in order to stop teaching and let students learn. Some of them put them into
practice in their everyday teaching but many remain reluctant to operate changes
claiming that students are weak, unwilling to make efforts, too many in class and that
will cause too much noise if the teacher applies these techniques. In reality, the
problem is different. Some teachers have negative attitudes towards implementing
students autonomy in their teaching strategies since they have not been trained
themselves in an autonomous way. Some others prefer to follow the book page after
page, activity after activity even if the contents of the textbook do not meet their
students interest or level.

As he has explained before in question 3 the inspector claims that the

teaching/learning environment in Algeria is not ideal to promote autonomous learning.
Much effort has to be made from the different stakeholders: a more realistic and
adequate schooling system, smaller classes, equipped classrooms and laboratories,
rich libraries, more pertinent syllabuses and textbooks that develop students
autonomy, more teacher development as well as a redefinition of the teachers role.
Whether present or not, it is up to the teacher to motivate his students become
autonomous and responsible for their learning. One important factor to encourage
autonomy is to make the learning objectives clear and arousing the students curiosity.
It is only then that the student is given the tools and supports to work autonomously.

In light of the interview data, the following suggestions and pieces of advice are
provided by the inspector for promoting learner autonomy in Algerian schools:

120

The first thing to start with is to tell the student that he is part and parcel of the
learning process, that the teacher is not a knowledge dispenser, but rather a
guide and facilitator

who helps students acquire competencies that enable

them learn English.

He ought to reassure learners that he can assist them individually when they
need help.

At the very beginning of the year he should suggest a diagnostic test to be

aware of his students individual strengths and weaknesses so as to provide
remedies.

Students need to know the learning objectives, to know what is expected from
them, the way they are going to be assessed and the different supports they
may use.

Teachers should link the learning objectives to the students own experiences
and their interests and provide meaningful choices congruent with the learning
objectives so as to develop a sense of students ownership over the learning
process.

The teacher should encourage group work, peer and self assessment so as to
leave space to peer negotiations and individual involvement.

The teachers should engage the students curiosity and promote active
learning. They should make use of problem solving situations that are
challenging.

Teachers should provide feedback on the students acquisition and what is left
to improve. They should praise them for their effort and help them overcome
their disappointment if they failed to succeed by reassuring them.

The use of journals and portfolios is recommended and encouraged to make

students evaluate their own progress. This will motivate them do better and
develop a sense of responsibility for their own learning.

3.6 The Research Findings

As put by Seliger and Shohamy (1989), once the data have been analyzed and the
results obtained, the last phase in the research process is to summarize the main
121

findings. In the light of the data analyzed we can argue that the very idea of autonomy
is part of the Western cultural tradition and thus by definition alien to non-Western
learners (Jones, 1995. In Little, 1996). An extension of this argument claims that the
methods used to foster the development of learner autonomy are likewise alien to nonWestern pedagogical traditions. The idea seems to be a bit racist since what is
applicable in western countries can be applied in non western countries through
training and preparation. As for Algeria, autonomy has been introduced as top to down
procedure within the CBA without step by step procedure of training and preparations
for both teachers and learners.

3.6.1 Pupils Readiness for Autonomous Learning

One of the assumptions underlying the learner centered approach is that the
learner is able to take charge of the learning experience without any kind of difficulty.
But in reality pupils in the secondary education in general and those in the first year in
particular are not ready for taking much more responsibility for their English learning.
This is due mainly to pupils lack of motivation; their inability to solve problems on their
own or the inadequacy of their modes of learning. Learners may not be able or ready
to use this system because:
1- Pupils feel more secure in the presence of the teacher, because first they are used
to

rely

on

the

teacher,

second

because

of

lack

of

self-confidence.

2- The educational system does not provide learners with autonomy oriented training
before implementing the learner centered approach. Therefore, pupils are not ready to
be even a bit independent from the teacher because they do not know how to do this,
which strategies to use so as to be autonomous, as put by Miliani (1991):

such an

approach to learning is not part of the learning strategies acquired previously.

Therefore,

change

can

be

bad

experience.(Miliani,1991:69)

3- Even self assessment cannot be conducted by pupils themselves owing to the lack
of training. They are evaluated through exam and test marks and teacher comments,
the fact, that makes them subjective in assessing themselves. This was teachers
opinion towards self assessment.
122

4- Pupils readiness is tightly related to their motivation in learning English. The results
reveal that motivation has a strong impact in this readiness. So motivating pupils is the
first step that can be taken towards autonomy.
Furthermore,

the teacher will not lose all the responsibility in the English

classroom, instead he or she had better start sharing it with their learners (partial
autonomy), and withdrawing step by step, so that at the third and the final year in the
secondary level pupils will be ready for full autonomy when they reach university. In
the secondary education pupils should select from a wide range of activities, limit
times for doing them, selecting materials to be used, doing independent research (
projects), use grammar books dictionaries and evaluate learning. According to Miliani
autonomy in the secondary level deals with decision taking( i.e. choice of activities)
not so much with decision-making (i.e. design of these activities). Similarly M.
Ouakrime (1991) a university teacher in Fes Morocco claimes that the hope is that
after their three years of study at the Lycee, pupils will be in a position to continue
studying. They will know how to use a book, a library, study skills, etc, he says:
They will not suddenly be cut off from their life support
machine, the teacher. They will be responsible for their
own learning. You cannot learn all there is to learn in
three years at school but you can be set on the right path,
by being equipped to continue learning.
( Ouakrime, 1991:16)
In this research some Algerian EFL teachers claim that autonomy should be dealt
with in the level of university. In contrast, the secondary level is preparatory phase for
university, so spoon feeding will not make pupils go further in English learning. In this
respect, a strategy for developing autonomy in language teaching will require
enhanced metacognitive skills, self-awareness to improve motivation and willingness
to take charge of learning.

3.6.2 Secondary Teachers and Learner Autonomy

EFL teachers in Algeria face numerous difficulties in fostering learner
autonomy. They still consider that there is no room for autonomy in the secondary
123

level. It has to be dealt with at university according to them. They justified this by
claiming that the curriculum, the content, and the method are imposed on the
secondary teacher, no room for freedom is left for him. However, most university
teachers complained from the spoon feeding students used to have in the secondary
education, this spoon feeding is the cause of students incapability and unwillingness
to learn English autonomously. Most of the questioned EFL teachers seemed not
ready yet to share responsibility with their learners .They used to such a dictatorial
type of teaching as put by Miliani (1991):
The teacher must also go through a stage where he will
have to relinquish power. But how many teachers are
ready to share their power and establish a new
pedagogical contract, contrary to their usual authoritative
and domineering roles to become consultants and
guides?
(Miliani, 1991:70)
EFL teachers in Algeria view change as a real difficulty because they are not well
prepared for it. Most of them seemed resistant to change, since it is demanding in
time, energy and preparation as clarified in the diagram 3.2 below:

Fears of loss of employment

Fear of loss of status

Why Change

Fear of loss of confidence

is Resisted
Demands Time

Demands energy

Diagram 3.2: Resistence to change. (In Baiche, 2008:24)

The resistance to change and the lack of readiness are not the only obstacles in
fostering learner autonomy in the secondary education in Algeria. Pupils attitude
towards autonomy is also negative according to most of the teachers. They are so
much reliant on the teacher in English learning that they are incapable to set goals
124

and evaluate their learning. They are even unaware of the use of strategies that render
them somehow more independent from the teacher in learning English. That is to say,
not only teachers are resistant to change (autonomy) in English learning teaching
process, pupils also are resistant.

Learners readiness, teachers roles, and the

availability of materials are the bases on which we should stand so as to foster learner
autonomy. However, teachers stresses that autonomy and motivation go hand in hand
because if pupils are not motivated to learn English, they will not be autonomous no
matter how well the teacher plays his role and no matter how much material and study
aids they have at hands.

3.6.3 Promoting Learner Autonomy in English Learning

The core interest of this research is looking for ways in order to foster learner
autonomy in the secondary education. In the light of the results obtained from the
questionnaires, the classroom observation and the interview, major findings are as
follows:
First, pupils are not aware of the important role autonomy plays in English
learning, so the first thing teachers have to do is rising pupils awareness, because
learners have become accustomed to being taught language rather than being taught
how to learn. In fact, the teacher must try to rise his learners awareness. Learner
strategies should also be given a lot of attention in foreign language classrooms.
Without developing such strategies, students will remain trapped in their old
patterns of beliefs and behaviors and never be fully autonomous (Wenden,
1998: 90). Both secondary teachers and the inspector of English admit that Algerian
pupils in general are ill-prepared for autonomy in English learning. Thus, strategy
based training is an essential pillar on which autonomy stands. It makes students think
about their own learning, they can then begin to notice how they learn, how others
learn, and how they can learn more efficiently. An essential aspect of autonomous
learning is that the learner develops awareness of language and learning. Developing
awareness does not come naturally to most learners. It is the result of conscious effort
and practice, so a lot of work needs to be done in order to bring these students around
to accept the usefulness of autonomous learning.

125

Second, the learner centered approach necessitates changes in the language

teachers role. numerous attempts to redefine the teachers role as facilitator,
counselor, and manager of learning resources have generated. The CBA catch phrase
is stop teaching let pupils learn ,however, if teachers stop teaching, most learners will
stop learning. So promoting learner autonomy is not based only on rising pupils
awareness and strategy training and change in teachers role. It is also based on
pedagogical dialogue (Little 1996: 175). Why dialogue is important? because human
nature is innately dialogic, persuasive communication ( see 4.22) purports to help bring
these facts to light and identify the causes that underlie them.

Third, both the textbook of 1AS and the project works are considered inadequate in
fostering learner autonomy. To promote autonomy textbooks should, therefore, place
sufficient authentic texts at the learner's disposal so that he can choose a text which
he finds interesting. A text which accommodates his needs and interests. Authentic
texts are also essential for discovering language as culture. Project works also should
be done in a way that really foster autonomy.
So to promote learner autonomy we should start first by rising pupils awareness
and motivation and in a later stage adopting a strategy based training. Innovations
should be done in the textbooks, and the project work presentations. Finally teachers
make several suggestions for ways of promoting learner autonomy in the Algerian EFL
context. Such as, advocating autonomy oriented training, in addition to providing
secondary teachers with a larger room to exercise their autonomy as teachers.
Moreover, raising the coefficient of English as well as reducing the number of pupils in
the classroom.
The findings indicate that pupils are to a large extent negatively predisposed to
many of the components of autonomous learning. It suggests that a lot of work needs
to be done in order to bring them around to accepting the usefulness of autonomous
learning. According to Ellis& Sinclair (1989 ) as learner autonomy and teacher
autonomy are interdependent, it is proposed that future teacher education program
should provide trainee teachers with the skills to develop autonomy in learners.
126

3.7 Conclusion
The analysis of data has veiled the ambiguity on the notion of autonomy in
secondary education. It has confirmed the hypotheses made so far in the introduction.
Pupils of 1AS are neither aware of the importance of autonomy nor ready to engage in
it, Furthermore, neither project works nor the textbook of 1AS, nor teacher training
programs are adequate and helpful in providing teachers and pupils alike with the
skills to develop autonomy in English learning. In fact, the idea of autonomy is
somehow new in the Algerian context; both teachers and pupils should have training
towards it.

In English learning learner autonomy cannot be realized overnight. Due to the longterm traditional spoon-feeding method. Students will undoubtedly have some difficulty
shifting their learning styles and taking the responsibility for their own learning. In this
case, teachers encouragement is highly demanded to help those passive learners
improving their autonomy, and help them to realize that successful language learning
largely depends on themselves not on the teacher. In this context a Chinese proverb
may serve to clarify farther it is saying: when you offer me one fish you feed me
one day, but when you show me how to fish you feed me all the life. What pupils
really need is not offering them knowledge but rather showing them how to find it. In
this way, teachers can succeed in establishing what is called life-long learning which is
unfortunately lacking in our schools. This study highlights the need to integrate learner
independence into the language curriculum, not only as top to down decision imposed
on both teachers and pupils, but as step by step procedure based on rising
awareness, motivating learners and train them alike with teachers towards autonomy.
Thus. we can deduce that a hard work is to be done if we want autonomy to be a
reality in the secondary education. On the basis of the findings of this chapter, it would
make sense to offer suggestions and recommendations for teachers to enable them lift
barriers in pupils minds concerning learner autonomy. Since the language research
will have no value if it does not bring some light to the process of learning.

127

Notes to Chapter Three

1-The textbook designed for 1AS pupils do not contain much peer and group work. It
was the duty of the English teacher to prepare such activities for the EFL learners, so
as to reduce their anxiety and promote their autonomy. Here lies the negative side of
over reliance on the textbook.

2-Project work presentation: making an invention profile.

- The profile should include the followings;
-Selecting an invention (some are proposed such as electric iron, hairdryer, typewriter,
train., etc.
-The evolution of the invention: background or initial invention, improvements and
innovations.
-Presentation of different models.
-Writing a timeline of inventors (biographies).notes to chapters)

3-

Certain class activities are intended for developing learner autonomy such as the

warming up procedure in which pupils are asked to make connections between what
they already know (prior knowledge) and new content to which they're exposed. Such
strategies stimulate students' thinking and prepare them to learn. This what in fact was
the teachers doing as an example in the beginning of the unit 4 entitled Eureka! he
asked his pupils to give names of famous inventors and their inventions and even the
date of invention if possible.

128

Chapter Four

Recommendations and Suggestions for

Promoting Learner Autonomy
in Algerian Secondary Education

CHAPTER FOUR : RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR

PROMOTING LEARNER AUTONOMY IN
ALGERIAN SECONDARY EDUCATION
4.1. Introduction
4.2 Recommendations: How can Learner Autonomy be Promoted?
4.2.1. Preparing Teachers to Promote Learner Autonomy.
[Link]. Learner autonomy in Teachers Training programs.
[Link]. Teachers Development.
[Link]. Reflective Approach to Foster Autonomy in Learning
[Link].1 Professional Development Portfolios
[Link].2 Diaries And journal writing
4.2.2 Preparing Learners for Autonomy in Language Learning
[Link] Creating Basic Motivational Conditions.
[Link] Persuasive Communication for Altering Learner Beliefs and Attitudes.
[Link]. Stages in the Process of Developing Learner Responsibility
[Link] Keeping Learning Journals and Self-reports
[Link] Writing Diaries.
4.3 Promoting Learner Autonomy Through Strategy- Based Instruction (SBI)
4.3.1 Goals for Strategy Based Instruction
4.3.2 Models and Methods of Strategy Instruction
4.3.3 A Step by Step Design for Strategy Based Instruction
4.3.4 Activities for Strategy -Based Instruction
4.3.5 Teachers Roles in Strategy Training
4.4. Steps towards a successful project work
4.4.1 Teachers and Students Role in the Project
4.4.2 Project Assessment and Evaluation
4.5 Suggestions for promoting Learner Autonomy
4.5.1 Suggested Materials for Promoting Learner Autonomy
[Link] How Computer Technology can Promote Leaner Autonomy
[Link] The Internet as Tool in the Development of Learner Autonomy.
4.5.2 Semi-Autonomous Learning as a Preparatory Phase.
4.5.3 Staying In Touch with Language Outside Classroom Settings
[Link] Self -Study Tasks
[Link] Homework
4.6 Conclusion
Notes to Chapter Four

4.1 Introduction
Nowadays learner autonomy is becoming more and more important in learning.
But in the Algerian secondary education we have noticed a certain unreadiness for
implementing learner autonomy in the language classroom. In fact, both teachers and
pupils have not been trained for such a change. Little (1999) believes that all the
participants in learning environment including the human participants: teachers and
learners, institutional rules and instruments, tools such as textbooks and computers,
need to work in an integrated fashion towards the goal of autonomy. However,
according to Little(1999): autonomy is not something that can be developed
within

few

lessons

and

that

in

fact

autonomy

is

hard-won.

(Littlewood, 1999:44). Though developing autonomy is somehow hard won, it is

possible, but efforts should be done by all the participants in language learning.
This chapter attempts to offer directions to secondary teachers hopefully to
improve learners awareness and motivation in learning English. And to foster their
autonomy rather than measure it. Multiple implications and suggestions have been
proposed to both teachers and learners to alleviate the learning problems and prevent
difficulties. Teachers training and learning strategy instructions are basic requirements
in fostering learner autonomy in the secondary education.

4.2. Some Recommendations: How Can Learner Autonomy be

Promoted?
The task of moving from learner autonomy as a philosophy to an
application in the classroom is really a demanding one on teachers since they must
learn to let go and pupils must learn to stand on their feet. Thus, learner
autonomy can be promoted only if pupils are sufficiently motivated and aware of
the necessity of autonomy for successful learning. Besides certain factors that
should be available such as learners training to find out the learning strategies
that suit them best. The language teacher also plays a role in promoting learner
autonomy, and instructional materials too . (see the diagram 4.1 below)
129

Promoting learner
autonomy

Learner
training
tttttttttrainitrai
ning
Learn how to
learn( strategybased
instruction)

Teachers
role

Instructional material

Teachers
autonomy
Teachers training
and development

Study aids
Instructional
material for
promoting
autonomy

Diagram 4.1 Promoting learner autonomy (source: Ellis &Sinclair, 1989:98)

This part will be devoted for suggesting some creative solutions to address the
issues that learners face in their daily learning as far as autonomy is concerned. These
difficulties concern the lack of awareness-raising, that can be cured only if some roles
and responsibilities are to be assumed by teachers and learners.

4.2.1. Preparing Teachers to Promote Learner Autonomy

Convincing teachers of the value of learner autonomy as a pedagogy in the
abstract seems to be insufficient. It is necessary to focus on the development of
teachers own autonomy. Pedagogy for autonomy appears to be particularly powerful
means for developing teacher autonomy, in particular.

It is necessary to prepare

teachers for taking the first steps towards such an engagement or what is generally
refer to as (pre-service) teacher training.

[Link] Learner Autonomy in Teachers Training Programs

Due to the Education Reform aims and demands, the Ministry of Education is
recommended to establish Teacher Training Institutions to provide teachers with

130

adequate training, so as to be able to cope with the reform objectives. As suggested

by Little (1 995): we must provide trainee teachers with the skills to develop
autonomy in the learners who will be given into their charge, but we must also
give them a first hand experience of learner autonomy in their training.( Little,
1996: 179-1 80). However, the findings of this research assured an inadequacy of the
training programs in fostering learner autonomy in the secondary education.

Teachers in the Algerian schools are generally given academic lectures in the
university. However, this phase of preparation seems to be more theoretical in the
sense that teachers do not have the opportunity to face pupils. Moreover, the teachers
are offered a period of around one year of training, in which they start their work and
try to cooperate with more experienced teachers. However, this seems to be
insufficient too. For this reason, the teachers in secondary schools find it difficult to
promote their learners autonomy, because they were not informed how to do so in
their pre-service training. In fact, teacher training programs have to include teaching
strategies of learning and also how to teach pupils to learn autonomously. Teachers
need to be provided by techniques how to reduce pupils reliance and dependence on
the them for making them more and more autonomous.
Teachers need to experience autonomous learning themselves and need to be
committed to self-development. During the training programs the questions of how
teachers can be psychologically prepared, and which skills and knowledge are needed
for autonomy should be addressed as well. So that teachers can become familiar with
independent language learning. Generally speaking, promoting autonomy involves a
first experience in a school setting, a first period in which trainee teachers explore,
observe and adapt to the classroom setting. In the following stages, they gradually
develop their reflective analysis skills, and interact with other teachers. They become
familiar with the notion of autonomy in language learning and gradually take charge of
the class. Little by little, interacting with the school team, they develop their
professional identity. The most important aspect in promoting learner autonomy is
providing trainee teachers with techniques and strategies so as to foster pupils
autonomy. In the final step, the teachers take full charge of the class, and may
become successful in developing learner autonomy.

131

Secondary school teachers in Algeria must receive professional training, in other

words, training that enables them to develop their career as teachers and develop their
learners autonomy in English learning. We wonder how teachers who have not been
confronted with learner autonomy in their initial teacher training develop autonomy in
their classes. One obvious impact on learners autonomy is their teachers
understanding of what autonomy means, and their ability to implement it in the
classroom. This is especially true for beginners. As knowledge of learner autonomy is
likely to be shaped in large part by the professional training they receive and the
amount of attention given to the topic during their teacher education.

[Link] Teacher Development

Professional development is one of the basic needs for teachers so as to
overcome all barriers in their job, and reach the aims and objectives of the process of
teaching in general, and to promote their autonomy as well as that of their learners in
particular. To do so, teachers have to reflect on their teaching through professional
portfolios, diaries and classroom action research.

[Link] Reflective Approach to Foster Autonomy in Learning

In formal teaching, the link between teacher training and learner training is a basic
requirement in fostering learner autonomy. In fact, learners are reluctant to take
charge of their learning. Teachers must help them to do so by reflecting on the
meaning of the concept of learning to learn a language. In so doing, the teacher
himself adopts a reflective approach which helps him to implement a methodological
approach towards autonomy.
As suggested by Vieira,1996( In Benson, 2001) reflective teaching and learner
training, are like two sides of the same coin. Reflective teachers think about what went
well or did not go well in a lesson. Think about the reasons why something went well.
Think about how they can improve on the things which did not go well (such as learner
autonomy). These questions according to Vieira (1996) may be helpful:
- Did I achieve my aims?
- What did my students learn?

132

- Were the materials helpful?

- Did the activities motivate the class?
- Did pupils learn autonomously?
- Was my classroom a really learner-centered.?
- Did my students enjoy the lesson?
- How do I know my lesson was successful?
- What did I learn from my students?
- What changes will I make if I teach this lesson again?
Teachers in Algerian schools in general and those teaching English in the
secondary education are required to reflect on their teaching through writing diaries,
portfolios and doing action research, so as learner autonomy in their classes become
a reality and not only a theoretical suggestion.

[Link].1 Professional Development Portfolios

A portfolio is a living history of a teaching-learning life, Like other professionals,
teachers need evidence of their growth and achievement over time. The professional
portfolio is a vehicle for collecting and presenting that evidence. Portfolios allow
teachers to become reflective about what they do. When teachers carefully examine
their own practices, those practices are likely to improve.
According to Vieira (1996) the professional portfolio should include:
- All critiques from university supervisors and cooperating teachers.
- Sample group rewards.
- Sample individual rewards.
Positive statements made by the teacher. How I used to teach and how Iam
teaching?
- All remarks made by inspectors and through peer observation and even by learners Sample Unit plan. -Sample Lesson plan.
- Video tape of a lesson at each site (optional, but recommended)
- Professional philosophy of education
- Recommendations
- Professional development activities (conferences, in services, workshops)
- Professional and personal goals.
133

As far as autonomous learning is concerned, if teachers notice that learners are

less autonomous than they supposed to be. They should first reflect on their teaching,
may be the method of teaching is encouraging reliance on the teacher. Or may be the
learners need to be taught how to use appropriate strategies for better learning. On
these suppositions teachers try first to reflect on their works so as to reach the goal of
autonomy in learning.

[Link].2. Diaries and Journal Writing

In order to promote learners autonomy, teachers may benefit from certain
strategies for reflective practice such as writing diaries and journals as means of
professional development in the foreign language classroom. Nunan asserts in this
context that diaries, logs and journals are important introspective tools in
language

research.

(Nunan,

1995:118).

Personal

events,

thoughts,

and

observations are recorded in a diary; this is what is referred to as a personal diary.

Teachers may use a diary as a reflective aspect on their teaching. Through it the
teacher can write about his experience as a teacher and express objectively all the ins
and the outs of his teaching. Students negative perception of the classroom is one of
the major worries of the language teachers who continuously wondering if things were
really the way they appeared to be.( Baily, 1990).
EFL teachers in Algerian schools are advised to keep diary writing. It is based on
honest reflections, and perhaps a less time consuming method, such as videotaping,
to look at ones teaching. Thanks to professional diaries, teachers truly begin to
understand more about their teaching environment and themselves.

Why should

teachers keep a teacher diary? It provides a focus for reflecting on things which
happen in the class and why they happen in the way that they do according to (Bailey,
1990) who adds:
I wrote the diary entries straight after each class, and tried to focus not only on my
emotions, but also on what I actually witnessed during my lessons. I wanted to put
some distance between me and the clouds of emotions to find out if the affective
issues in my classes were truly as poor as I thought they were, and also to determine
if what I was seeing in class came from concrete observations or simply my own
suppositions.( Bailey, 1990:221)
134

Teachers record how their learners are actually engaged in the process of learning.
Learner autonomy can be observed. Teachers roles in fostering it can be gradually
recorded in the diary as a teacher development tool, Bailey (1990) addes:
The diary helped teachers to state the problem and
explore why the difficulty was occurring. By recording
approach to the problem, is building a bank of ideas
which teachers can refer back to in the future and also
use to guide other teachers.
( Bailey, 1990:221)
Diaries not only help teachers developing themselves as teachers and improve the
level of their learners. They also provide a rich source of experience that is helpful in
guiding other teachers in the field of language learning. Journals also are benifical.
According to Lakshmi (2009) a journal is a teachers written response to
teaching events. Keeping a journal serves two purposes:

Events and ideas are recorded for the purpose of later reflection.
The process of writing itself helps trigger insights about teaching.

Journal writing in this sense serves as a discovery process. Many different topics from
classroom experiences can be explored through journal writing, for example:

Personal reactions to things that happen in the classroom.

Questions or observations about problems that occur in teaching.
Descriptions of significant aspects of lessons or events.
Ideas for future analysis or reminders of things to take action.( Lakshmi, 2009)
An example is taken from journals written by English language teachers presented by
(Lakshmi, 2009)
Excerpt 1: Before Reflection
One day, when I was teaching gerund form of verb, the class was quite passive. I
thought the monotony might be because of the hot afternoon. I went on explaining
verbs and rules for using gerund form of the verb giving examples to each condition.
My students were busily noting down my lesson in their notebooks. When I started
asking them to give the sentences of their own, no one could do it correctly. Then I
realized that the fifty minutes class was futile.
135

After Reflection

After going into my room, I pondered for a while in a disturbed mood. Later I went to
the library, collected newspapers of few days, and got some funny anecdotes from the
newspapers photocopied. Next day, I entered the class with confidence, distributed the
articles, and asked them to underline the verbs in gerund form. Students were busy
doing the exercise while enjoying the anecdotes. Thus, I could make the class
interesting. Later when I asked them to give sentences, using gerund on their own, it
was a childs play for them.
Some teachers write letters to learners. Harmer (2001) has given an example of
these teachers, Mario Rinvolucri (1983) who started a course by writing the same
letter to all his learners inviting them to write back to him about their learning problems.
And because the communication was written and personal, he was able to address
learning problems in a way that was easier than in face-to face interactions, especially
during whole class discussions ( Rinvolucri 1983:19 In Harmer, 2001:339). EFL
teachers will surely benefit from the above mentioned recommendations and
suggestions, How about EFL learners?

4.2.2 Preparing Learners for Autonomy in Language Learning

Innovation in language teaching in Algeria in general is applied without
consideration of teachers and learners in the field. Before there should be a
preparation for both so that the change can be easily accepted and applied. For this
reason, we can blame neither teachers nor pupils for their resistance to change and
their unreadiness for the notion of learner autonomy. All what pupils need is to raise
their awareness, motivate them to learn English and train them using strategies that
make them learning a language somehow independently from the teacher.

[Link] Creating Basic Motivational Conditions

Learning English successfully is based on the motivation of the learner himself.
The teacher strives to make the learner learns in vain if the learner is uninterested as
Scharle and Szabo (2000) invoke the saying: you can bring the horse to the water,
but you cannot make him drink. (Scharle and Szabo, 2000:4). If the English
teacher seeks effectiveness in his teaching, he should start first by motivating
136

the learners as put by Dornyei : teacher skill in motivating learners should be

seen as central to teaching effectiveness. (Dornyei, 2001:116 InThanasoulas
2000). Before any attempt to motivate learners according to Thanasoulas certain
conditions should be available such as: a good teacher student rapport and a pleasant
supportive classroom atmosphere, cooperativeness and increasing learner selfconfidence ( see the diagram 4.2 below).

Basic Motivational Conditions

Good teacher student

Rapport

Pleasant and supportive

classroom atmosphere

Cooperativeness

Increasing

learners selfconfidence

Diagram 4.2 Creating Basic Motivational conditions. (source: Thanasoulas,

2002).
First, teachers behaviour can either motivate learners or demotivate them in
learning a language, in fact: Teachers behaviour is a powerful motivational tool.
( Dorneyei, 2001:120).To foster learner autonomy, the language teacher has to
motivate the learners first. But this aim cannot be attained unless the teacher
establishes a good rapport with learners. A rapport based on trust and mutual respect.
He or she will lose nothing if he discusses with the learners from time to time in a
personal level, as an example ask them about the difficulties they encounter, which
study skill interest them best, etc. In

this way learners will hopefully become

enthusiastic and interested in language learning.

Second, Just as the teachers behaviour, the classroom atmosphere also can
demotivate learners and undermine learning. For Thanasoulas (2000) motivation will
reach its peak in a safe classroom climate in which students can express themselves
freely without fear of being ridiculed.
Third, cooperativeness, Learner autonomy is not only individual but also collaborative
and entails somecapacity and willingness to act independently and in
cooperation with others. (Dam, 2003:1 ). Learning does not necessarily imply
learning individually, in fact, interaction, negotiation and collaboration are important
137

factors in motivating learners and promoting learner autonomy (see 1.2.2 Individual
and Group Autonomy)
Fourth. Increasing the learners' self-confidence is based on convincing learners
that their level in English learning can be developed. Learners feel themselves
confident when they perform tasks effectively. Teachers supportive words and
encouragement are greatly helpful in making self-confident learners who can engage
in their learning independently. To increase learners self-confidence according to
(Dornyei, 2001: 130). Everyone is more interested in a task if they feel that they make
a contribution. A small personal word of encouragement is sufficient. Teachers can
reduce classroom anxiety by making the learning context less stressful.
Motivating learners according to Thanasoulas (2000) is based on the teachers
behaviour, the classroom atmosphere, cooperativeness and raising learners selfconfidence. Similarly Niemeic and Ryan (2009) In Fukuda & Hiroshi (2011)maintain
that teachers can motivate learners in learning English as a basic step in fostering
learner autonomy. This can be achieved through the C.L.A.S.S philosophy. Such
philosophy can be incorporated throughout several learning situations inside and
outside the classroom. This philosophy aims not only at enhancing motivation but also
learner autonomy. (see the table 4.1 below):
C

Confidence

Algerian students with a low sense of confidence need to

feel the possibility to learn English effectively and use it
comfortably.

Link

There should be a link between the language learning and

the language use, a sense of purpose in the process of
learning.

Association

Security and association with classmates: for example,

connection with teachers, and social concern;
collaboration, personal relationships are motivating factors.

Security

Building a climate of trust and an environment in which

students do not fear mistakes or feel anxiety.

SelfGovernance

Guided-autonomy starting with courses focused on a

transfer of responsibility, such as creating own study goals
and introducing self-assessment.

Table 4. 1: C.L.A.S.S. philosophy ( source: Fukuda & Hiroshi S, 2011)

138

C.L.A.S.S philosophy can positively provide counter measures for certain demotivating
factors in language learning ( Fukuda & Hiroshi 2011) for example teaching style,
characteristics of the classroom insecurity , disappointment from a past experience of
failure. Insufficient and unsuitable materials in the class and lack of interest in English
in general. The C.L.A.S.S. principles are conceived as a counter measure against
these de-motivating factors (see Table 4.2 below).
De-motivators

C.L.A.S.S Counter Measures

Teachers

Association: Trusting relationships with teacher and

classmates
Self-Governance: autonomous learning making the
teacher a facilitator

Class
Characteristics

Link: Studying to achieve a clear goal in the near future

making content meaningful.
Self-Governance: autonomous learning will let the student
decide the pace of study.

Past experiences of
failure

Competence: activities should promote cooperation as

opposed to competition
Association: trusting relation to promote the feeling of
competence

Class Environment

Security: a secure classroom environment

Association: a trusting relationship with teachers and
students

Class Materials

Self-governance: autonomously selected material

Competence: promote a better feeling of doing any selfassigned material

Lack of Interest

Link: studying for ones own goal makes content

interesting
Self-Governance: autonomous learning which calls for
own material selection raises interest in material chosen

Table 4. 2 Counter measures against de-motivating factors ( source: Fukuda &

Hiroshi, 2011)
Both Thanasoulas (2000) and Fukuda and Sakata (2011) have insisted on the
necessity of motivating learners in learning English to pave the way for learner
autonomy. EFL teachers in Algeria are to certain extent aware of the demotivating
factors that undermine English learning. Some of which are illustrated in the table 4.2
above. Their duty is to apply counter-measures against demotivating factors and
139

build a secured classroom environment characterized by a good rapport with learners.

In such circumstances the learners will develop their self-confidence and interest in
English learning and become gradually motivated and in a later stage autonomous in
their English learning.
A good way to arouse students interest is to create an appropriate environment
in which learners realize the importance of English as a language and as a tool for
communication. Teachers can broaden learners horizon in learning English by
providing learners with not only grammar and vocabulary, but also knowledge like
culture, literature and history related to the target language. On the other hand,
Thanasoulas (2000) stresses the fact that teachers may also create a learning
environment outside the classroom, such as English song contest, English corner,
English speech, etc. A teachers recommendation of certain magazines, films or websites has a great impact on fostering learner autonomy.

[Link] Persuasive Communication for Altering Learner Beliefs and

Attitudes

Factors such as learners' motivation, their desire to learn, and the beliefs they hold
about themselves as learners, are basic requirements for developing autonomous
learning and thus language proficiency. The language teacher had better start first by
altering these negative attitudes before any intervention aiming at promoting
autonomy. Changing some negative beliefs and attitudes is bound to facilitate
learning. Attitude change is basically achieved through exposure to a
persuasive communication [between the teacher and the learners]. (Wenden,
1998: 126). There are several ways of bringing about this change; however, our
concern will only be with persuasive communication.
A persuasive communication according to Thanasoulas (2000) is a discussion
presenting information and arguments to change a learner's evaluation of a topic,
situation, task, and so on. These arguments could be either explicit or implicit,
especially when the topic is deemed of importance. If, for instance, a deep fear or
140

belief prevents the learner from engaging in the learning process successfully,
persuasive communication helps bring these facts to light and identify the causes that
underlie them, the communication comprises facts that show what learners can
do to attain autonomy and that learners who do so are successful . (Wenden,
1998: 126). This approach is based on the assumption that when learners are faced
with convincing information about a situation: they can be led to re-examine
existing evaluations they hold about it and revise or change them completely.
(ibid: 127). Attitudes can be changed through persuasion which can be a response to
a communication between teacher and learners.
Since human nature is dialogic, EFL teachers in Algeria will not find it a hard task to
communicate with their learners and try to persuade them that certain attitudes they
hold about English learning are not valid. And if they want to engage in English
learning successfully and their level to improve continuously, they should be to certain
extent independent from the teacher and take some responsibility for their learning.
Teachers may organize a session in class devoted to persuasive communication in
which he or she relies on his artistry in finding techniques and strategies for convincing
learners.
Relying on the findings of this research, EFL teachers in Algeria while trying to
convince learners, they should focus on the followings:
1- Convincing learners that responsibility in English learning almost lays on the learner
not entirely on the teacher as they believe. The teacher is a facilitator and guide.
2- Evaluation of learning should be on learners hands because self-evaluation is one
of the autonomous strategies that help learners becoming self-reliant, not on teachers
scores and comments only.

3- Success and failure in English learning is due to the learner first and in a later stage
on pedagogical and methodological matters. So they should stop reproaching teachers
for their failure in English learning.
4- English learning is vast to be dealt with in class sessions only, teachers have to
convince learners to change their attitude of satisfaction of the knowledge provided in
the class and do self-study tasks for the sake of becoming autonomous and successful
in English learning.
.

.
141

In Algerian secondary education, pupils feel not secured while working far from the
teacher, so he may convince them that the teacher is always present with them
however, his roles have changed, and that autonomy in English learning is highly
beneficial for them so as to achieve a high level of proficiency. Pupils in this level,
have to be convinced not to be so much dependent on the teacher in English learning
to the degree that if he stops teaching they stop learning. Convincing learners about
autonomy differs from one another, intelligent and brilliant pupils may be

easily

persuaded while others not. Because successful learners usually tend to use learning
strategies that make them somehow autonomous. So what other pupils need is
strategy based instruction. What is Strategy Based Instruction (SBI) ? and how can it
be applied in Algerian secondary education? Answers to these questions are provided
in details in the next section.

[Link]. Stages in the Process of Developing Learner Responsibility

EFL learners in Algeria mainly those in secondary education in general are

unwilling to take responsibility in English learning. According to them the first and
major responsible figure in the language classroom is the teacher. EFL learners
should take responsibility for their learning, and believe that their success and failure
in English learning is due to their own attitudes and responsibilities in learning.
However, taking responsibility for ones learning is not an easy task because: People
do not normally wake up a fine day and find that they have become responsible
overnight. More likely, they go through a slow gradual process as they are
approaching adulthood. (Scharle and Szabo, 2000:9). Developing learner
responsibility is crucial in establishing learner autonomy, however, learners should go
through stages so as to become gradually independent from the teacher, these stages
are illustrated by Scharles and Szabo (2000) in the table 4.3 below:

142

Stages

Name of the stage

Characteristics

Stage 1

Raising Awareness

-Presenting new viewpoints and new

experiences to the learner.
-Most activities in this stage are structured
-Students are not yet very responsible.

Stage 2

Changing attitudes

-A slow process requiring a lot of practice

and patience.
-Preparation to practice new roles
-Breaking away from stubborn old
patterns.

Stage 3

Transferring Roles

-Considerable change in the classroom

management.
-demanding phase on the teacher.
-Giving freedom to learners to
accomplishing tasks and even deciding
about tasks.

Table 4.3 Stages in the process of developing learner responsibility. ( source:

Scharles and Szabo, 2000: 9)

EFL teachers in Algeria claimed that pupils are not responsible and not ready to
be so in English learning. In fact, teachers might feel insecure, especially in the
situation with 50 students in a class feeling it impossible and impractical to promote
autonomous learning, and any attempts would result in chaos. For this reason, they
keep their spoon feeding method in the English classroom. We cannot assert firmly
that they are unwilling to put some responsibilities in pupils hands or they do not know
which steps to follow so as to make their learners responsible.

Instead of sticking to

this method which proved to be a failure, they would better raise their pupils
awareness, change their attitudes and transfer certain roles with them in the
classroom. Fostering the sense of responsibility in learners is beneficial not only in
English learning but also in all subject matters and even in real life as a responsible
citizen in the society.

143

[Link] Keeping Learning Journals and Self-reports

In order to improve their language skills, pupils in the secondary education are
recommended to keep a reflective journal. In these journals pupils can write about all
what happened in school in general and in the classroom in particular. Pupils should
focus on areas where they experience difficulties. The benefits of the writing of a
journal is besides raising pupils awareness and responsibility in English learning .It
helps learners in bettering their writing skill and ability in English. Keeping a reflective
journal enables both the English teacher and learner to think about the issues they
confront during day-to-day classroom. Journal writing makes English learners more
independent and autonomous in their learning. Only through journal writing pupils
really start taking charge of their own learning. A suggested lesson on teaching pupils
how to write a journal is provided at the end of this research (see appendix 4)

Self-reports also are one of the good ways for collecting information about how
pupils deal with certain learning tasks. According to Wenden(1998) self-reports help
learners becoming aware of their own strategies by reporting what they are thinking
while performing a task. Self-report is introspective in the sense that learners are
asked to introspect on their learning .In this sense: the introspective self-report is a
verbalization of ones stream of consciousness. ( Wenden, 1998:81). Another
type of self-reports is retrospective. In which learners are asked to think back and
retrospect their learning. Wenden (1998) has put two kinds of retrospective selfreports: semi-structured interviews and structured questionnaires. The aim behind selfreports is as put forwards by Thanasouls (2000) extracting information about pupils
feelings towards learning skills, the problems they encounter and the strategies they
use. Wenden (1998) adds that self-reports help also in raising pupils awareness. In
fact this awareness is highly recommended in Algerian schools.

[Link] Writing Diaries

Thanasouls (2000) has stressed the fact that one of the principal goals of
education is to alter learners' beliefs about themselves by showing them that their
putative failures or shortcomings can be ascribed to a lack of effective strategies rather
than to a lack of potential. Here lies the importance of diaries that make pupils
144

aware of their progress and problems in language learning. Diary writing is a means
for recording personal thoughts, daily experiences, and evolving insights. The
advantage of writing diaries is to make pupils plan, monitor, and evaluate their
learning,

identifying

any

problems

they

face

and

suggesting

solutions

(Thanasoulas, 2000). EFL teachers in Algeria are highly recommended to keep a diary
writing as a tool for professional development and so EFL learners. Through diary
writing pupils will develop a sense of independence and self-reliance in overcoming
the obstacles in English learning. For this reason, English teachers can encourage
their pupils to write diaries as means for fostering their autonomy. Wenden (1998)
provides samples of diaries based on authentic student accounts of their language
learning, this is one of these diaries:
Dear Diary,
These first few days have been terrible. I studied English for four years just
think, four years, but I only learned a lot of grammar. I can't speak a word. I don't
dare. I can't express myself in the right way, so I am afraid to speak. The other
day I started watching TV, so I could get accustomed to the sound. I don't
understand TV news very well only a few words. I can't get the main point. In
school it's easy to understand, but I can't understand the people in [Link]
can I do?
Yours Truly,
Impatient
(from Wenden, 1998: 102)
Just as writing journals, diaries can benefit pupils greatly in this level by making them
putting pens to papers and write about their experiences in English learning. Diary
writing is a fairly good opportunity for them to improve their writing ability in English
since the obtained data show that 1AS pupils consider writing as the most difficult skill.

4.3 Promoting Learner Autonomy Through Strategy- Based

Instruction (SBI)
Learning strategies have long been recognized as a key tool to empower
students and promote learner autonomy. For instance, Dickinson (1993) points that
learner strategy training should aim to help learners become autonomous. Similarly,
McCarthy (1998) points out the relationship between autonomy and learner training by
stating that the main aim of strategy training is to enhance the effectiveness of learning
and fostering learner autonomy.

145

Wenden (1998) clarifies that learner strategies should be given a lot of attention in
foreign language classrooms for the purpose of making students aware of their own
learning processes. Without developing such strategies, students will remain
trapped in their old patterns of beliefs and behaviors and never be fully
autonomous. (Wenden, 1998: 90). However, one of the research findings is that
pupils do not use strategies that help them becoming independent from the teachers.
Moreover, their teachers do not teach them explicitly learning strategies. This may
justify why both teachers and pupils in our secondary education are still trapped in
their old patterns and beliefs. So, strategy based instruction is the ground on which
learner autonomy is build. To foster their learners autonomy EFL teachers in Algeria
should have a birds eye view of SBI and train their pupils.

Strategies-Based Instruction (SBI) according to Drnyei, Z. (1996) is a learnercentered approach to teaching that extends classroom strategy training to include both
implicit and explicit integration of strategies into the course content. What pupils need
in the Algerian schools is a sort of training towards autonomy. In fact, such training
should be made before the changes have been occurred in the teaching of English in
Algeria. But before, EFL teachers themselves need formation and preparation for SBI
because they seem not to be familiar with. This section aims hopefully to provide those
teachers and learners alike with help for systematically applying SBI as a step towards
making autonomy a reality in our schools.

4.3.1 Goals of Strategy- Based Instruction

It has been suggested that Strategy instruction may help learners in three ways:
- Strategy instruction help students become better learners.
- Using strategies make learners independent and confident.
- Learners become more motivated as they understand the relationship between their
use of strategies and success in learning languages. ( Chamot and OMalley, 1990)
Andrew Cohen (1997) states that strategy training aims to provide learners with the
tools to do the followings:

Self-diagnose their strengths and weaknesses in language learning.

Become aware of what helps them to learn the target language most efficiently.
Develop a broad range of problem-solving skills.
146

Experiment with familiar and unfamiliar learning strategies.

Make decisions about how to approach a language task.
Monitor and self-evaluate their performance.
Transfer successful strategies to new learning contexts.
In Algerian secondary education, teachers and pupils seem not aware of the
importance of strategy instruction which is a necessity to overcome the shortcomings
of English learning.

4.3.2 Models and Methods of Strategy Instruction

Research on strategy training contexts strongly argues for explicit strategy
training (Graham & Harris, 2000). Explicit learning strategy instruction essentially
involves the development of students awareness of the strategies they use, student
practice with new strategies, student self-evaluation of the strategies used, and
practice in transferring strategies to new tasks. (Chamot et al, 1999; Oxford, 1990).
Most researchers in second language contexts agree on the importance of explicitness
in strategy instruction. However, there is less agreement on the issue of whether
strategies instruction should be integrated into the language curriculum or taught
separately. While many argue that integrated instruction provides students with
opportunities to practise learning strategies with authentic language learning tasks.
As far as the language of instruction is concerned. Few researchers have
proposed that the strategies had better to be taught in the students native language in
second and foreign language contexts. However, this is not the case for the pupils
targeted in this research. Beginners do not yet have the L2 proficiency to understand
explanations in the target language of why and how to use learning strategies.
However 1AS pupils are to certain extent proficient, so English may be the language of
instruction. Nevertheless, Teachers are aware of their learners needs so they can
decide about the language themselves. Learning strategy instruction should not be
postponed until final year in the secondary education or to the university because

147

beginners also need strategies that can make their language learning more successful
and increase their motivation for further study.

Cohen (1997) claims that: although no empirical evidence has yet been
provided to determine a single best method for conducting strategy training, at
least three different instructional frameworks have been identified. (Cohen,
1997:14). He mentions one framework, proposed by Pearson and Dole (1987). The
second framework , Oxford et al. (1990). The third one is developed by Chamot and
OMalley (1994). A number of models for teaching learning strategies in both first and
second language contexts have been developed as examples: ( Chamot et al., 1999;
Cohen, 1998; ; Grenfell & Harris, 1999 . These instructional models share many
features. All agree on the importance of developing students metacognitive
understanding of the value of learning strategies. All emphasize the importance of
providing multiple practice opportunities with the strategies to be used autonomously.
All suggest that students should evaluate how well a strategy has worked, choose
strategies for a task, and actively transfer strategies to new tasks. We have chosen
three models that are suitable for the pupils targeted in this research. The table 4.4
below compares these three current models for language learning strategy instruction.

148

Pearson and Dole

Model Chamot et al.,

Grenfell & Harris (1999)

(1987)Model

1999)Chamot, 2005;

Initial modeling of the

strategy by the teacher,
with direct explanation
of the strategys use and

Preparation: Teacher

Awareness raising: Students

identifies students current

complete a task, and then

learning strategies for familiar

identify the strategies they used.

tasks.

importance
Presentation: Teacher

Modeling: Teacher models,

models, names, explain new

discusses value of new strategy,

strategy; asks students if and

makes checklist of strategies for

how they have used it.

later use

Consolidation, where
teachers help students
identify the strategy and
decide when it might be
used

Practice: Students practice

General practice: Students

new strategy; in subsequent

practice new strategies with

strategy practice, teacher

different tasks.

Independent practice
with the strategy

Self-evaluation: Students

Action planning: Students set

evaluate their own strategy

goals and choose strategies to

use immediately after

attain those goals.

Guided practice with the

strategy

fades reminders to
encourage independent use

practice
Application of the

Expansion: Students transfer Focused practice: Students

strategy to new tasks

strategies to new tasks,

carry out action plan using

combine strategies into

selected strategies; teacher

clusters, develop repertoire of

fades prompts so that students

preferred strategies.

use strategies automatically.

Evaluating the use of

Assessment: Teacher

Evaluation: Teacher and

strategy in new tasks.

assesses students use of

students evaluate success of

strategies and impact on

action plan and set new goals.

performance.

Table 4.4 Models for Language Learning Strategy Instruction.

149

EFL teachers in Algeria may find the theoretical presentation of strategy instruction
beneficial, but what they really need is how to apply strategy instruction in their
classrooms and which model seems the most suitable for pupils in this level. One
question worth to be asked here, it is how language strategies can be instructed? The
researcher has tried to answer this question in the next section.

4.3.3 A Step by Step Design of Strategy Training for Learners

Several instructional steps in language strategy training have been developed

and implemented in different educational settings. They are similar in the fact that they
generally start by raising pupils awareness of the strategy training this is referred to as
consciousness raising and familiarization training. According to Oxford (1990) this
approach provides learners with a general idea of learner training . She describes it
as: a program in which participants become aware of and familiar with the
general idea of language learning strategies, and the way such strategies can
help them accomplish various language tasks. (Oxford, 1990:202).

The following seven steps are based largely on suggestions of strategy training by
Oxford (1990). The model is especially useful because it can be adapted to the needs
of various groups of learners, the resources available, and the length of the strategy
training.( For a thorough description of these steps see the table 4.5 below)
1. Determine learners needs and the resources available for training.
2. Select the strategies to be taught.
3. Consider the benefits of integrated strategy training.
4. Consider motivational issues.
5. Prepare the materials and activities.
6. Conduct explicit strategy training.
7. Evaluate and revise the strategy training
According to Cohen (1997) SBI is based on the following series of components:
strategy preparation, strategy awareness-raising, strategy training, strategy practice
and personalization of strategies.

150

Steps of SBI Oxford(1990)

Step 1

Learners do a task without any strategy training.

Step2

They discuss how they did it and the teacher asks them to reflect on
how their strategies may have facilitated their learning

Step3

Teacher demonstrates other helpful strategies, stressing the potential

benefits

Step4

Learners are provided with opportunities to practice the new strategies.

Step5

Learners are shown how the strategies can be transferred to other

tasks

Step6

Learners are provided with further tasks and asked to make choices
about which strategies they will use

Step7

Teacher helps learners to understand the success of their strategy use

and assess their progress towards more self-directed learning

Table 4.5 Suggested steps for strategy based instruction ( Oxford, 1990)
The models of strategy instruction have been clarified in details in the table 4.5
above. EFL teachers in Algeria can select the model that suits them and their pupils
best. As a first step, they should start raising their pupils awareness and prepare them
for the training. Later pupils are given tasks so as to apply the strategies and practice
them in a meaningful context. Then expand and transfer strategy use to other tasks.
And finally, learners understand the success of their strategy use and assess their
progress towards more self-directed and autonomous learning. Teachers need
activities for (SBI) some examples are provided below.

4.3.4 Activities for Strategy Based Instruction

A knowledge of ones own learning style is essential in learning to learn. Teachers
should help students discover their own learning styles [1] because: No two
learners actually require the same kind of amount of training to master a
language effectively. (Narcy et al,1999:4 In Cotteral, 2000 ) In order
151

to foster learner autonomy, the language teacher had better identify first the learning
styles of his learners, so as to vary the content as well as the techniques of his
teaching procedure according to these styles, in order to reach good results.

Without strategy training EFL teachers in Algerian secondary education cannot

foster their learners autonomy. They should not consider it as an add-on or a
separate content area; rather, strategies instruction is used to support language
learning and to accomplish authentic, meaningful language tasks (Sheng, 2008). They
can conduct strategy training in their classes and designate activities for such aim.
Several steps of strategy instruction have been dealt with in the table 4.5 above; they
are to large extent similar. The main steps are briefly summarized below:

-Preparation:

Preparing learners for strategy training is raising their awareness.

Teachers may find it beneficial to do that through small group interviews, in which the
teacher gives learners the opportunity to discuss about their learning. What goes well
and what does not. According to Sheng (2008) the SBI tasks are explicitly used to
raise the students general awareness about the learning process, their learning style
preferences and the kinds of strategies that they already employ. Learners should be
explicitly taught how the strategy is used, in which context, and for which purpose
( see the table 4.6 below).
-Practice: After being explicitly taught how, when and why to use a certain strategy,
learners should be given opportunity to practice the learning strategy in instructional
tasks.
-Evaluation: in this phase the teachers role is to: ..help learners evaluate their
own success in using the learning strategy.( Sheng , 2008:5). Learners discover
how well they use the strategy, and to which extent it facilitates their learning. They
can do this through self-questioning. The teacher can do this also through interviews.
-Expansion: in this phase learners can transfer the use of the learning strategy to
other contexts, and even to other subject matters other than English.

152

Name of the strategy

Note taking

Key words

Its usefulness

Suggested activities

-To understand difficult

-Listening or reading a text

and long texts.

-To organize the ideas

-Organizing ideas

according to the text

-Analyzing a text.

-To analyze or summarize.

-Words for memory

-Reading a text.

techniques.

-Identifying what is it about?

-To skim and scan a text.

-Finding key words.

-to form a title and a

-Forming a title or an idea.

general idea.

Self-monitoring

-Check ones

-The teacher may repeat the

performance in speaking

utterance or stress the

-Become aware of ones

mispronounced or the wrong

weaknesses

word. Or make learner writes

-Develop self-reliance

it on the board

through self-correction

Self-evaluation

-Check how well one is

In writing tasks as an

learning.

example learners may be

-Identify strengths and

asked to: reflect on their

weaknesses

written essay through

-Notice the progress in

checking the tense used,

English learning.

connectors,punctuationetc.
Helping learners decide how
well they master certain
tasks(good-fairly good-bad..)

Table 4.6 Suggested activities for strategy training.

The researcher has proposed certain activities in the table above as clues for
removing the ambiguity EFL teachers in Algeria may have on strategy training in the
English class. The above mentioned strategies have been randomly selected for
illustrative purpose only. Teachers should start first by presenting the strategy through
giving its name, and discuss its usefulness in the preparatory phase.

153

Pupils in the secondary education are less advanced learners, for this reason they
need much explicit strategy training, unlike those in the university who are supposed to
be advanced students. Strategy training is the basis of fostering learner autonomy in
our schools because: Promoting learner autonomy is a long-term process, and
learners need plenty of opportunities for strategy training during foreign
language classes. ( Sheng, 2008:7). In conclusion, SBI can help students attain
long term goals in foreign language learning, not just a specific, immediate goal. In
other words, developing strategies can help them become effective and strategic
learners and eventually become more autonomous. (Sheng, 2008)

4.3.5 Teachers Role in Strategy Training

Dickinson (1992) acknowledges that developing learner autonomy is a long , painful
and demanding process for teachers and learners alike, since according to him: inservice language teachers struggle with the ways to promote learner autonomy,
or at least to encourage the idea of autonomy in language classrooms.
(Dickinson, 1992:54). Thus, teachers are in real struggle so as to make learners more
independent than they actually are.

Nowadays, in many European countries,

autonomy has become a goal in formal education this is the reason why pedagogical
innovations are carried out by the Project for Autonomy in Learning. ( PAL). The
project focuses on teacher education for learner autonomy . It is not the case in
Algeria, no pedagogical innovations are carried for the sake of preparing teachers
how to foster and develop their learners autonomy. In fact teachers have a plenty of
roles to play in this context.

Benson and Voller (1997) use three terms facilitator, counselor and resource to
describe the role of the teacher within this framework. Both facilitators and counselors
provide psychology-social and technical supports, the difference between the two
being that the former mostly work with groups and the latter in one-to-one situations.
And as a resource a teacher can be seen as a talking encyclopedia or a talking
catalogue. That is to say, he should have a certain level of language mastery that
allows him to be a model for his learners.

154

The table 4.7 below matches Cohens discussion of the different roles of the teacher
during SBI (1998) and the steps of Grenfell and Harris (1999) (see table 4.4 above)
Grenfell and Harris (1999)
1

Cohen (1998)
Teacher as diagnostician; makes the

Awareness raising

learner more aware of current learning

strategies, heightens awareness of how
they learn best.
Teacher as language learner (a); puts self
in role of learner in order to better
understand learners problems and needs.
Teacher as language learner (b); shares

2
Modelling

experience of being an expert language

learner, externalizes thinking process to
show how a strategy works.
Teacher as learner trainer; trains learners

3
General practice

in the use of strategies

Teacher as coordinator; oversees

Action planning

individuals study programme, areas

causing problems.

Teacher as coach; provides guidance on

Evaluation

an on-going basis eg: conferencing

about aspects of oral or written work,
responding to comments in learners
diaries.

Table 4.7 The teachers role in strategy instruction . ( source: Harris, 2003)

Caring and motivating learners are important role for teachers in the process of
promoting learner autonomy since: the ability to behave autonomously for
students is dependent upon their teacher creating a classroom culture where
autonomy is accepted. (Voller &Benson,1997 : 103). In a word, in a classroom in
which a teacher provides learners with opportunity to do projects and present them

155

in their own styles, to discuss, to select the materials they see suitable for their
learning, etc. by doing all this, the teacher will have established an environment that
really encourages learners to be more autonomous.

EFL teachers in Algeria once engaging in strategy instruction start playing certain
roles for the success of such framework. The table 4.7 above has clearly illustrated the
roles teachers have to play in each step of strategy instruction. If learners are well
prepared for strategy training a large step would have been taken towards fostering
learner autonomy in our schools. Autonomy in language learning means a
redistribution of roles and decision making between students and teacher. Teachers
role is helping students find their own balance between dependence (on the teacher
and the textbook) and on themselves as independent learners. Because language
classrooms now are supposed to be more learner-centered, in which students are no
longer soldiers waiting for orders from their commander but actors and actress taking
part in everything under the instruction of their director. The importance of a good
director can never be neglected. ( Teachers Guide 1AS, 2005).

4.4. Steps Towards a Successful Project Work

We have already dealt with projects in secondary schools, the way they are
organized and presented. We have reached the conclusion that the basic tool
educational institutions designed for promoting learner autonomy is a useless work all
together. In fact, no autonomy can be achieved from readymade projects in which
students did not do the least of independent research. Projects are considered as the
best way to develop learners independence.( In fact, if they are carried out
successfully).Teachers have a great responsibility in establishing an environment in
which learners are motivated and interested in doing such task as stressed by
Papandreou (1994): effective use of projects approach for teaching English
depends on the teacher. From the beginning, the teacher should motivate the
students to set up the right environment for this type of work.(Papandreou,
1994:14).

Motivation seems to be not the only difficulty in projects. The lack of

information and documents in the school library send pupils to cyberspaces, because

156

access to the internet in secondary schools is limited if not nonexistent. For this
reason, textbook designers should take the level of pupils into consideration while
designing the project, it should require information easy to found and collected
(Baiche, 2008).The lack of time also seems to be a serious problem for teachers. For a
successful realization of projects Stoller (1995) has proposed steps for orchestering
project work:

Step1 :
Agree on a theme for the project
Step 2 :
Determine the final outcome

Step 4 :

Step3 :

Prepare the learners

for the language
demands of step 5

Structure the project

Step :5
Gather informattion

Step 6 :

Step 7 :

Prepare learners for the

language demands for
step7

Compile and analyse information

Step9 :
Present final product

Step 8 :

Step10 :

Prepare learners for

the language
demands of step 9

Evaluate the project

Figure 4.3 Developing a project in a language classroom. (source: Stoller, 1997)

The model is successful after being tested in different language classrooms. The
above mentioned steps need clarification for better application in the realization of the
project.

157

Step1: Teachers should help students develop a sense of ownership towards the
project, i.e, students should be given a chance to select the project theme.
Step2: Teacher and learners determine the final outcomes of the project as an
example: a debate, an interview, handbook, oral presentation and theatrical
[Link].
Step3: Teacher and learners discuss the details from the starting point until the
completion of the project: the source of information, role play in the group (who does
what ), and the time for the project.(Bassou, 2008).

Step4: Teacher provides students with language forms and skills that match the
information to be gathered e,g in a debate the teacher may plan activities in which
learners question, request clarification, give opinions , agreeing and disagreeing.
Step5: Learners use different sources for the collection of information related to the
projects

theme.

Step6: Learners analyze and synthesize information. They do this through activities
presented by the teacher such as: making comparison, graphic display, charts, etc.
Step7: Learners discuss the value of the already gathered information, select the most
suitable

information

for

the

project

and

remove

the

others.

Step8: Teacher prepares learners for the presentation of the project through focusing
on activities on pronunciation, organizing ideas, etc.

Step9: Learners are ready to present the final outcome of their projects.
Step10: Learners are asked to reflect on their project work to check its effectiveness.
They are required to reflect on what worked well and what did not. (Stoller, 1997).

If they want the project to be a real means for fostering learner autonomy, EFL
teachers in Algeria may follow the steps provided in the model above. However, they
need further clarification about their roles as teachers, facilitators and guides in the
realization of the project work. In the next section, both teachers and learners are
provided with roles to play for a successful project work.

158

4.4.1 Teachers and Students Roles in the Project

During the classroom observation the teacher presents the project and later
neither he nor the pupils mention it until the day of the presentation. This is not the
right way teachers and learners should deal with the project. Instead the language
teacher may be a guide, facilitator and even a group member. He may also prepare
activities for learners and provide feedback. In Algerian secondary education not only
EFL teachers need to be aware of their roles in the project work, pupils also have
certain roles to play in the realization of the project. Papandreou (1994) contrasts the
role of both language teachers and learners in the project works:

Topic

student

Teacher

Select topic

Describe parameters and

suggests

Objectives

Set final objectives

Help in setting objectives

Preparation

directs

advises

Planning

directs

Contributes ideas

Time

Plans schedule

Make suggestions

Research

Coordinate and implement

Observe and facilitate

Result

analyzes

Observes

Presentation

Performs

Listen as a member of the

audience

Evaluation

Participates in self-

Provides feedback.

evaluation
Table4.8 Teachers and students roles in projects. (Papandreou, 1994:42)
It is noticeable from the table that a great responsibility in the realization of the
project work lays on students hands. The verbs Papandreou (1994) uses clarifies the
difference , for students roles he uses the verbs: select, set, directs, plan, coordinate;
analyze, perform. Whereas, for teachers he uses describe, suggest, help, observe,
listen and provide. If teachers and learners play the required roles in the project work
successfully, another step would have been taken towards autonomy in our secondary
schools. When they reach university, they will be prepared to engage in independent
research.
159

4.4.2 Project Assessment and Evaluation

Project is a tool for promoting learners self-reliance in doing independent
research from the teacher. It is also a tool that allows teachers to check whether or not
learners have attained the desired objectives. It helps teachers becoming aware of the
effectiveness of their teaching and their learners abilities. How a project can be
evaluated is a worth asking question. In the evaluation both the process and the
product are focused on. Before project presentation, the teacher has to set the
evaluation criteria and both parents and pupils should know about the evaluation of
this task.(Bassou, 2008). The teacher can give groups a checklist or a copy of the
instrument that will be used to grade their project or make a poster for the classroom
wall. This help learners know what to give importance to and what to spend more time
on beforehand. (Oswald, 2005).

Teachers are concerned with the evaluation of the project. Learners as well
through self-assessment strategy which is based on reflection. And as mentioned in
the figure 4.3 above, the final step of the design is evaluation. Learners are asked to
reflect on their work. Only by doing this, they can learn from their experiences and
become more confident and monitor their learning. Through self-assessment learners
can develop self-awareness of their strengths and weaknesses in language learning
(Fleming, 2000:5)
Oswald (2005) has provided teachers with two samples of project evaluation, we have
selected the one below because it seems more practical for teachers see the table 4.9
below:

160

Did Learners

No

Slightly

1-2

Generally Mostly
3

Yes
5

1-Do independent research to find

information for the project?
2-Apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate
somehow process the information?
3-Support their work with pictures,
drawing, photographs or graphic
organizers (charts, graphs, mind maps,
Venn diagrams, etc.)?
4-Prepare a project that is interesting for
their classmates?
5-Include the planning tool they used to
collect and organize their ideas?
6-Correctly use the required tense to
develop their project writings
7-Correctly use the language forms seen
in the unit to develop their project writings?
8-spell and punctuate their work correctly?
Mark/Learners total score./40
=.points of 20

4.9 A sample of project evaluation. (source: Oswald, 2005)

During the realization of the project pupils neither exercise individual autonomy nor
group autonomy. Autonomy is useful for students as language learners and as social
beings. In our secondary education project preparation and presentation need
reconsideration. Project should not be seen as an add on task but rather a highly
beneficial task that: consolidates and extends learning, increases motivation,
enhances classroom dynamics, and promote learner autonomy.( Sandy,
2006:2) . Successful project work is one of the basic steps towards fostering learner
autonomy in our schools. However, certain materials and study aids should be
provided for learners for the successful realization of the project works.
161

4.5 Suggestions for Promoting Learner Autonomy

Both EFL teachers and pupils in Algerian schools have recognized the limitations
of only studying English for an hour or two every week in the classroom. This has
contributed to the increasing demand of autonomous learning methods and
techniques. Pupils will not reach a good level in English mastery and fluency by relying
only on their teacher and textbook. They should develop their autonomy in the
language learning. In the next section, some suggestions have been provided for both
English teachers and pupils in the secondary education on how to promote learner
autonomy in the English classroom and outside of it.

4.5.1 Suggested Materials for Promoting Learner Autonomy

In the information age, the availability of a variety of instructional materials

can facilitate the task of becoming autonomous and independent from the teacher as
far as our pupils are concerned. The widespread use of information technology in
several domains of life and in schools particularly enables EFL learners in Algeria to
enhance and take charge of their own learning. Both EFL published and authentic
materials play a great role in fostering learners independence and self-reliance.

According to some researchers there are certain advantages of using published

material in promoting learner autonomy. They are illustrated by Navarro and Brady
(2003) as follows:
-This type of material is the one most of learners are familiar with because they are a
quite similar to those learners use in the classroom.
-The published material enables learners to gather a large amount of information .It
provides variety and quality of references that help learners doing research such as
project works.
- It helps learners developing their reading skill as well as their writing and vocabulary
items.
- It generally provides key to activities and feedback for learners.

162

Undoubtedly published materials such as short stories, novels, newspapers in

English, magazines, etc. help learners greatly in developing their autonomy as English
learners. According to

Navarro and Brady: Activities provided by published

material involve learners in more complex mental activities which are vital to
promoting learner autonomy.( Navarro and Brady 2003: 4). However, In Algeria
These materials seem to be rare in comparison with those in Arabic or French. And
even in school libraries most of the books available are grammar books. Moreover,
even if these materials are available they may be costly and not all EFL learners can
afford buying them. Published materials alone are not sufficient in fostering learner
autonomy. There should be other opportunities for using English for communicative
purposes such as listening to native speakers and having a grammar practice. All
these can be achieved through the use of authentic materials mainly the computer and
the internet.

Just as published materials are highly beneficial in promoting learner autonomy,

authentic material also broaden the horizon of the English learner, and makes him
face to face with a huge amount of information. The use of authentic materials can
promote learner autonomy because access to the internet as an up to date material
makes learners search and select what they consider interesting. They develop a
greater self-confidence in using English in writing and communicating. Learners
become freer in the selection and the design of the activities. However, authentic
materials are not easily available for EFL learners in Algeria, because not all of them
have a computer and access to the internet at home, and even in secondary schools,
access to the internet is limited. Moreover, teachers and pupils may not be well
informed in the use of such materials.

[Link] How Computer Technology can Promote Leaner Autonomy

There is a perceived relationship between technology and learner
autonomy in the language teaching. Students are seen as becoming increasingly
empowered when using such technology because they develop their confidence

163

through increased responsibility for their own learning processes . Benson and Voller
have discussed these issues and sate that: Computer software for language
learning is an example of a technology which claims to promote autonomy
simply by offering the possibility of self-study. (Benson and Voller, 1997:10).
They go on to argue that all educational materials including the textbook and the
computer can be perceived to be more or less supportive of autonomy. Computers
have often been viewed as the perfect independent learning tool .They offer plenty of
knowledge

sources

and

volumes

of

texts,

pictures,

sound,

and

videos.

According to Levy (1997) the computer can be considered as a tool and as a tutor in
the programme of promoting learner autonomy. First, computer as a tutor;
- The programme should contain a tutorial.
- The programme should provide context-sensitive help.
- The computer guides the learner
- The programme should be responsive to needs of the learner.
- The computer provides appropriate error free feedback.
In this context Levy says: If the computer tutor satisfies such criteria then it can
provide real autonomy learning opportunities for the students.(Levy ,1997:199).
In addition , he notes the use of the computer as a tool in which:
- The computer role is neutral
- The computer does not evaluate the student
- The learner has responsibility for managing interaction
- The learner decides how to use the tool
- The learner determines whether the use of the tool is appropriate.
Computer as a tool facilitate fostering learner autonomy because learners make
most of the decisions about how and what to learn. Though, learners need help and
guidance in using such a tool. Conducting independent research will not be an easy
task for pupils who do not have computers. They

find themselves obliged to go to

cyber space to do research without guidance. It would be better if English teachers

are given the opportunity to supervise their learners while doing research on the
computer and provide them with guidance. In fact, such sessions are not programmed
in our schools, and if teachers take initiatives to do so, they will have to make a
balance between such sessions and finishing the overloaded programme on time.

164

Furthermore if computers at school are not connected to the internet the opportunity of
doing independent research will be less than required.

[Link]. The Internet as Tool in the Development of Learner

Autonomy

The internet is the up to date tool available for language learners to improve their
level. It is one of the motivating and the most interesting material in English learning
for most of the students. Learner autonomy can be greatly enhanced through the use
of the internet of course if students intention is to learn English independently out of
the school. The internet is a fundamental tool in fostering learner autonomy because
of the followings:
1- Different forms of communication are provided in the internet such as: discussion
boards, interactive blogs, online forums, etc.
2- English learners can download English movies, music and get exposure to different
accents around the world.
3- According to Nowlan (2008) Social networks such as face book, My Space and
Second Life create awareness about the language, and make people at a very young
age motivated in learning it.
4-Thanks to the internet language learners can interact in real time with millions of
subscribers around the world. The fact that broaden their horizon and enrich their
cultural background of the target language.
5- Chat programs such as Skype, iChat, and messenger programs such as MSN and
Yahoo can be used to improve language ability. When initial connections are made
through social networks on the internet.
There are plenty of resources that can be drawn from the internet for the purpose
of fostering learner autonomy. There are also other tools that can serve in promoting
learner autonomy such as TV channels, mainly documentaries, news and other
programmes that help language learners to enrich their knowledge in different skills.
The language teacher may suggest channels or programmes for the learners to follow.
Radio programmes mainly the educational ones can give a helping hand to
165

the English learners through listening to native speakers, and thus improving their
listening and speaking skills without relying in the English teachers . For instance, The
teacher may suggest for his learners to listen to BBC radio for educational programs.
The teacher may also suggest certain websites that he sees beneficial for his learners
in English learning. As an example he may encourage them to do research using
suggested websites such as:

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Learner autonomy in secondary education can be fostered thanks to the wealth of
resources available for learners such as multimedia and internet. All what

EFL

teachers in Algeria need is to raise pupils awareness that the use of both published
and authentic materials can positively enhance their English learning, and make them
gradually independent learners.

4.5.2 Semi-Autonomous Learning as a Preparatory Phase

Pupils are used to being taught by teachers not learning English by themselves.
And if they are asked to study by themselves only for a period of time, they will find
themselves in a loss. In fact, without training this move towards autonomy would be
impossible in Algerian EFL context. We cannot expect pupils to be fully autonomous
over night. For this reason, a transitional phase is necessary to be implemented so as
to ensure a safe move to autonomy in our schools. At the same time, teachers should
adopt a new teaching method to complete the transitional phase from total
dependence of pupils on them to more independence in English learning. This learning
process can be called Semi-autonomous learning. No doubt it is useful for students
to learn autonomously, but through the research findings we realized how much
difficult is to make pupils in our schools completely autonomous. So it is necessary to
establish a semi-autonomous learning for better English learning in the classroom.
Dickinson defines semi-autonomous learning as: The stage at which learners are
being prepared for autonomy. ( Dickinson, 1987:11). As it was mentioned before,
certain steps should be taken by teachers to raise their pupils awareness of autonomy
166

such as persuasive communication and later strategy training. These are the basic
steps that should be taken during the semi-autonomous stage. EFL teachers in
Algerian schools will surely find it useful to put some responsibilities in pupils hands
through certain language tasks such as:
- Give pupils freedom of choice between working individually or in groups.
- Freedom of choice of materials to be used in the classroom such as data show,
diaporama, posters, etc.) mainly in the presenting of the project works.
- Pupils free choice of project topics and themes other than those provided in the
textbook is highly recommended.
- Pupils should be provided with a wide range of activities to choose from.
- Pupils should be given the opportunity to negotiate with their teachers and peers
what present difficulty for them so as the teachers can modify or delete.
- Pupils can be offered a chance to give their opinion on the teaching units theme.
Semi-autonomous learning is for bridging the gap between secondary and
university in term of English learning. If pupils are well prepared in the secondary level(
to be at least partially autonomous) the problem of spoon feeding and overreliance on
the EFL teachers will be solved. EFL learners can be fully autonomous only when they
reach university, because learner autonomy in the secondary level as put by Milliani
(1991) is more a decision taking rather than a decision making. Semi-autonomous
learning is a first and basic step to take for promoting learner autonomy in Algerian
secondary education.

4.5.3 Staying in Touch with Language outside Classroom Settings

Learning English during class sessions only is not sufficient. Language learning
is too complex and varied to be dealt with in two or three sessions a week only.
Learning a language needs staying in touch with the language outside classroom
settings because: not everything can be taught in class( Nunan, 1997:3). So
pupils have to do self-study tasks outside school for strengthening their abilities in
reading, writing and speaking in English.

167

Harmer (2001) similarly puts forwards that:

To compensate for the limits of classroom time and to
counter the passivity that is an enemy of true learning,
students need to develop their own learning strategies so
that as far as possible they become autonomous learners.
(Harmer, 2001: 335)
English learners can be prolific and good communicators if they develop the habit of
staying in touch with English outside schools. In the Algerian context, for instance,
pupils can be in touch with English in the class session only. Once it is finished the
outside environment is not so much supportive for speaking English.

[Link] Self-Study Tasks

Since pupils in secondary schools can get more knowledge from a variety of
sources outside school , learner autonomy can be promoted in Algerian context. They
can do plenty of self-study tasks which can be used as stand-alone activities or to
supplement taught sessions. They are free tasks designed by the learner himself for
developing a certain language skill, unlike the homework that is prepared by teachers.
Pupils in the secondary level can stay in touch with English through: watching English
movies and documentaries, listening to English radio programme such as interviews
and songs. Reading newspapers, magazines, novels and short stories in English is
highly beneficial for learners, as well as keeping a pocket dictionary while reading or
even traveling for enriching the English vocabulary. The collected data showed that
writing is considered as the most difficult skill for the informants so doing self-study
tasks in writing will benefit them and promote their writing. Through the internet the
motivated learners can use English in writing e-mails and corresponding with key
pales. So, motivating pupils is basic in establishing the culture of self-study tasks
which are a feature of an autonomous learner.

[Link] Homeworks
Homework is one of the best ways for promoting learner autonomy in the
secondary education. Learners find themselves in front of a problem to be solved
individually without teachers guidance or assistance. In fact, through this task pupils
can develop a sense of independence in English learning,

168

because: Learner autonomy gets a powerful boost the first time homework is
set for students to do out of class .They will now have to study without the help
of the teacher. (Harmer, 2001:338). However, it seems difficult for learners and
teachers alike to set and to do homework. Pupils in the secondary education have
other subjects not only English and they have to do at least one homework in each
subject once a month. For this reason, teachers have to adjust the homework taking
into account homeworks given in other subjects.
Homework is seen by teachers and pupils alike as a burden both are obliged to
deal with, for this reason: homework is frequently seen as a necessary evil
rather than an important condition to learner autonomy. (Harmer, 2001 :338 ) .
The homework if dealt with successfully, can be a condition for promoting learner
autonomy in our schools. For this reason, teachers will find it beneficial to discuss with
their pupils about the homework, taking into account their proposals. The language
teacher can also make pupils contribute in the evaluation of the homework ( whether it
was difficult, reasonable or easy). Moreover, the homework should not be a set of
grammar activities only, but it should be varied and interesting so that pupils will not be
bored.
Painter (1999) notices that whenever she sets homework task for her learners,
they do not enjoy it, it bored them. She realizes that the homework was not sufficiently
interesting, so she tries to look for alternatives. The proposals she makes are as
follows:

Scanning English language newspapers to report back stories.

Writing a film review.

Collecting real life language examples: articles, letters, stamps,etc.

Presenting an English language songs to classmates (explaining the lyrics)

Searching for a topic of interest for classmates

Presenting or introducing a favorite football team, actor or actress in English.

In addition to Painters proposals, Harmer(2001) suggests formal learning hints [2]

.
The homework tasks proposed above undoubtedly foster pupils writing and
speaking performances, for the sake of making them fluent users of English.
Therefore, these homework tasks may contribute greatly in promoting the autonomy of
our pupils in the secondary education.
169

4.6 Conclusion

This chapter has been reserved to recommendations and suggestions for

promoting learner autonomy in secondary education. EFL teachers in Algeria and
pupils alike are poorly prepared for the move to learner autonomy and training them
both is necessary. In Algerian EFL context, teacher training programs should provide
teachers with adequate training to foster their autonomy as well as that of their
learners. As for learners, the first basic step in fostering their autonomy is to raise their
awareness of the importance of autonomy in their learning .Teachers can do this
through

creating

basic

motivational

conditions

and

establish

persuasive

communication to alter learners beliefs and attitudes. Strategy based instruction may
be the solution of pupils overreliance on the English teacher, and prepare them for
taking much more responsibility in their learning.

In attempts to promote a higher level of learner autonomy in Algerian schools, it

is important to encourage homework assignments and project works as well as the
use of a variety of published and authentic materials, that will help students explore
greater interest in autonomous learning. As English teachers, it becomes their
responsibility to not only teach a language, but also inform and instruct how to study
outside the classroom. This will be accomplished by presenting tasks that inspire the
learner to take learning into their own hands. Finally, autonomy in learning is a process
and not a product that many EFL students seek today. Autonomy requires
understanding ones own strengths and weaknesses. And as it is hard to establish
learner autonomy in our schools in which both teachers and learners need
preparation. Semi-autonomous learning may be the best solution. It is a preparatory
step towards achieving the goal of learning autonomously in Algerian secondary
education.

170

Notes To Chapter Four

1-Learning styles
D. Nunan in his book Language Teaching Methodology made focus on the learner
and distinguished four autonomous learner types on the basis of the main activities
that students are involved in.
Type 1: concrete learners. These learners tend to like games, pictures, films, video,
using cassettes, talking in pairs and practicing English outside class.
Type 2: analytical learners. These learners like studying grammar, studying English
books and reading newspapers, studying alone, finding their own mistakes and
working on problems set by the teacher.
Type 3: communicative learners. These learners like to learn by watching, listening
to native speakers, talking to friends in English and watching television in English,
using English out of class in shops, trains, etc., learning new words by hearing them,
and learning by conversations.
Type 4: authority-oriented learners. These learners prefer the teacher to explain
everything, like to have their own textbook, to write everything in a notebook, to study
grammar, learn by reading, and learn new words by seeing them.

2- Harmer(2001) claims that students can be given tasks in which they use certain
strategies for better learning. Formal learning hints can help in fostering learner
autonomy in English learning. An example is provided below:

Make your own vocabulary notebook

List the words in the notebook alphabetically
For each word write an example sentence showing how the word is used ,for
example: the verb borrow
I went to the library and borrowed a book for two weeks.

171

GENERAL CONCLUSION

GENERAL CONCLUSION

It is necessary to promote learner autonomy in foreign language learning, because

the knowledge provided at schools and universities is insufficient. People need to
continue studies if they want to adapt to such a changeable world of science and
information in which English is a vehicle for international communication. For this
reason, English teachers need to pay much more attention to the development of
learner autonomy, so as to help the learner foster a life long study skill.

This

dissertation has dealt with promoting learner autonomy in secondary education in

relation to learners readiness and teachers role to foster it. Some light has been shed
on the notion of learner autonomy in different approaches and methods adopted in the
Algerian EFL context. Autonomy is one of the general objectives of English learning in
secondary education. After analyzing the data, the research has reached certain
findings and present suggestions and recommendations for EFL teachers and learners
alike for promoting learner autonomy.

The findings have given evidence to the research hypotheses. Pupils in secondary
education and teachers alike are not familiar with the notion of autonomy and not
ready for implementing it. Pupils still consider the English teacher as the first and the
most responsible in their learning. This teacher-dependent characteristic is due to
pupils lack of motivation, their negative attitudes towards English. Besides, there is an
absence of autonomy- oriented training for them and teachers to accept the change
easily . This change has never been an easy task because the agents of change have
not been involved in consultations and the proponents of change are overenthusiastic about their proposal. (Baiche, 2008: 214). So teachers and pupils need to
be taken into account while designing a change or innovation, they need also be given
a helping hand so as to step in the world of autonomy.

Promoting learner autonomy is a worthwhile aim even though our national

language education policies include autonomy as a learning goal. We might say that
the development of learner autonomy is hardly a reality in Algeria. Teachers without
any autonomy-oriented training may experience difficulties in creating such a
classroom culture. Hence, the earlier language teachers are made aware of the
172

importance and necessity of learner autonomy in their initial teacher training, the more
easily they will be able to implement this approach in their own future classrooms.
Though autonomy is a new concept in ELT in Algeria, teachers should not resist it and
keep their traditional teaching method. Teachers who are not familiar with the concept
of independent learning, and still cling to the traditional focus of teacher centered
methodologies should explore this method and start their pupils towards the path of
independent learning. (Benmoussat, 2003:248)

Many language teachers would agree that autonomy is a good idea in theory,
but somewhat idealistic as a goal in language teaching in practice. It was concluded
that autonomous learning could occur when teachers assumed the role of facilitator of
knowledge, became a supporter of helping pupil build self-responsibility, selfconfidence and self-direction. Learner training for better autonomous learning is more
than essential. For teachers they cannot teach students to become more autonomous,
but they can create the atmosphere and conditions in which they will feel encouraged
to develop the autonomy they already have .This can be achieved only if training
programs include autonomy.

As for EFL learners, we can argue that they are required to be motivated learners
so as to succeed as autonomous learner. However, many EFL teachers in secondary
education believe that providing learners with knowledge is conducive to learning.
However, they lose sight of unless motivating their learners first, they will fail in
introducing learner autonomy to them. So motivation is one of the basic features of
learner autonomy besides the wealth of resources available for self-study through
multimedia and internet. Language teaching is, now more than before, in a position to
encourage learner autonomy. While classroom learning cannot provide all what
learners need , autonomous learning may complement this by encouraging the learner
to go deep and exploit materials to enrich their knowledge and improve their skills.

The current study provides some recommendations that could foster learner
autonomy which include first, motivating pupils and increase their awareness. It is
important to inform the students of the importance of learner autonomy. Second,
strategy training sessions for pupils in secondary education are highly beneficial.
173

Through strategy training pupils in the secondary level start taking charge of their own
learning. Third, Teachers can also have students use journals and diaries as a tool to
reflect on their strategies and goals. Think-aloud protocols, self-reports and Selfassessment through quizzes and tests may be another affective means in promoting
learner autonomy in our schools. Moreover, textbooks as a support for teachers and
learners should be designed to foster autonomy.

It seems likely that the promotion of learner autonomy in language learning is an

area that will continue to grow and several researches will be done to find the best
ways that foster learner autonomy. The researcher hopes that this study would provide
an example of promoting pupils autonomy and would also be useful in helping
teachers to promote it in their classes, so that the language proficiency level will
gradually progress. However, a limitation of this study is that it used only a limited
sample of teachers and pupils in secondary education in Algeria. Future research may
include testing the notion of autonomy in English learning in the middle schools and
even universities throughout the country. Further research on learner autonomy can
be dealt with from different angles that remain to be explored for instance:
-To which extent are Algerian EFL learners autonomous at university?
-What learning strategies should be taught at different proficiency levels to foster
learner autonomy?
-

How long does it take to train specific learners in certain language learning

strategies to be sufficiently autonomous?

Learner autonomy is undoubtedly important in language teaching because it is as
much a skill as learning to drive, it must be taught, it requires some practice. Unless
they are taught how to take the wheel for themselves, learner students like learner
drivers may be at risk. (Raiton and Watson, 2005:192). Just as driving, pupils need
preparation and practice in this phase where they seem reliant on the teacher,
however, once they take the command of the wheel themselves they can be
independent.

174

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A-General Theoretical References
Allright, D.(1988). Focus on the Language Classroom: An Introduction to Classroom
Research for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Aoki, N. (1999).

Affect and the Role of Teacher in the Development of Learner

Autonomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Baiche.A ( 2008). Innovation and Change in Language Education : A Critical

Reflection on the Teaching and Learning of EFL in Secondary
Education In Algeria .Unpublished Doctorate Thesis : University of
Oran
Bailey, K.M.(1990)The Use of Diary Studies in Teacher Education Programmes .
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bassou. A (2008):Fostering Learner Autonomy Through Collaborative
Projects :The case of First-Year Secondary School Pupils
(Literary Streams),Unpublished Magister thesis. Abu Bekr
Belkaid :University of Tlemcen.
Benmousset,S. (2003):Mediating Language and Culture,An Analysis of Cultural
Dimensions in the Newly Designed ELT [Link]
Doctorate Thesis ,Abou Bekr Belkaid University.,Tlemcen.
Benson, P. (1996). Concepts of Autonomy in Language Learning. Hong Kong:
Hong Kong University Press.
(1997). The Multiple Meanings of Autonomy: Responsibility, Ability and
Right. Conference Proceedings. Bangkok: King Mongkuts
Institute of Technology .Thonburi.
Benson, P. & Voller, P. (Eds) (1997). Autonomy and Independence. Harlow.
Honk Kong: Longman.
Benson, P. (2001). Teaching and Researching Autonomy in Language Learning.
Applied Linguistics in Action Series. London: Longman.
Benson, P. (2007). Teachers and Learners Perspectives on Autonomy. Amsterdam:
175

John Benjamins.
Benson, P. (2007).Autonomy in Language Teaching and Learning. State of the Art
Article. Language Teaching, vol 40 (1-14).
Borich. (1996)

Effective Teaching Methods( 3rd edition) . Newyork: Merill press.

Bruchfield. R (1998) Fowlers Modern English Usage. Oxford: Oxford university

press.
Bruner, J. (1966) . Toward a Theory of Instruction . Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press
Candy, (1991).

Self-direction for Lifelong Learning. California: Jossey-Bass

Publishers.

Cohen,A.J.(1997). Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language

Harlow. UK: Longman.
Cotteral. S. (2000) Promoting Learner Autonomy Through the Curriculum Principles
for Designing Language Courses In EFL J ournal Vol 52/pp 2-11
Aplril2002p109-117: Oxford University Press.
Dam.L.(2003).

Developing Learner Autonomy: The Teachers Responsibility ,

Dublin : Authentik

Davies, A. (1990). Principles of Language Testing. Oxford: Basil Blackwell

Davies, A.S& Elder,C (2004). The Handbook of Applied Linguistics. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Deci E.L and Ryan .R.M (1992). Achievement and Motivation : a Social
Developmental Perspective. Cambridge : Cambridge
university press.
Deci E.L and Ryan .R.M(1996) . The what and the why of Goal Persuits: Human
Needs and self-determination of Behavior.
Cambridge : Cambridge university press
Dickinson.L .(1987 ).Self Instruction in Language Learning ,Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
(1992) Learner Autonomy 2: Learner Training for Language Learning
Dublin: Authentik.
176

(1995). Autonomy and Motivation: a literature review. Autonomy in the

educational system , 23/2, 165-174.
Dickinson L., (2000). The Development of Learning Independence in Language
Learning. Conference proceeding .Bangkok: King Mongkuts
publications.
Drnyei, Z. (1996). Moving Language Learning Motivation to a Larger Platform.
Pathways to the New Century. Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Press .
Drnyei, Z. (2001). Teaching and Researching Motivation. Harlow: Longman
Pearson Education Ltd.
Ellis.G& Sinclair. B(1989) Learning to Learn English : a Course in Learner Training.
England: Cambridge university press
Fishman, J.A., Cooper, R.L., & Conrad, A.W. (1977). The Spread of English.
Rowley(Massachusetts): Newbury. House Publishers.
Fishman.J.A (1987). Language Spread and Language Policy for the Endangered
Languages. Georgetown University: Newbury house publishers.
[Link] (2000) A Teachers Guide to Project Based Learning AEL. Inc the
office of educational research and emprovement:US Department.
Gardner, R. & P. MacIntyre.(1993). A Students Contributions to Second-Language
Learning. Affective variables. Language Teaching
26 (pp1- 11): Cambridge CUP.
Hamzaoui .H (2006) An exploration into Strategies Used for Essay Writing Across
the Three Languages. The case of EFL University Students.
Unpublished Doctorate Thesis , Abou Bakr Belkaid
University, Tlemcen
Harmer.J (2001) The Practice of English Language Teaching, UK. Longman
Hayane, O. (1989). LEnseignement de la Langue Anglaise en Algrie depuis 1962.
Algiers: Office des Publications Universitaires.
Heyworth, F.( 2004). Why the ECF is important, in Insights from the Common
European Framework. Oxford: Oxford University Press
177

Holec,H.(1981): Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning ,Oxford : Pergamon(first

published 1979 Strasbourg Council of Europe)
Jarvis, M. Chandler, E (2001). Angles on Psychology. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes
Limited
Jeffries,C (1990): A-Z of Open Learning .National Extension College :trust, UK
Jhonson ,D,W and [Link](1998):Cooperation and Compitition Theory and
Research ;Minnesota: Interaction Book co.
Knowles (1975) Self-directed Learning: a Guide for Learners and Teachers
Chicago: Association press.
Levy. M (1997) Computer-Assisted Language Learning: Context and
Conceptualization. Newyork: Official press
Lightbown, P.M,,&N. Spada:(1999): How Languages are learned? Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Little ,D (1991):Learner Autonomy1:Issues and Problems Dublin: Authentik
(1996): Freedom to Learn and Compulsion to Interact /Promoting learner
autonomy through the use of information systems and information
technologies: Hong Kong University Press.
Little,D,J,Ridley (2002):Towards Greater Learner Autonomy in the Foreign
Language Classroom,. Dublin . Authentik .
Little;D,(2003):Learner Autonomy in the Foreign Language Classroom
:Teacher,Learner,Curriculum and Assessment :Dublin Authentik.
Littlewood.w (1998) Foreign and Second Language Learning. Cambridge:
Cambridge . University Press.
Littlewood (1999).Defining and Developing Autonomy in East Asian
Contexts. Applied Linguistics, Oxford :Oxford University Press.
Macaro.E (1997) Teaching and Learning a Second Language: a review of recent
Research. Great Britain :The Bath Press.
Maturna and Varela(1979) : Principles of Biological Autonomy. NewYork : Elsevier
science publishers.
McDonough.J(1999): Learning Strategies and Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford
university press
Nunan (1988) Syllabus Design . Oxford :Oxford university press
178

(1989) Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge:

Cambridge university press.
( 1995). Self-assessment as a Tool for Learning. Hong Kong: Department of
Curriculum Studies: University of Hong Kong.
Nunan, D. (1996). Towards Autonomous Learning: Some Theoretical, Empirical and
Practical issues. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
,(1997): Research Methods in Language Learning, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
OMalley ,J,M,and Chamot (1990):Learning Strategies in Second Language
Acqusition . London : Macmilan.
OMalley et al.(1999):The Learning Strategies Handbook, London, Longman.
Oxford, R. 1990:. Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should
Know. Boston: Newbury House.
Oxford,R,(2003):The Study of Second Language Acquisition in Asian
Context. USA: Maryland University Press.
Painter .L (1999) Homework, Oxford: Oxford university press.
Papandreou .p (1994) An application of the Project Approach to EFL in English
teaching forum vol 32.n 3-1999.(pp 41-42)
Pemberton R. (ED) (1996),Taking Control, Autonomy in Language Learning.
Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
Pemberton, R., 2007. Support Structures for Self-access Learning .Basingstoke:
Palgrave: Springer article
Railton. D& Watson .P(2005) Teaching Autonomy :Reading groups and
Development of Autonomous Learning Practices. London: Higher
education Academy and SAGE publications.
Rainders H . and Lamb. T(2006): Teacher and Learner Autonomy: concepts,
realities, responses, UK : Jhon Benjamins Publishing company.
Richards .M and Rodgers(1995) Approaches and Methods in Language teaching : a
description and analysis, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Richardson, V. (1997). Constructivist Teaching and Teacher Education: Theory and
practice. In V. Richardson (pp. 3-14). Washington, DC: Falmer Press
Robert et al (1994) Cognitive Strategies : Research Methods in Human Memory and
179

cognition. NewYork: Academic Press.

Scharles.A A Szabo(2000) Learner Autonomy : a guide to developing learner
responsibility. Cambridge : Cambridge university press.
Sandy (2006) Language Educator Magazinz. California: Published by the American
council on teaching foreign languages.
Seliger W,H and Shohamy .E(1989):Second Language Research Methods ,Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Semmoud. A (2008) A Conceptual Framework on Teaching Education Development
A Model of Reflective Teaching for Secondary School
Teachers. Unpublished Magitaire thesis. Abu Bakr
Belkaid : University of Tlemcen
Slavin.R.E( 1998) Show me the Evidence Proven and Promising Programs for
Americas school. USA: Crown press.
Smith.R (2003) Pedagogy of Autonomy as Rescue [Link] : university of
Warwick press.
Stoller,M,( 1997):Project Work :a Means to Promote Language Content ,English
teaching forum vol 3-199 pp2-9.
Terry Lamb(2008) Learner and Teacher Autonomy: synthesizing an
agenda. In Lamb, T.E. and Reinders, H. (eds.) Learner and Teacher
Autonomy. Amsterdam: John Benjamin.
Ushioda.E.(2001): Towards a Greater Learner Autonomy in Foreign Language
Classroom. Dublin: Authentik.
Van Lier, L. (1988). :The Classroom and the Language Learner. Ethnography and
Second-Language Classroom Research. Harlow: Longman.
Vygotsky,L.S (1978) Mind in Society. Cambridge MA: Haward University Press
Wenden,A,L(1998):Learner Strategies in Language learning UK, Pentice Hall.
Wilga [Link] (1968):Teaching Foreign Language Skills, Chicago: The university
of Chicago Press.
Wilkins D.A (1972) Linguistics in Language Teaching. London: Arnold press.
Yule.G(1996) The Study of [Link]: Cambridge University Press.

180

B-

Official Documents and Textbooks

B. Riche & S.A. Arab Techers guide (1AS) Guide de Professeur (2005).Office
National des Publications scolaires. Alger
B. Riche & S.A. Arab -At the crossroads. (2005). Office National des Publications
Scolaires. Alger
- Document Accompagnant le Programmes de la Deuxime Anne Moyenne. (2002)
Ministre de lEducation Nationale.
- Document daccompagnement de programme de la 3AM (2003). Ministre de
lEducation Nationale.
- Document Accompagnant le Programme dAnglais de 1re Anne Secondaire
(2005). Ministre de lEducation Nationale.. Available for consultation on web site:
[Link]. [April, 2006]
- Memorandum (1999). Institut National de Recherche en Education. Ministre de
lEducation Nationale..
- Programme dAnglais de 1re Anne Secondaire (2005). Ministre de lEducation
Nationale.
- Programme dAnglais de 2me Anne Secondaire (2006). Ministre de LEducation
Nationale.
- Syllabuses for English (1995). Department of Secondary Education. Ministre de
lEducation Nationale.

181

C-Webliography
-Ablard, K. & Lipschultz, R. (1998). Self-Regulated Learning in High-achieving
Students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(2): Zhang, L.X. & Li X.X. (2004). A
Comparative Study on Learner Autonomy Between Chinese Students and west
European Students. available at: http:// [Link]/pta
On Jun 22, 2010
-Alison Oswald (2005):The Project Based Pedagogy .ELT Algeria TEFL courses
[Link] project pedagogy
On July 23, 2011
-Ayfer Koak (2003):ELT Dissertation :A study on Learners Readiness for
Autonomous Learning of English as a Foreign Language. available at:
[Link] On December 14, 2009
-Belouahem .R (2008).The suitability of First Year Secondary school coursebook at
Crossroads to the Algerian teaching environement. Doctorat Thesis.
[Link]/theses/anglais/[Link]
On March 15, 2010
-Benson.P(2007) Autonomy in Language Learning :taking [Link] Asian EFL
journals. [Link] [Link]/[Link]
On December 4, 2009
-Chellei. Saliha (2010) The Competency Based Approah in Algeria: A Necessity in the
era of globalization [Link] revu/pdf
On March 14, 2010
-Corno, L. & Mandinach, E. B. (1983). The Role of Cognitive Engagement in Class
room Learning and Motivation. Educational Psychologist, 18,available at:
[Link] April 6, 2010
-Cotterall, S. (1995). Readiness for autonomy: investigating learner beliefs. System,
23, 2:195-[Link] On April 12,2010
-Dam,L,(1995) Learner Autonomy :What and Why?Available at:
[Link]
On January 9, 2010
-[Link](2008)Introduction to New Technologies and how they can
Contribute to Language Learning and Teaching online at
[Link] On January 11,2010
-Deci and Ryan(2000)Self-Determination Theory:
[Link]
On February 14,2010
-Edwards N.T( 1998) The Correlation between Learner Autonomy and Cultural
Sensitivity. [Link] On September 27, 2010
182

-Fukuda S.T & Hiroshi .S (2011)Facilitating Autonomy to enhance

[Link] journal of FLT.[Link] [Link]/v8n12011/[Link]
On September 12, 2011
-Huba and Freed (2000) Comparison of Teacher-centred and Learner-centred
Paradigms[Link] vs. learner
centered [Link]) On July 5, 2011
-Jacqueline and Martin(2008): Constructivism
[Link] /constructivism On October17, 2010
-Julia Dobson(1981) [Link] classroom creative [Link] On
October 24, 2011
-Karima Lakhal Ayet Benmati (2008) : Is the Algerian Educational System Weakening?
An Investigation of the High School Curricula and their Adequacy with the University
Curricula. Doctorat Thesis .Canstantine.
[Link]/buc/buci/datum/theses/anglais/[Link] 13,2011
-Kolb.D.(1984) Experiential Learning: experience as the source of learning and
development
[Link]
On February 24,2011
-Lakshmi.S(2009) Journal writing : a means for professional development in ESL
classroom http:// [Link]/linguisticissues/[Link] On Auguest 14,2011
-Little.D(1995) Learning as a [Link] dependence of learner autonomy on
teacher autonomy
http:// [Link]/mike/professional//[Link] OnSeptember
14,2010
-Miliani, M. (1991). Self-access Learning: it takes resourceful learners to be
autonomous+ and Mohamed Ouakrime,( 1991 In English Language Teaching in the
Maghreb: Focus on the learner. Proceedings of the XIIth MATE Annual Conference,
22-26 December 1991 in Tetouan. 68-71.) Available for consultation: http://
[Link]/general_info.htm. [April 2007] On April 25, 2011
-Milliani(2003) La dualit Franais Arab dans le systme ducative Algrien
(education et socits plurilingues
http:// [Link]/bio/[Link] October 4, 2011
-Navarro and Brady (2003) Promoting Learner Autonomy in Self-Access Centres : the
key role of material [Link] On
July24, 2011
-Nowlan G. P. (2008)Motivation and Learner Autonomy: Activities to Encourage
Independent Study http:// www. [Link]/Techniques/[Link] On
September25, 2011
183

-Rubin.J (1975) What The Good Language Learner can Teach [Link] Quarterly
vol9.n 1 March 1975 [Link]
December 04, 2009
-Rubin and Thompson(1982) Language Learning Strategies
http:// [Link]//functional-mo On September25, 2010
-Sandy C (2006) National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project. .
Standards for foreign language learning in the 21st century (3rd ed.). Alexandria,
VA: Author.. Available:
http:// [Link]/documents/p21_framework_definitions509.pdf On October4,2011
-Sinclair.B.(2006) Learner Training
http:// [Link]/learnertrainingarticle/[Link] On March 26, 2010
-Sheng Y.Z(2008) Promoting Learner Autonomy Through Strategy Based Instruction.
Sino-us English teaching DEC2008
[Link] On Auguest 20, 2011
-Thanasoulas(2000) What is Learner Autonomy and How can it be fostered ?
http:// [Link]/Articles/[Link] On December
04,2009
-The Childs four developmental Stages. ([Link]/constructivism/piaget/html) On December 04,2009
Vee Harris(2003) Adapting Classroom based-strategy Instruction to Distance
Learning Context http:// [Link]/wordpress/issues/volume7/../ej26a1
On Auguest 20, 2011
Zimmermen B.J & Risemberg .R(1997) :Self-Regulatory Dimensions of Academic
Learning and Motivation. Handbook of Academic Learning (105-115) Available at:
http:// [Link]/resources/aspx/=1409 On December 04, 2009

184

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Teachers questionnaire.185

Appendix 2: Learners questionnaire..187
Appendix 3: A sample of pupils project work191
Appendix 4: A suggested lesson for journal writing.194

Appendix 1: Teachers questionnaire

Dear Teachers,
The following questionnaire seeks to gather your perspectives about learner autonomy
and how can it be fostered in teaching English in secondary school and more precisely the
level of first year. You are therefore kindly requested to answer the following questions by
putting a tick in the appropriate box and making your comments when necessary.
Thank you very much for your collaboration.
1- Male

Female

2- Teaching experience: number of years? .................

3- In the process of learning English do you consider learner autonomy important?
Yes
No
4- How could you assess your pupils level of autonomous learning?
Good
Average
weak
5- Do you think learners level of language proficiency is related to their autonomous learning?
Yes
no

how?..............................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................. ..
6- How do you think your pupils assumption towards learner autonomy is ? :
Positive
Negative

Indifferent
7- Can pupils attitudes be changed from traditional to a more autonomous view of learning?
Yes
No

If yes, in what ways?

8- After four years of learning English, do you think 1AS pupils are ready to learn
autonomously?
Yes

No

9- Are pupils of first year capable of selecting the content of the lesson and setting objectives?
Yes

No
10- Are you ready to give your learners much more responsibility in organizing learning and
setting goals?
Yes
No
If no why? Is it:
-Because they lack language proficiency
.
-Because they are indifferent.
-Because they are not taught the right strategies to do so.
11- Do you give your pupils opportunity to choose between working individually or in groups ?
Yes
No

sometimes

12- While learning English do pupils use self-monitoring and self-evaluation strategies?
Yes
No
13- Do learner autonomy depends on teacher autonomy?
Yes
No
Why?
185

14- Do you opt for teaching explicit meta-cognitive strategies for promoting learner autonomy?
Yes

No

15- According to you, promoting learner autonomy is based most on:

-Teacher s role in the classroom
-Pupils readiness for autonomous learning
-The availability of materials and study aids.
16- Do teacher training programs help teachers to take a positive step towards the
development of their autonomy as well as that of the learner ?
Yes
No

17- Do 1AS textbook help the teacher and the learner to step towards autonomy?
Yes
No
18 - Do you use the check your progress table at the end of the unit?
Yes
No
say why?

19- Are project works (exposs) really done in a way that fosters learner autonomy?
Yes
No
If no why?
.
20- Is the availability of technological material( inside school and outside of it) necessary for
promoting learner autonomy?
Yes
No
How? ............................................................................................................................
21- Relying on your classroom experience, what suggestions would you make to help pupils
promoting their autonomous learning in and outside the classroom?
..
..
.

186

Appendix 3: Learners questionnaire

Dear pupils, The following questionnaire is submitted to you attempts systematically to
collect information about your perception of your responsibility in the classroom and that of
your teacher, so as to discover your readiness to take more responsibility in your [Link],
becoming autonomous learners. The questionnaire assesses the strategies you may use in
the classroom. Therefore you are kindly requested to answer the following questions by
putting a tick on the answer you think more appropriate ,and make comments where
necessary
1- Age:
2- Sex: male
female
3- Do you enjoy learning English?
Yes
No

Say why?.
...................................................................................................................
4- Which one according to you take more responsibility in teaching learning process?
Learner
Teacher
5- How do you consider the notion of responsibility in learning teaching process ?
-Teachers responsibility
-Learners responsibility
-Shared responsibility between teachers and learners.
6- Do you think you are capable to study by yourself?
Yes
No
7- If not , Why? is it because:
-The teacher knows best and you used to rely on him
-You dont know the strategies of studying independently
-You dont have the necessary study aids and materials
8- Does your teacher show you how to learn by yourself ?
Yes
No
9- Which of the following decisions you view yourself capable to take in the classroom?:
-Deciding the objective of the course.
-Deciding how long to spend on each activity.
-Choosing materials to use in the English classroom.
-Evaluating learning performance.
10- Do you choose the place of sitting down in the classroom ?
Yes
No
11- Do you bring a dictionary with you to the classroom?
Yes

No
12- When you use the language in the class-interaction and make mistakes do you prefer to:
- Stop to correct yourself
-be corrected by your classmates
-be corrected by the teacher
13- While reading in the classroom, you dont understand the meaning of a word do you:
-Refer it to its context
-Check the meaning in the dictionary
-Ask the teacher about it
14- Who is responsible of identifying your weaknesses and strengths in learning?:
-The teacher
-yourself
-Your classmates
187

15- Do you prepare the learning activity before coming to school?

-Yes
No

16- After the English class, Do you :

-Feel satisfied of the knowledge presented by the teacher
Try to develop it and enrich it outside the classroom.
17- Which skill seems to be the most difficult for you?
Listening
Speaking
Reading
Writing
18- Which activities have you done out of the class to overcome your weakness in such a
skill?

19- How often do you learn English outside the classroom?:

-Very often
-Sometimes
-Rarely
-Hardly ever

20- What do you do to improve your English outside the classroom?:

-Reading books ,newspapers and magazines in English
-Surfing on the internet
-Watching English movies
-Using Grammar books and dictionaries.

188

189

190

Appendix 4: A sample of pupils project work

Telephone
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An Olivetti rotary dial telephone, c.1940s

The telephone (from the Greek: , tle, "far" and , phn, "voice"), often colloquially
referred to as a phone, is a telecommunications device that transmits and receives sound, most
commonly the human voice. Telephones are a point-to-point communication system whose
most basic function is to allow two people separated by large distances to talk to each other.
Developed around the 1870s by Alexander Graham Bell and many others, it is now one of the
most common appliances in the developed world, and has long been considered indispensable
to businesses, households and governments. The word "telephone" has been adapted to many
languages and is widely recognized around the world.
All telephones have a microphone to speak into, an earphone which reproduces the voice of the
other person, a ringer which makes a sound to alert the owner when a call is coming in, and a
keypad (or in older phones a telephone dial or no manual device) to enter the telephone number
of the telephone being called. The microphone and earphone are usually built into a handset
which is held up to the face to talk. The keypad may be part of the handset or of a base unit to
which the handset would be connected. A landline telephone is connected by a pair of wires to
the telephone network, while a mobile phone or cell phone is portable and communicates with
the telephone network by radio. A cordless telephone has a portable handset which
communicates by radio with a base station connected by wire to the telephone network, and can
only be used within a limited range of the base station.
The microphone converts the sound waves to electrical signals, which are sent through the
telephone network to the other phone, where they are converted back to sound waves by the
earphone in the other phone's handset. Telephones are a duplex communications medium,
meaning they allow the people on both ends to talk simultaneously. The telephone network,
consisting of a worldwide net of telephone lines, fiberoptic cables, microwave transmission,
cellular networks, communications satellites, and undersea telephone cables connected by
switching centers, allows any telephone in the world to communicate with any other. Each
telephone line has an identifying number called its telephone number. To initiate a telephone
call, a conversation with another telephone, the user enters the other telephone's number into a
191

numeric keypad on his/her phone. Graphic symbols used to designate telephone service or
phone-related information in print, signage, and other media include Although originally
designed for voice communication, the system has been adapted for data communication such
as Telex, Fax and dial-up Internet communication.

History
Alexander Graham Bell's telephone patent[1] drawing, 7 March 1876.

Credit for the invention of the electric telephone is frequently disputed, and new controversies
over the issue have arisen from time to time. As with other influential inventions such as radio,
television, the light bulb, and the computer, there were several inventors who did pioneering
experimental work on voice transmission over a wire and improved on each other's ideas.
Innocenzo Manzetti, Antonio Meucci, Johann Philipp Reis, Elisha Gray, Alexander Graham
Bell, and Thomas Edison, among others, have all been credited with pioneering work on the
telephone. An undisputed fact is that Alexander Graham Bell was the first to be awarded a
patent for the electric telephone by the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) in
March 1876. That first patent by Bell was the master patent of the telephone, from which all
other patents for electric telephone devices and features [Link] early history of the
telephone became and still remains a confusing morass of claims and counterclaims, which
were not clarified by the large number of lawsuits that hoped to resolve the patent claims of
many individuals and commercial competitors. The Bell and Edison patents, however, were
forensically victorious and commercially decisive.A Hungarian engineer, Tivadar Pusks,
quickly invented the telephone switchboard in 1876, which allowed for the formation of
telephone exchanges, and eventually networks. [3]

Details of operation
The landline telephone consists of a switchhook (A4) and an alerting device, usually a ringer
(A7), that remains connected to the phone line whenever the phone is "on hook" (i.e. the switch
(A4) is open), and other components which are connected when the phone is "off hook". The
off-hook components include a transmitter (microphone, A2), a receiver (speaker, A1), and
other circuits for dialing, filtering (A3), and amplification.A calling party wishing to speak to
another party will pick up the telephone's handset, operating a lever which closes the
switchhook (A4), which powers the telephone by connecting the transmitter (microphone),
receiver (speaker), and related audio components to the line. The off-hook circuitry has a low
resistance (less than 300 ohms) which causes a direct current (DC), which comes down the
192

line (C) from the telephone exchange. The exchange detects this current, attaches a digit
receiver circuit to the line, and sends a dial tone to indicate readiness. On a modern pushbutton
telephone, the caller then presses the number keys to send the telephone number of the called
party. The keys control a tone generator circuit (not shown) that makes DTMF tones that the
exchange receives. A rotary-dial telephone uses pulse dialing, sending electrical pulses, that the
exchange can count to get the telephone number (as of 2010 many exchanges were still
equipped to handle pulse dialing). If the called party's line is available, the exchange sends an
intermittent ringing signal (about 90 volts alternating current (AC) in North America and UK
and 60 volts in Germany) to alert the called party to an incoming call. If the called party's line
is in use, the exchange returns a busy signal to the calling party. However, if the called party's
line is in use but has call waiting installed, the exchange sends an intermittent audible tone to
the called party to indicate an incoming call.
The phone's ringer (A7) is connected to the line through a capacitor (A6), a device which
blocks direct current but passes alternating current. So, the phone draws no current when it is
on hook (a DC voltage is continually connected to the line), but exchange circuitry (D2) can
send an AC voltage down the line to ring for an incoming call. (When there is no exchange,
telephones often have hand-cranked magnetos to make the ringing voltage.) When a landline
phone is inactive or "on hook", the circuitry at the telephone exchange detects the absence of
direct current and therefore "knows" that the phone is on hook (therefore, only AC current will
go through) with only the alerting device electrically connected to the line. When a party
initiates a call to this line, the exchange sends the ringing signal. When the called party picks
up the handset, they actuate a double-circuit switchhook (not shown) which simultaneously
disconnects the alerting device and connects the audio circuitry to the line. This, in turn, draws
direct current through the line, confirming that the called phone is now active. The exchange
circuitry turns off the ring signal, and both phones are now active and connected through the
exchange. The parties may now converse as long as both phones remain off hook. When a party
"hangs up", placing the handset back on the cradle or hook, direct current ceases in that line,
signaling the exchange to disconnect the call.

193

Appendix 5: A suggested lesson for journal writing

INTRODUCTION Using the published diaries of Anne Frank, or Zlata Filipovic,
introduce students to journal writing, a form of autobiographical writing in which the
writer records personal thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
SUGGESTED TIME ALLOWANCE 40 minutes
OBJECTIVES Students will:
-write personal journal entries to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
-edit a personal journal entry to sharpen their grammar and spelling skills.
-share their entry with peer editors and edit the work of others to build collaboration
skills.
MATERIALS
Personal spiral notebook
Pens or pencils (pens are preferred to encourage fluency and discourage erasing)
Writing prompts ,Internet [Link] of the journals for the Teacher Exchange
students and/or copies of Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl by Anne Frank,
and/or Zlata's Diary: A Child's Life in Sarajevo by Zlata Filipovic
PROCEDURES
1. Tell the class they are going to be listening to or reading excerpts from one or
more diaries. Each diary is the real-life record of a young girl's or boy's
thoughts, feelings, and experiences over a particular time period.
o Anne Frank's diary is the record of the German teenager's experiences
in the Netherlands from 1942 to 1944 during World War II.
o Zlata Filipovic's diary is the 11-year-old's record of her changing life in
her native country of Sarajevo during a much later war.
2. As you read to your students, or as they read to themselves, have them note
the personal details that the writer includes in the diary.
For example, Zlata's first six entries establish her as a typical fifth-grader whose
life at this point in her writing may not be too different from your students' own
lives. Details for students to note include:
o Zlata's anxiousness to see her schoolmates again
o The different ways the children of Sarajevo spent their summer vacation
o The classes offered at Zlata's school (compared to their own classes)
o Zlata's love of Saturday morning so she can sleep late.
3. Next, have students discuss the following questions about the writer and her
work:
o Why are the writer's details important?
o How do they help the reader?
o What do they tell us about the writer?
o What questions do you have about the writer?
o What do you and the writer have in common?
4. Next, tell students they will be writing their own journals as a week-long (or
year-long) project. (You might provide class time for journal writing or assign it
as homework.) Ask students to think of these journals as a way to freely explore
their thoughts and feelings while also creating a source of ideas for their writing.
194

5. Also, remind them that their journals should contain the details
6. that may seem unimportant at first, but which add to the reader's appreciation
and understanding of the writer.
7. They should also date each journal entry.
8. To give students ideas for their first journal entries, present the following writing
prompts and tell students they will have 5 to 10 minutes (3 minutes for younger
students) to write. Direct them to try to write nonstop and avoid erasing. Most
students will be comfortable beginning with short, sustained writing times,
building up to longer times as their fluency increases. Some good prompts for
beginning journal entries include:
o What I did last weekend (or hope to do this weekend)
o My experiences in the school this week, for better or worse
o What really makes me frustrated or mad, and why
o What really makes me laugh
o How I spend my spare time
o My best memory ever
o Inside my head today
o A typical day in my life at school
You can help motivate students to write in their journals by writing in your
own journal and sharing your writing.
ASSESSMENT

After students have written at least five journal entries, allow them to pick their
best entry, revise it, and submit it for peer editing and grading. Allow for further
revisions after grading and post the work either on a class website or bulletin
board.
In addition, ask students to devise a class journal-writing rubric that is,
establish the criteria for good journal writing. They can use this rubric to assess
one another's work or their own.
As you read students' journals, it is more meaningful for them if they receive
personal rather than corrective comments on their thoughts and ideas.
Ask for volunteers to read aloud from their journals and have students give
feedback on the writer's use of such devices as sensory details and imagery.

195

.
.
.
.
.
:

.
.
- - Summary
The Algerian educational system has lately witnessed a general reform in
teaching methodologies. English is now taught according to the CompetencyBased Approach. One of its basic objectives is to make the EFL learner more
autonomous and self-reliant through the use of some language learning strategies
and projects. However, EFL learners in secondary education are still over-reliant
on the language teacher in their learning. We believe it is necessary to promote
learner autonomy in EFL secondary education as this is a preparatory phase for
learners before they reach the university. However, the question that poses itself
here is: Are learners in secondary education ready to be involved in autonomous
learning? In order to answer this question, we have tried to investigate pupils
readiness for autonomy and teachers roles about this issue through
questionnaires to teachers and pupils, classroom observations and interviews.
Finally results are analyzed and some recommendations are suggested to promote
learning autonomy among EFL learners in secondary education in Algeria.
-Key words: autonomy Competency-Based Approach learning strategies.

Resum
Le systme ducatif algrien a rcemment connu une rforme gnrale en
matire de mthodologies d'enseignement. L'Anglais est actuellement enseign
selon l'Approche par Comptences. Un des objectifs de cette approche est de
rendre lapprenant plus autonome par des stratgies d'apprentissage et des
ralisations de projets. Malheureusement, dans lapprentissage de lAnglais les
lves du secondaire comptent beaucoup sur leur enseignant. il est ncessaire de
promouvoir lautonomie dapprentissage dans le secondaire, surtout tant la phase
pr-universit. Pour ce faire, la question est de savoir si les lves du secondaire
sont prts tre impliqus dans l'apprentissage autonome? Pour cette fin, une
enqute concernant lAnglais a t ralis parmi les lves afin dvaluer leur
prparation l'autonomie ainsi que les rles des enseignants dans cette
perspective par le biais des questionnaires aux enseignants, aux lves, une
observation de classe, et des entretiens. Enfin les rsultats sont analyss, et des
recommandations sont proposes pour dvelopper l'autonomie dans
lapprentissage de lAnglais chez les lves du secondaire en Algrie.
-Mots Cls : autonomie - l'Approche par Comptences stratgies dapprentissage

Summary

Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research
Abou Bekr Belkaid University Tlemcen
Faculty of Letters and Foreign Languages
Section Of English

Promoting
Learner
Autonomy
inLanguages
an EFL Context:
Faculty
of Letters
And Foreign
Learners Readiness
and Teachers Roles.
Section Of English
(The Case of First Year Pupils in Secondary
Education in Algeria)
Dissertation Submitted to the Department of English as a Partial Fulfillment for
the Degree of Magister in Applied Linguistics and TEFL

Presented by:

Under The Supervision of:

Miss. Kheira HADI

Dr . Ali BAICHE

Board of Examiners:
-Dr . BENMOUSSAT Smail (Pr) (University of Tlemcen)
-Dr. BAICHE Ali (MCA)

(University of Tlemcen)

President of the jury

Supervisor

-Dr. BENYELLES Radia (MCA) ( University of Tlemcen)

Examiner

-Dr. HADJOUI Ghouti (MCA)

Examiner

( University of Tlemcen)

-Dr .GUERROUDJ Noureddine (MCA)( University of Sidi Bel-Abess) Examiner

Academic Year : 2011 - 2012

Summary of the Dissertation

(Rsum)

Introduction
This research is concerned with learner autonomy in formal language learning
contexts (secondary education). It is a case study designed to investigate learners
readiness for autonomous learning. The purpose of the study is to discover whether or
not pupils attending English Language in secondary school

are ready to take on an

autonomous language learning. Before any interventions aiming at fostering autonomy

are implemented, it is necessary to explore learners readiness for autonomous
learning. The study contains four chapters. A triangulation method is used in this work;
it includes data collection from questionnaires that have been put to both secondary
teachers and pupils. In addition to a classroom observation and an interview with a
general inspector of English. Suggestions and recommendations about how to
promote learner autonomy for learners and teachers are provided in this disertation.
The Algerian Ministry of Education has launched educational reforms in the
academic year 2002-2003 so as to change the teaching methodologies. The
Competency-Based Approach was implemented in Algerian schools. It is supposed
that the CBA has reshaped teacher and learner roles and their responsibility in the
language classroom. This approach aims at producing responsible and autonomous
learners who are expected to take charge of their learning. This does not mean that
learner autonomy aims at marginalizing the teacher; on the contrary, the teachers role
is essential in setting a suitable atmosphere that encourages learners to be gradually
autonomous in English learning.
There is no doubt that the notion of autonomy in English learning can be partially or
gradually implemented in the secondary education. When learners reach university
they find themselves able to take charge of their own learning. However, Algerian
English learners do not arrive at university with the capacity of learning English
autonomously. This is because they have been accustomed to spoon feeding in the
secondary education. They consider English as a secondary subject (except for those
in foreign languages stream). For this reason, they are not highly motivated and feel
that the teacher is more responsible for the learning process. And responsible even for
their success and failure in English learning. Though teachers in the secondary
education
1

invest endless amount of energy in their students and they generally get a very little
response. In other words, learners are over reliant on the English teacher. The solution
lies on promoting learner autonomy so that learners become gradually independent
from the teacher, and rely much more on themselves in English learning both inside
and outside the classroom.
Fostering learner autonomy aims at changing learners attitudes towards English
class and making them assume more responsibility in learning. Whether or not they
are aware of the importance of learner autonomy and are ready to develop it in
learning. The present investigation is carried out under four research questions:
1-

Are first-year pupils in secondary education ready to be involved in

autonomous learning?

2-

How do learners perceive their own and their teachers responsibilities in

learning English?

3-

Are they using learning strategies that help them become more independent
from the teacher?

4-

In what ways can learner autonomy be fostered in an EFL context?

The answer to these questions concerns two levels: the first one is concerned with

a brief description and an analysis of ELT in Algeria with reference to teachers and
learners attitudes and roles. The second concerns the requirements and ways for
fostering learner autonomy in the secondary education and how to make it a reality not
just a supposition. These two elements govern the general layout of this dissertation in
which we try to give evidence to the following hypotheses:
1-

First year pupils are not ready yet to be involved in autonomous learning.
Their over reliance on the language teacher is the main cause of this
behaviour.

2-

Pupils consider the teacher as more responsible in the learning teaching

process. The reason why they may be reluctant to take responsibility, i.e,they
have teacher-dependent learning characteristics.

3-

Learners generally do not know which strategies to select and how to use
them in order to learn English independently.
2

4-

Autonomy can be fostered only if learners change their attitudes towards the
language learning, and both teachers and learners have autonomy-oriented
training.
To follow up this study, chapter one presents different theories, findings and

philosophies underlying learner autonomy. The rise of it in the educational context

and how it has become a desirable goal in language learning. Chapter two provides
insights on English language teaching in Algeria and describes the notion of learner
autonomy secondary education in Algerian with reference to the present teaching
method along the CBA and the ELT textbook for 1AS. Chapter three addresses the
research methodology used in this dissertation. This chapter deals with a sampling of
English secondary teachers and pupils and a general inspector of English. And the
reason behind this choice. As for research instruments, we have used a questionnaire
for teachers and pupils, classroom observation and an interview with the general
inspector of English.
This research work is an attempt to contribute in promoting learner autonomy in the
secondary education in Algeria. It is in fact an attempt to expand an awareness of
teachers and students concerning the necessity of autonomy in English learning. No
doubt autonomy is essential, however, its notion sometimes cause frustration among
teachers and learners, because they are not in the best position of implementing it due
to the lack of formation, training and preparation for change. In fact what both teachers
and pupils really need autonomy-oriented training.

1- What is Learner Autonomy?

Learner autonomy is a multifaceted concept whose meaning has been discussed
from many perspectives. One of the fields in which the concept of autonomy was firstly
developed is politics. Autonomy as a political concept originated in the Ancient Greek,
philosophers such as: Aristotle, and Socrates who claimed for citizens right to selfgovernment. Cities were governed according to citizens own laws. In this sense,
individuals were considered free beings in command of themselves and not subjected
to others authority. In the same context, Yule (1996) says that the autonomous person
(like the autonomous state) must not be subject to external interference or control but
3

must rather freely direct the course of his own life. The current debate about autonomy
in second and foreign language learning originated in Holecs Autonomy and foreign
language learning first published in 1979, where he provides a definition of learner
autonomy as:
To say of a learner that he is autonomous is to say
that he is capable of taking charge of his own learning
and nothing more ...to take charge of ones learning is
to bear responsibility for all the decisions concerning
all aspects of this learning.
(Holec , 1981:3)
Holec supports his definition by a set of roles the autonomous learner is supposed to
play such as:

determining the objectives, defining the content and progression,

selecting the method and the techniques to be used, monitoring and evaluating what
has been acquired. Dickinson (1987) on the other hand, views learner autonomy as
decision making in leaning context.

According to him autonomy refers to the

situation in which the learner is responsible for the decisions concerned with
his or her learning and the implementation of these decisions. ( Dicknison,
1987:81). A more elaborated definition of learner autonomy is also put forward by
Jeffries (1990) who views it as learning in which an individual or a group of
learners study on their own possibly for a part or parts of a course, without
direct intervention from a tutor, so that to take a greater responsibility for what
they learn.(Jeffries, 1990:35). Jeffries definition of learner autonomy seems to be
the most suitable for the purposes that are dealt with in this dissertation. This is
becausewe are much more concerned with this kind of partial autonomy not with the
full or total autonomy, i.e, absence of the teacher either throughout all the phases of
the overall learning process (total autonomy ) or throughout one or a number of these
phases (partial autonomy).

2-

Levels of Autonomy

In the late 1990s a number of researchers claimed that the notion of autonomy
is a matter of levels, there are several models of autonomy levels. They are
summarized in the table below:
Nunan
Model
(1997)
- Awareness.
- Involvment
- Intervention.
- Creation.
- Transcendence

Littlewoods Model
(1997)
- Autonomy as a
communicator
- Autonomy as a
learner
- Autonomy as a
person.

Macaro Model (1997)

- Autonomy of
language
competence
- Autonomy of
language learning
competence
- Autonomy of choice
and action.

Scharle
&
Szabos(2000)
-Raising Awareness
-Changing attitudes
-Transferring roles.

Table : Levels of autonomy.

In this study we are much more concerned with Litlewoods model mainly its
second stage autonomy as a learner. The aim of this research, in fact, is as stated in
Scharle and Szabo s model, to rise teachers and learners awareness of the
importance of learner autonomy, changing their negative attitudes towards it and
transferring roles .

3 - Reasons for Learner Autonomy

Autonomy has become a desirable goal for three reasons: psychological, practical
and philosophical.
First, the psychological rationale is the most appealing to educationalists, simply
because learners in general learn better when they are in charge of their own learning.
In this context, Candy states that: When learners are involved in making choices
and decisions about the content and the mode of what they are studying,
learning is more meaningful, and thus, effective.(Candy, 1991:24). Moreover,
learners involved in the process are more likely to feel motivated in their learning and
motivated learners are generally successful learners.

The second rationale behind autonomy is practicability which emerges from the
need of more suitable teaching situations. The traditional approaches are not practical
according to Van Lier (1988) there is a wide gap between knowledge obtained at
school and the real life outside of it. i.e, learners could use the language neither in
conversation nor in writing tasks. For this reason, a continuous adoption of new
approaches is now one of the distinctive feature in the field of language teaching and
learning.
Third, the philosophical rationale behind autonomy is the belief that the individual
has the right to be free to make his or her own choices not only in learning a language
but also in other subjects. According to Knowles (1975) societies are happier and
healthier with free individuals who have not become victims of choices made by social
institutions. since the attitude and the conception of the role of the individual in society
has been a move from: man as product of his society to man as the producer
of his society (Janne, 1977: 15 In Holec, 1981:3). If democratic states are to
develop and flourish as democracies, they must undertake educational measures to
develop the capacity of their citizens to think and act as free and self - determining
individuals. So if Algeria is to flourish as a democratic country, plenty of educational
measures should be made first so as to make Algerian learners and in an early age
autonomous in their learning, free and self-determining simply because children of
today are men of tomorrow. Once they have developed their autonomy as learners in
a later stage they develop their autonomy as persons and citizens.

4- Dominant Philosophies Underlying Learner Autonomy

The notion of autonomy in learning has long been part of a wide range of
educational philosophies and has recently been identified in educational policy as
crucial to the development of lifelong learning. Three dominant philosophies of
learning connecting up with learner autonomy have been discussed. They are:
humanism, constructivism and experiential learning.
First, Humanism and Learning Theory emphasizes the importance of affective factors
in learning, such as: motivation, age, aptitude, and learners attitudes towards the
language. Humanism as a philosophy is a paradigm that emphasizes sensitivity and

compassion towards learners, and the rejection of whatever makes pupils feel not at
ease while learning. That is to say, to remove any obstacle or a psychological barrier
that can undermine learning a language such as: stress, anxiety, and shyness, etc .
Second, Constructivism is a philosophy of learning which considers learning as an
active, constructive process. In other words people actively construct or create their
own knowledge. Constructivism is founded on the basis that, knowledge cannot be
taught but only learnt (that is to say constructed
Third, Experiential learning is the process of making meaning from direct experience.
Aristotle once said, for the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by
doing them.

5- Classroom Autonomy
Autonomy of the classroom is a relative concept with multi-dimensional meaning.
It is relative in the sense that students cannot be completely out of the control of
teachers

and

teachers cannot go beyond the existing educational system. The

teacher is still the main source of learning materials. The syllabus is still an important
document to guide students to learn. Benson (2007) discusses the implications of
the rise of

classroom

autonomy

by arguing

that

it

has

led

to

re-

conceptualization of autonomy from a theory or a philosophy to a usable construct for

teachers who want to help their learners develop autonomy . The teachers attitudes
towards

the

learner

change

from

considering

them

passive

recipients

to

[Link] see learners as collaborators and partners means to share

responsibility with them in language learning.

6-Conditions for Learner Autonomy

Learner autonomy is not a product readymade for teachers to apply, nor is it an
article of faith (Bassou, 2008). Learner autonomy is obtained when certain conditions
are available: motivation and attitudes and learning strategies on the part of the
learner, and materials. Maintaining autonomy in EFL classroom seems to be difficult.
Learners Attitudes and Motivation and learning strategies are basic conditions for
promoting learner autonomy in secondary education.
7

7- Classifications of Learning Strategies

Language learning strategies have been classified by many scholars (Wenden
and Rubin 1987; O'Malley et al. 1985; Oxford 1990; Stern 1992, etc.) Rubin has
pioneered much of the work in the field of strategies. Some of these classifications are
illustrated in the table below:
Rubin (1975)

OMalley et

[Link] (1990)

Stern (1992)

al(1990)
- Learning

- Metacognitive

- Direct Strategies

- Management and

strategies

strategies

memory, cognitive,

Planning Strategies

- Cognitive

compensation.

- Cognitive Strategies

- Communication

strategies

- Indirect strategies:

- Communicative -

strategies

- Scio-affective

metacognitive,

Experiential Strategies

strategies

- Affective and

- Interpersonal

social.

Strategies

- Social strategies

- Affective Strategies.

Table Classification of Language Learning Strategies.

It is noticed from the table that (other than Sterns classification), the other
classifications reflect more or less the same categorizations of language learning
strategies without any radical changes.

8- Materials of Learning
One of the most important conditions of learner autonomy is the availability of
authentic materials and study aids so as the learner can work independently far away
from the teacher. There are many materials such as: monolingual and bilingual
dictionaries, grammar books, homework.

Computer-Assisted Language Learning

(CALL) is a form of computer-based learning .The Internet also may be an excellent

source of authentic listening and reading texts, blogs, chat rooms, etc.

9- A Summary of ELT Methodologies in Algeria

The Grammar Translation Method dominated English language teaching in
Algeria in the 1960s. It was based on rote learning of grammar rules and on
translation tasks. It was criticized by favoring accuracy rather than fluency. After the
Second World War, there was a general feeling of discontent with traditional methods
namely the Grammar translation. It was a necessity to develop new methods such as
audio-lingual method that implies the acquisition of oral language skills through oral
practice based on repetition and learning by analogy. However, this approach was
criticized, according to Rivers (1981) unfortunately the audio-lingual mechanical way of
teaching language gave birth to well- trained parrots able to recite whole utterances
while given a certain stimulus, but uncertain of what they were saying. This Approach
was used in Algeria through Succes With English Course book I 1970 and Success
With English II 1971.

The ever growing need for good communication skills in English paved the way to
the implementation of Communicative Language Teaching. CLT aims to develop
fluency in language use. It includes both the usage and use of the language.
Therefore, the approach does not deny the importance of mastering grammatical
forms, so long as they are taught as a means of carrying out meaningful
communication. In Algerian schools in the 1980s, many ELT textbooks had been
designed : Newlines (1981), Midlines (1981) and Think it Over (1982-1983) And later
My New Book of English, New Midlines, and Comet in the nineties. The
communicative approach had been in use in Algerian school until the recent
educational reform which was launched in 2003. In fact, the CBA

has been

implemented first in middle schools during the year 2003-2004 and two years later in
secondary schools.

The CBA, as its name suggests, seeks to establish competences in learners so as

they can put in practice the skills that have been acquired in school, in other extra
school settings. the CBA also seeks to

help learners act as effective users of

language in real- world contexts, through the establishment of: a know-how-to-do,

and a know-how-to-be in learners. (Programmes de la Deuxieme Anne Moyenne:
43).The textbooks illustrating the approach in Algeria mainly in secondary schools are
9

as follows: At the crossroad 1AS Getting Through 2AS and New Prospects 3AS.
As far as our research is concerned, and throughout the history of teaching
methods in Algeria, the notion of autonomy is about to be absent in certain
approaches such as: the grammar translation method. Though learners were asked to
do plenty of activities on translation at homes for which they us bilingual dictionaries.
Thus, autonomy was not fully absent in this method. However, in the audio lingual
method the notion of autonomy was more reduced no room is left for learners to learn
autonomously as teaching was based on repetitions and drillings. Autonomy is
supposed to be gradually implemented in CLT, since learners were encouraged to do
self-study tasks so as to improve their pronunciation and communicative skill in
general. Autonomy is now highly esteemed and very much emerged with the CBA in
secondary education. Partly due to the shift from teacher-centeredness to learnercenteredness. In the CBA autonomy is one of the bases of language learning mainly
through doing project works and the use of self-evaluation strategies.

10-

The Notion of Learner Autonomy in Algerian context

We have found that the notion of autonomy is not so valued in certain ELT methods
implemented in Algerian schools. It has started to gain popularity as soon as the CLT
is adopted in Algeria. And now it is clearly stated as a goal of the CBA due mainly to
the shift from teacher- centeredness to learner- centeredness, which is supposed to
open a larger room for pupils to take more responsibility in their learning and to be (to
certain extent ) independent from the teacher.
The Ministry of Education considers developing Learner autonomy as one of the
objectives of ELT in the secondary education in general and for 1AS in particular. The
reason why project works are introduced so as to foster learner autonomy. However,
these projects are not done in a way that really contributes in promoting learner
autonomy. Moreover, the EFL textbook designed for 1AS At the crossroads lacks selfstudy tasks to be done independently, besides the fact that this book cannot be used
by pupils alone without external help of the teacher. Moreover, the system of
evaluation undermines autonomy more than it fosters it. All these factors show that
learner autonomy is still in its infancy in ELT in Algeria. In order to promote it a great
work is waiting for book designers, authorities, as well as teachers and learners.
10

11-The Research methodological design

The selection of the type of research is based mainly on the nature of the research
itself. Learner autonomy is a phenomenon that actually happens both inside and
outside the class. Yin (1984) states that : a case study is an empirical inquiry that
investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real- life context.(Yin1984
In Nunan1997:76) .Through the use of a case study we have tried

to discover

learners view of autonomy as well as their perception of their role as well as that of
their teachers in learning. Before any intervention aimed at promoting learner
autonomy, an investigation about learners view and readiness for learning
autonomously should be made first. In this case study we have carried out a plan to be
used in collecting data and finally reporting the results obtained . According to Nunan
methodologically, the case study is : a hybrid in that it generally utilizes a range
of methods for collecting and analyzing data, rather than being restricted to a
single procedure. (Nunan, 1997:74 ). Thus, we use a questionnaire for teachers,
another one to learners, in addition to a classroom observation and an interview with a
General inspector of English.
Both secondary teachers and pupils are given a questionnaire, their answers are
useful data in answering the research questions. Promoting learner autonomy should
start first by the learners themselves, their motivation, their attitudes as well as their
views of autonomy. Without learners readiness the language teacher may fail in
fostering autonomous learning both inside and outside the classroom even if he or she
does their best in teaching. Similarlarly, the Chinese proverb says:: you can bring
the horse to water, but you cant make him drink.
Third, Classroom observation is pointed out as a complementary research tool
which will provide us with extra empirical data of teachers classroom practices. It is
held in Tafna secondary school in Hassi El Ghella with the aim to discover if the
classroom is really autonomous. And last, a semi-structured interview as another
contributory research instrument.

11

Oxford (2003) argues that: research on autonomy should combine as

many perspectives as possible and no single perspective should be
considered antithetical to any other. (Oxford, 2003:90). In fact, autonomy is
multifaceted process in which the learner, the teacher, book designers, and even
inspectors have a role to play so as to foster it in language learning. For this reason,
tools used in data collection are considered as a crucial triangulation component
aimed at obtaining a richer description of learner autonomy in the secondary education
in Algeria. This has been done to cross-check the validity of the results and to collect
as much data as to help us tackle the problem from different angles. . The different
steps of data collection in this research investigation are summarized in the following
diagram:

Data Collection
Procedure

Teachers and
learners attitudes
towards learner
autonomy
(diagnostics)

A questionnaire
for teachers and
learners

Classroom
autonomy
Practice
(instruction)

A classroom
observation

Diagram Data collection procedure

12

Pedagogy of
promoting learner
autonomy

An interview
with general
inspector of
English
language

12 -Research Findings
In English learning learner autonomy cannot be realized overnight. Due to the
long-term traditional spoon-feeding method. Students will undoubtedly have some
difficulty shifting their learning styles and taking the responsibility for their own
learning. In this case, teachers encouragement is highly demanded to help those
passive learners improving their autonomy, and help them to realize that successful
language learning largely depends on themselves not on the teacher. In this context a
Chinese proverb may serve to clarify farther it is saying: when you offer me one
fish you feed me one day, but when you show me how to fish you feed me all the
life. What pupils really need is not offering them knowledge but rather showing them
how to find it. This study highlights the need to integrate learner independence into the
language curriculum, not only as top to down decision imposed on both teachers and
pupils, but as step by step procedure based on rising awareness, motivating learners
and train them alike with teachers towards autonomy. Thus. we can deduce that a
hard work is to be done if we want autonomy to be a reality in the secondary education
in Algeria.

13- Some Recommendations for promoting Learner Autonomy

learner autonomy can be promoted only if pupils are sufficiently motivated and
aware of the necessity of autonomy for successful learning. Besides certain factors
that should be available such as learners training to find out the learning strategies
that suit them best. The language teacher also plays a role in promoting learner
autonomy. EFL teachers in Algeria and pupils alike are poorly prepared for the move
to learner autonomy and training them both is necessary. In Algerian EFL context,
teacher training programs should provide teachers with adequate training to foster
their autonomy as well as that of their learners. As for learners, the first basic step in
fostering their autonomy is to raise their awareness of the importance of autonomy in
their learning .Teachers can do this through creating basic motivational conditions and
establish a persuasive communication to alter learners beliefs and attitudes. Strategy
based instruction may be the solution of pupils overreliance on the English teacher,
and prepare them for taking much more responsibility in their learning.

13

14- General Conclusion

The findings have given evidence to the research hypotheses. Pupils in
secondary education and teachers alike are not familiar with the notion of autonomy
and not ready for implementing it. Pupils still consider the English teacher as the first
and the most responsible in their learning. This teacher-dependent characteristic is
due to pupils lack of motivation, their negative attitudes. Besides, the absence of
autonomy oriented training for them and teachers to accept the change easily . This
change has never been an easy task because: the agents of change have not
been involved in consultations and the proponents of change are overenthusiastic about their proposal.(Baiche, 2008: 214). So teachers and pupils
need to be taken into account while designing a change or innovation, they need also
be given a helping hand so as to step in the world of autonomy.

Promoting learner autonomy is a worthwhile aim even though our national

language education policies include autonomy as a learning goal; we might say that
the development of learner autonomy is hardly a reality in Algeria. Teachers without
any autonomy-oriented training may experience difficulties in creating such a
classroom culture. Hence, the earlier language teachers are made aware of the
importance and necessity of learner autonomy in their initial teacher training, the more
easily they will be able to implement this approach in their own future classrooms.
Though autonomy is a western culture somehow alien in Algerian context.

Learner autonomy is undoubtedly important in language teaching because it is as

much a skill as learning to drive, it must be taught , it requires a practice. Unless they
are taught how to take the wheel for themselves, learner students like learner drivers
may be at risk. (Raiton and Watson, 2005:192). Just as driving pupils need preparation
and practice in this phase they seem reliant on the teacher, however once they take
the command of the wheel themselves they can be independent.

14

The End