yr.

r This

document

pages
Lontains 9.9-'

Foreword
This publication is one of a series related to basements for housing. It has been produced under the direction of the
Basement Development Group, which was initiatedand is co-sponsored by the BritishCement Association.

Acknowledgments

The British Cement Association(BCA) is grateful to the British Structural WaterproofingAssociation(BSWA) for cosponsoring this publication. It is also grateful for the assistance and comments provided by members of the Basement
Development Group and for the considerable work of its WaterproofingTask Group in drafting and progressing this
publication. Particularthanks go to Maria Hudlass and Steven Edwards of Servicised for the production of the figures.
Thanks are alsoextended to all others who provided input to and comments on the preparatory drafts.

BasementDevelopmentGroup

B Aspin (Chairman), House Builders Federation

A K Tovey (Secretary), Tecnicom
F Atkins, National Housebuilding Council
D Burke, Zurich Municipal
M A Clarke. British Cement Association
P Hart. Institute of BuildingControl
D James, Bovis Homes South West
A Jones, Stewart MilneGroup Limited
B Kevworth. Architect
R S Reynolds, Institute of Clerksof Works
G R Sharpe, Associationof BuildingEngineers
P Trotman. Building Research Establishment

SupportingTrade Groups

WaterproofmgTask Group

A K Tovey (Chairman), Tecnicom

S Brown, Sika Limited
V Connolly, Renlon Limited
M Falla, Booth EngineeringServicesLimited
Z Ginai, Marley WaterproofingLimited
P Hewitt, Vandex UK Limited
T Holloway, Renlon Limited
M Lenaghan, ServicisedLimited
I J Moffat, Fosroc Expandite Limited
J A M Padley-Smith, MasticAsphalt Council and
Employers Federation Limited
AJ Parker, SCL Group Limited
M Radford, RIW Limited

AutoclavedAerated Concrete Products Association

British Sructural WaterproofingAssociation
Concrete BlockAssociation
MortarProducers Association
Ready-mixedConcrete Bureau

48.058
First published 1994
ISBN 0 7210 1475 5
Price group D
BritishCement Association1994

Published by

British Cement Association

Century House, Telford Avenue

Crowthome, Berks RG11 6YS
Telephone (0344) 762676
Fax (0344) '761214
From April 1995 the codewill be (01344)
All advice or infoimation fromthe British Cement Association is intended forthose who will evaluate the significance andlimitations ofitscontents and take responsibility for itsuse and
application. Noliability(mcludmg thatfornegligence)forany loss resulting fromsuch advice orinformation isaccepted Readersshould notethatall BCA puhhcationsare suh1ecttorevision
fromtime to timeand should therefore ensure that they are m possessionof the latest version

Contents

Introduction

Scope

Design principles
Basementusage

Site information

2
2

Deciding on form of construction

Forms

of construction

Factors affecting choice of construction

Characteristicsof construction forms
Suitability of construction forms

Form and characteristicsof

waterproofingsystems

Category 1: Bonded sheet membranes

Category 2: Cavity drain membranes

Category 3: Bentoniteclay active membranes

Category 4: Liquid-appliedmembranes
Category 5: Mastic asphalt membranes
Category 6: Cementitiouscrystallization active systems
Category 7: Proprietary cementitious multi-coat renders,
toppings and coatings

Ancillary materials

Waterstops

Bandage joint systems

Membrane protection products

Other design considerations

Thermal insulation

Condensation
Vapour control
Chemical barrier
System restraint
Substrate movement
Expansion joints
Defects and repair

Site investigations

Groundwater
Soil type and conditions

Movementrisks likely to affect basements

Constructionoptions

10

Basement site locations and forms

Design factors affecting construction

Waterproofingdetails

13

Details of waterproofing options

and forms ofconstruction

Selection procedure

17

Glossary

18

References

19

Guide to assessing basement designs

Assessingrisk

Other publications relating to basement structures

Production. Words &Pages

Introduction
Basements provide an opportunity for the builder to
achieve a goodreturnon his outlay. and his customer to
benefit by being offered houses with greater potential'.
Including a basement maximisesavailable land space,
provides more stable construction, is thermally efficient
and offers ideal quiet areas and further space for storage
or accommodation. Basementscan be economically
introduced onto most sites and, in particular. have clear
advantages on sites with poor ground that may otherwise
be regarded as difficult and possibly uneconomic to build
on. This publication is intended to help the builder or
designer arrive at the most appropriate form of construction and waterproofing solution.

Grade 3 environment than to upgrade it later. Certain

forms of construction and waterproofing maylend
themselves to upgrading more readily than others (see
construction options on page 10).
It is unlikely that a Grade 4 environment would be
required ifi a domestic situation. If it did become necessaly, a Grade 1 environment mayhe upgraded to
Grade 2 by introducing a drained cavity system or
internal waterproofing. A basement performing to Grade
2 can be upgraded to Grade 3 or 4 by incorporating
additional ventilation and/or dehumidification.

A companion publication, Basement u'atetproofing: Site

guide provides advice on the application or installation
of thevarious waterproofingsystems. and comments on
other associated construction matters.

Scope
The details and comments given in this publicatk)n are
limited to Grade 2 and 3 internal environments, as
defined in BS 8102. which are appropriate for residential
basements.
The Grade 2 environment is for use as workshops and
plant rooms, and other areas where the performance
level permits no water penetration. hut higher levels of
water vapourwould he tolerable and surface condensation may occur.
The Grade 3 environment is for ventilated residential and
working areas which require a drier environment.

Design principles
The specificationof waterproofing systems is a specialised task. It is recommended that, once the design team
has given the system some thought, the manufacturersof
the systems under consideration are contacted immediately for early advice and help on the waterproofing
design. The British Structural WaterproofingAssociation
can provide details of manufacturers of the different
generic waterproofing systems and of appropriate
specialist waterproofing contractors.
Choosing a suitable basement construction may he
divided into four main steps:
Decide on basement usage
Gather site information
Decide on form of construction
Decide on form of waterproofing
These and other factors needingconsideration are shown
in the flow chart in Figure 1.

Basement usage
Table 1 of BS 8102 relates environmental performance
levels to basement usage, and defines themin Grades
1 to 4. Most basements will he for domestic accommodation, which is Grade 3. Some basements may be for
permanent workshops or garages, and a Grade 2 environment would be acceptable. However, since usage
may change, it is better to construct a basement to a

Figure 1: Principle selection criteria

Site information
The gathering of site information is dealt with in Site
investigationson page 8. However, a few points need to
he considered whenselecting the form of construction
and waterproofing system.
High water tables present the greatest risk of failure of
the watertightnessof a basement. If there is a permanently high water table, it is important to identify it.
A watercourse or water table that rises and falls with
climatic changes must also be [Link] often and
for how long the water table stays high are also important. If the water table rises briefly - say, after heavyrain
- andthen immediatelyfalls again, the risk of water
penetration through external waterproofing and then
through the structure is less than if the water table stays
high for a much longer period.

The likely presence of water and the position of the

water table must also be established for construction
purposes. The maincontractor mayneed to lower the
water table temporarily to enable the construction and
waterproofing to go ahead. In addition, any lowering of
the water table will need to maintained until the loads
acting on the basement, from eitheritself or in combination with the superstructure, are greater than the forces
that would be generated by the water pressures as the
water table returnsto its original level.
The existence of any aggressiveelements in the ground
and/or the groundwater must be established to ensure

//
/
/

the most suitable combination of structure category and

waterproofing system is selected.

Deciding on form of

construction

Forms ofconstruction

BS 8102 describes three forms of basement construction:

Type A, B and C. These are shown diagrammaticallyin

Figure 2, and discussed overleaf, together with the

factors affecting their choice.

A-

//
7

Extemal

r:.

waterproofing

//

Sandwiched
waterproofing

-z
C

5.

Intemal
waterproofing

_c_

-0

b,,p

.Q.

.5.

TypeA structures - tanked protection

Extemal orintemal
waferstopasrequired
0

37

Water-resistant
reinforced
concrete

walland slab

Anon-integrat

kicker
witt require one waterstop
whereit adjoinsthe slab
and anotherat its
intersection withthewall

-I

Cr A.;0:: A7.'.

-r

..t.

Crystallisation, hydrophilic,
or injected wateratop

.. -0 s

a-

Water-resistant
reinforced
concrete
walland stab

0-

C-c:--

.2

-- . .

'-J
-

.b:2. ...

Type B structures - structurally integral protection

Floordrainage options
Engineering brick with
openjoints at intervals

ventilatedcavity

Preformed cavity floor and waif drain system

Floorfinishes

former

concrete

TypeC structures - drained protection

Figure2: The three forms ofbasement construction

Type A (tanked protection) structures have no integral

protection against water penetration and therefore rely
totally and permanently on a waterproofing membrane to
keep water out. The chosen structural waterproofing

system must be able to withstand hydrostatic pressure

from groundwater, together with any superimposed or
service loading.
The structural wall may be prestressed, reinforced or
plain concrete or masonry with the structuralwaterproofing system incorporated externally during construction.
Or it may he applied internallyto the finished basement.
Masonry walls may require a cement rendering or flush
pointing to produce a surface good enoughto accept a
waterproofing system.
This form of construction can, depending on the waterproofing system used, also provide high resistance to
water vapour movement.

Type B (structurallyintegral protection) structures

requires the structure itselfto he constructed as an
integral water-resistant shell.
Invariablybuilt of reinforced or prestressed concrete, the
basement structure must be designed within certain strict
parameters to ensure it is [Link] designs
would he carried out according to the recommendations
of BS 8007 or BS 8110, which give guidance on the grade
of concrete and steel spacing.
Withoutthe addition of a separate membrane, this form
of construction may not he as resistant to water vapour
movement as a Type A or C.
Type C (drained protection) structures incorporate a
drained cavity within the basement structure. There is
permanent reliance on this cavity to collect groundwater
seepage through the structure and direct it to drains or a
sump for removal by drainage or pumping.
Structural walls may be prestressed, reinforced or plain
concrete or masonry. The external basement wall must
provide enough resistance to water ingress to ensure the
cavity accepts only a controlled amount of water or
dampness. If this is not so, the cavity system may not
cope with the deluge of water from a high water table or
during stormiflood conditions.
This form of construction can, depending on the waterproofing system used, alsoprovide high resistance to
water vapour movement.

Factors affecting choiceofconstruction

To consider the performance and likely reliability of

these three typesof structure, many factors need to be

known (Figure 1). These include natural groundwater

levels or perched water tables, groundwater contaminants, natural drainage and soil type. Of these, by far the
most significantis water table level, which depends upon
many factors and no two sites can, therefore, he said to
be the same. However, they can be generally classified

as follows:

A high or perchedwater table where, by definition,

thegroundwater level is consistentlyabovethe level
of the basement floor.
A permanently low water table, or free-drained site,
where the water table is consistentlybelowthe level
of the basement floor.
A variable water table, where the levels may vary
between the two extremes described above.

Characteristics ofconstruction fonns

Any structural waterproofing membrane designed to

resist a hydrostatic headshould not let any free water
pass through it. However, in practice, consideration must
always he given to what would happen as a result of any
defect. The effects of water table conditions on the three
basement types are discussed below.
Tybe A
The watertightnessof the Type A basement relies totally
on the effectivenessof the waterproofing system. With a
high water table, any defects will allow water to penetrate the structure, finally entering the basement as free
water. If this water is not removed, the basement will fill
to the level of the water table.
Since total reliance is placed on the waterproofing system
in Type A structures, account must be taken of the need
to gainaccess ifa defect occurs. Externallyapplied
systems will require subsequent excavation. Locating the
source of a defect in a system not continuously bonded
to the substrate wallcan add further complications.
Where access is, or is liable to be, severely restricted by,
for example, a permanent external in-situ pavement or
patio, then an internally applied membrane maybe
easier to maintain. Defects can then be more readily
found and repaired. An internal system could be used
with an integral construction or external system to
reduce the risk (see Assessing riskon page 18). The
performance of internal waterproofing systems can be
affected by the attachment of skirtings etc. or by fittings
applied subsequently.
Where the site is permanently free-drained, any defects
in the system will allow moisture to move under capillary
action. Where the defect is small, this will usually result
in some dampness in the structure, but will not necessarily show itself on the internal surface. However, any
decoration or surface coating that acts as a vapourcheck
will increase the risk of interstitial condensation and
hence possible damage.
With a varying water table, significantwater ingress
through defects will occur only during storm or waterlogged conditions. If the water table is high only briefly,
the ingress might not be enough to show itself. The
longer it stays high, the greaterthe risk of significant
dampness or even partial flooding.
T>pe B
The watertightnessof the Type B construction is totally
reliant upon the design and construction of the basement
as an integral shell, using a concrete of low permeability,
and appropriate joint details.
The most common defects are permeable concrete
through lack of compaction, honeycombed concrete,
contamination of construction joints, cracking due to
thermal contraction and shrinkage. These can all be
reduced by correct specificationand design and by
careful construction.
Type B structures needto be carefullyconstructed to
avoid defects that let water through. Althoughthey are
designed to be water-resistant,additional waterproofing
systems may be applied eitherinternally or externallyto
the faces of the walls and floors to control water vapour
movement, where appropriate, or to provide further
protection.

Construction joints need particular attention as these are

the areas most commonly associated with leaks. While
attention needs to he paidto jointing and positioning
water stops, great care is required in the placing and
compaction of the concrete. An alternativemethod of
controllingwater ingress at construction joints is to use a
crystallization or hydrophilicsystem that reacts in the
presence of water to seal the joint.

The construction of a 'kicker' either during or after

pouring the floor slabshouldnot be encouraged as it is
difficult to construct without defects. Modem types of

formwork and kickerless construction techniques mean

that kickers no longerneed he part of the construction
process (see Figure 2 on page 3).
With a high water table, minor defects in the concrete
usually result in only small amounts of water penetrating,
and stopping these is usually fairly straightforward.
Remedial action can usually he carried out from the
inside, so avoiding the need for external excavation.
Variable water tables present less of a problem, unless
the water table stays high for a long time.

With a very high water table, a Type B constructionwith

a preformed plastic drained cavity former applied
internally (effectivelyturning the construction into
Type C) could be considered to carry the smallest risk of
failure.
Where the site drains wellenough to prevent the
build-up of hydrostatic water pressure, all threeforms of
construction carry little risk of damp penetration.

Form and characteristics of

waterproofmg systems
Since reliance has often to he placed on the waterproofing system, the designer must ensure the materials are
properly selected and adequate for the proposed location
and conditions. It is imperativethat all continuous
horizontal, sloping or vertical waterproofing he specified,
and executed, in one proprietary waterproofing system.
Hybrid systems - using one system with another - must
he avoided because of the danger of [Link]
not mix hot and cold systems.

In a free-draining site, it is rare for a defect to he so

serious that water comes through by capillary action.

Most proprietary systems and materials are covered by

Type C
The Type C construction relies totally on water collected
in the cavity being taken away. The amount of free water
entering will dependon the volume of external water
and its hydrostatic pressure, and on the initial resistance
of the structure to water ingress.

There are several categories of structural waterproofing:

Category 1: Bonded sheet membranes
Category 2: Cavity drain membranes
Category 3: Bentonite clay active membranes
Category 4: Liquid-appliedmembranes
Category 5: Mastic asphalt membranes
Category 6: Cementitiouscrystallizationactive systems
Category 7: Proprietary cementitious multi-coat renders,
toppings and coatings

With a permanently high or variable water table, defects

can arise in several ways:
Failure of drains or mechanical pumps could result in
flooding.
Blockage of the cavity by silt or other contaminants
could result in flooding. (The design ofthe structure
should allow for clearing of silt and rodding of drains
should blockages occur.)
An increase in the ingress of water could exceed the
drainage capacity and result in dampness or flooding.
On a free-drained or sloping site, the cavities may he led
to a soakaway to handle any ingress from, say, percolating surface water. If the soakaway silts up or the drain
becomes blocked, dampness on the internal surface
becomes a possibility.

Suitability ofconstructionforms

Generally,Type A structures are not recommended in

areas with an undrainable high water table.
A well-builtType B construction carries a low risk of
serious failure in a high water table. This is because
these structures can themselves he designed to he
resistant to the ingress ofwater under a hydrostatic head.
Care in the placement of concrete and waterstops
(Figure 2) at construction joints is [Link]
waterproofing protection may he used, but defects in
Type B structures are less likely to result in water ingress
owing to the integral protection of the structure.
A Type C construction could provide a suitable form of
structure, whereany water can he easily drained to a
convenient point, for example on sloping sites where the
back is completely retaining hut the front is not.

British Standards,Agrmentcertificatesor manufacturers'

warranties.

Cate,goiy 1: Bondedsheet membranes

Bonded sheet membranes are generally cold-applied or

heat-bonded to the finished structural walls. Both are
modified bitumen on a range of carrier films. They are
applied externally, or internally with a loading coat
strong enough to resist hydrostatic pressure. Composite
polymeric sheet membranes are also available. They are
attached to the enabling works (reverse tanking), hut
subsequently fullybonded by means of a specifically
formulated pressure-sensitiveadhesive, to the poured
concrete.

Design considerations
Flexibleand able to adapt to minormovement and
shrinkage within the substrate
They are of consistent thickness and quality

May provide protection against aggressivesoils and

groundwater when applied externally

When applied internally, they need to he restrained
by a loading coat
* Substrate must he free from surface water for bonding
to occur
Generally,suitable only for uncomplicated foundation
systems such as plain rafts

Categoiy2: Cavity drain membranes

Cavity drain membranes are high-densitydimpled

polyethylene sheets, placed against the structure. The

dimples form permanent cavities between the structure

and the internal shell. They are used internally to drain

and control water ingress.
Design considerations
Installed after the construction of the hasement
Defects may he rectified hefore completion
Minimum preparation of substrate needed

There is no hydrostatic pressure on the system: water

entering the cavity is collected and drained or
pumped away
They are of consistent thickness and quality
Flexibleand able to adapt to minor settlement and
shrinkage within the substrate
Simple internal applications can overcome
complicated designs. e.g. piles and ground beams
With high or variable water tables, blockages or
failure of drains/pumps may lead to flooding

category 5: Mastic asphalt membranes

Mastic asphalt membranes are applied in three coats as a

hot, mastic liquid. They cool to a hard, waterproof

coating, hut retain a degree of flexibility. Application can
he external or internal. If internal, the loading coat must
he strong enough to resist hydrostatic pressure.

Design considerations
Because of the multiple coats, there is little risk of
defects in one coat being carried right through the
total membrane
May provide protection against aggressive soils and

groundwater when applied externally

Substrate must he dry before application
Requires protective screedon horizontal membrane
before loading coat is installed
Externally applied membranes are generally
unsuitable for complicated foundations such as piles

category 3: Bentonite clay active

membraties

category6: cementitious crystallization

Bentonite clay active membranes are sheet.s of sodium

hentonite clay sandwiched hetween two layers of
biodegradable cardboard. When the clay meets water, it
can swell to many times its original volume, sealing any
gaps ur voids in the membrane. This category of
niembrane is used externally.

Cementitious crystallization active systems are coatings

applied as internal or external slurries. By reacting with
free lime in concrete, renders or mortars, they block
cracks and capillaries.

Design considerations
Minordefects in placing should self-seal
They are simple to apply
The substrate does not need to he dry before
application
Minimumpreparation of substrate is required
Must not he used in acidic or excessivelyalkaline soils

category4: Liquid-applied membranes

Liquid-appliedmembranes are one- or two-part systems.
They are appliedcold, generally in two coats as a
bitumen solution. elastomericurethane or modified
epoxy. They can he applied both externallyand internally. In the latter case, the loading coat must he strong
enough to resist hydrostatic pressure, unless used as a
vapour harrier in Type B construction.

Design considerations
Being jointless. theymaintain continuity of membrane
Easily applied to difficult suhstrate profiles
Elastic and flexible, thus accommodatingminor

movement and shrinkage within the structure

Can protect the structure against aggressive soils and
groundwater when applied externally
Have high substrate adhesion and chemical resistance
Must he applied to a dry surface
When applied internally,must he restrained by a
loading coat if subjected to a hydrostatic water
pressure. as in Type A construction
Require good surface preparation
Careful application needed to achieve correct
thickness of dried film

active systems

Design considerations
Provide in-depth waterproofing of concrete and
construction joints
The chemicals remain active and will self-seal leaks
In construction joints, they assist repair of local defects
Applied externally, mayprotect against aggressive
soils and groundwater
Will not self-seal cracks greater than hairline (0.3 mm)
Cannot he used on building materials containing no
free lime
Will not waterproof defective concrete, such as
honeycombing

category 7: Proprietary cementitious

multi-coat renders, toppings and coatings
Proprietary cementitious multi-coatrenders, toppings and
coatings are applied as a layer(s) to form a dense,
waterproof membrane. Waterproof renders or toppings
consist of a layer or layers of dense cementitious material
incorporatinga waterproofing component. Cementitious
coatings are premixed slurries applied as a thin layer. All
are designed to he used inside the structure but can he
external.

Design considerations
Can be applied internallywith no loading coat
requirement
Effective against severe groundwater infiltration
Easilyapplied to difficult substrate profiles
When applied internally,defects are easy to findand
repair
Provide a durable surface suitable for direct finish

When appplied externally, can protect against

aggressive soils and groundwater

 Being rigid, they may reflect any cracking of the

substrate
Fittings fixed mechanicallythrough the system can
cause problems and should be avoided

Ancillary materials
Waterstops

Waterstops for basement construction may be of one of

the followingtypes, according to the location and
function:
Rubber or flexible PVC extruded profiles
Strips or profiles of hydrophilicmaterials which swell
in water, either alone or as part of a composite with a
rubberor PVC extrusion
Cementitious crystallizationproducts
Post injected systems

Rubber orfiexible PVC waterstops

These are extruded profiles fabricated with junction
pieces to provide a linked continuous system through all
the joints or discontinuitieswithin a concrete structure.
Plain web profiles are available for non-moving or lowmovement construction and contraction joints. Profiles
incorporating a centre bulk or box are used where there
is movement, as in expansion joints.
Alternatively, waterstops may he cast totally within the

site-placed concrete. These are known as internal or

centrally placed waterstops. Internal waterstops will
resist the passage of water through a joint from either
face. However, as they are more difficultto install and
can cause problems when the concrete is being placed
and compacted, they are best avoided.
Externalwaterstop profiles are also available and are
positioned on one face of the concrete. These rear-fixed
or surface waterstops simplify the shuttering and installation but will resist the passage of water only from the
face in which theyare installed.
Water-swellable waterstops
Such waterstops depend upon a sealing pressure being
developed by the water absorption of a hydrophilic
material or filler. They are available as strips for bonding
or nailing to the first-placed concrete immediatelybefore
the second pour. The strips may be wholly of hydrophilic
material, or compounded with a rubber, or part of a
composite profile. They can be applied against existing
concrete since they avoid the problems of breaking out
to install a conventional rubber or PVC waterstop. The
use of water-swellablestrips is limited to low-movement
construction and contraction joints.
Hydrophilic material may be applied to a conventional
PVC waterstop profile to provide a combined system that
mayalso cater for expansion joints.

('etnentitious ciystallization waterstops

These differ from the previous two categories in that the
productconsists of cements, fillers and chemicals to be
mixed on site as a slurry. The slurry is applied to the face
of the first-poured concrete before the [Link]
waterstopping action results from salt crystallization, in
thepresence of water, within thepores and capillariesof
the concrete. These products are not suitable for use in
expansion joints.

Post injected waterstops

These consist of a perforated or permeable tube fixed to
thefirst pour ofconcrete in theconstruction joint with
eitherend attached to fittings connected to the
formwork, or protruding from underneath it. The tube is
then cast into the construction joint.
After the concrete has hardened a polyurethane resin or
other propriety fluid is injected under low pressure to
flow through the tube and, whenthe exit of the tube is
sealed, it flows freely out of the perforations into any
cracks, fissures or holes in the construction joint. The
injected material then sets to seal all water paths through

the joint.

Bandagejoint systems

Where large or unusual movement is expected in joints

or cracks - in both new and remedial work - bandage
joint systems may be [Link] of strips of
synthetic polymer membrane, bonded across the joint
with a suitable adhesive. As systems vary, the manufacturer's advice on application method and adhesive
should alwayshe followed.

Membrane protection products

If construction operations may damage applied membranes, adequate protection must he provided. This can
consist of vertical hlockwork and a 50 mm screed to
horizontal surfaces. Alternatively, protection boards
supplied by most membrane manufacturersmay he used.
They are more convenient since they provide immediate
protection. They also eliminate a 'wet trade' operation
and allow the followingworks to continue immediately
after laying.
Protection boards should he rot-proof and robust enough
to withstand site operations. They should therefore he
chosenin consultationwith the supplier of the waterproofing system.
A protection board maybe used in vertical applications.
Alternatively, if vertical protection and drainage are
required, a geocomposite drainage sheet could he used:
its greater cost may be offset by the reduction or elimination of hydrostatic pressure on the membrane as a result
of the better drainage.

Other design considerations

As well as the general characteristicsof the categories of
waterproofing already given, certain aspects are common
to several systems. The final selection will depend on the
form of structure and on other design and construction
aspects such as the need to control water vapour.

Thermal insulation

Including a basement can improve the thermal insulation

ofthe structure since the lower basement slab is more
efficient than a slab at groundlevel. The surrounding
earth will also improve the thermal transmittanceof the
basement walls and there may be no need to provide
further insulation to comply with the Building Regulations. However, where insulation is required, it may depending on whether it is placed inside or outside the
basement walls - dictate the form of construction and
waterproofing system. Any external insulation must have
low water absorption and he frost resistant to prevent
loss of its thermal insulation properties.

condensation
Because window areas are often reduced, there tends to
be less natural ventilationin basements than in other
areas of a house. They are therefore generally more
proneto condensation, so heating and air circulation
need to be carefully designed to ensure condensation is
controlled.
Condensation in basements is too complex to he covered
in detail here. Reference 3 explains how to estimate its
risk and effects.
Water vapour tendsto move from areas of high vapour
pressure to low vapour pressure. The vapour pressure in
a specific area relates directly to the humidity of the air at
that point, which in turn depends on the temperature
and the amount of free water available to he released
into the air.
Althoughit is commonly thought that water vapour will
always pass from the ground into a basement, this is not
so. In most domestic situations,water vapourwill move.
if the water table is low, from within the structure
towards the ground. If the water table is high. water
vapour will penetrate the basement but usually at such a
k)w rate as to he of little consequence.
A vapour-permeablewaterproofing system can thus be
advantageous if the vapour tends to move from the
inside to the ground. hut will alkw relative humidity
within the basement to rise if the reverse conditions
apply.
A system that acts as a vapourcheck can be advantageous if the vapourtends to move from the ground into
the basement hut similarly will allow the relative humidity to rise if the reverse is true. However, a vapourcheck
applied externally can cause interstitial condensation
This should not be a problem as long as it is allowed for
in the design.
In general. careful consideration must he given to the
effect that the waterproofing system has on the resistance
to water vapour. In practice. where internal conditions in
a basement are controlled by properly designed heating
and permanent ventilation, the condensation risk can he
reduced to be no worse than in the rest of the dwelling.
The advantages/disadvantagesof vapour permeable:
impermeable systems are then usually negligible.
If the environment is controlled solely by natural air
movement, the condensation risk increases and more
care is needed in the choice of waterproofing and
insulation systems.

Vapour control

to 5 can
also act as an effective vapour check. Although this is
often seen as an advantage, somestructures needto
allow for water vapourmovement, in which case a
category 6 or 7 system will he needed. The vapour
resistance of category 7 systems can vary significantly
with the product. It is important. therefore, to decide
whether water vapour needs to he controlled or not - see
Condensation above.
As well as controlling water ingress. categories

Chemical barrier
An external membrane can protect the main structure.
However, if the ground or groundwater is contaminated
with aggressive chemicals, methane and other gases,
their precise nature and concentration must he

determined and the membrane manufacturer must he

consulted.

System restraint

Categories 1, 3. 4 and 5 need to be restrained so that

they can resist the forces involved. When applied
externally, the structure provides the restraint. When
categories 1. 4 and 5 are employed internally,they need
to he restrained by a loading coat. This will take up
space within the structure. Categories 2. 6 and 7 can he
used internally without a loading coat.

Substrate movement
Categories 1 to 5 have reasonable strain capacity and will
usually accommodate sonic flexing or design cracking of
the structure. Categories6 and 7 are more brittle with
low strain capacity and so are less tolerant of structural
flexing. They will crack if the substrate cracks hut may
still control moisture ingress if the cracks are fine.

Expansionjoints

Care is needed when considering systems used with

expansion joints: always consult the manufacturer.
[Link] joints can he detailed to cater for
movement, it is far better to design the structure in a way
that avoids expansion joints.

Defectsand repair

Categories 1, 3, 4. 5 and 7 rely on their impermeabilityto

control water ingress. Defect.s in the materials or in their
jointing may require remedial treatment. With externally
applied systems, this may mean excavation. It is often
difficult,therefore, to reach defects in externally applied
systems, and there can he problems in locating defects in
systems that are not continuously bonded. Particular
difficulties will arise where the water table is high
permanently or for long periods, since ground dewatering would he required. Access followingconstruction may not he desirable or possible, in which casean
internal waterproofing system may he preferable.
However, the performance of internal waterproofing
systems can he affected, as indicated in ('haracteristics of
constructionJomis on page 4, by the attachment of
skirtings etc., or by the application of subsequent fittings.
Categories3 and 6 are active systems and can 'self-heal'.
even years later.

Site investigations
',

As stated in BS 5930 "Investigation of the site is an

essential preliminary to the construction of all civil
engineering and building works". This is particularly
important for basements, since the materials used and the
performance of the finished structure will he greatly
influenced by the ground conditions. Several factors need
to he assessed and reference should he made to BS 5930
for detailed informationon site investigations. Brief
details of some of these aspects are given below.

Groundwater
Water table

The existence of a watercourse or water table and its

seasonal position below ground will need to he established. The site history and nameclues such as "Pond
Lane" can help. Evidence of a flooding site could suggest
an impermeable soil or a high or perchedwater table.

Table 1: Characteristicsof soils which effect basement construction

Material

Majordivisions

Sub-groups

Drainage
characteristics

Shrinkage
or swelling
properties

Boulder and
cobbles

Boulder gravels

Good

Almost none

Hard: hard brokenrock,

hardcore,etc.

Excellent

Almost none

Soft: chalk, soft rocks,

Fair to practically
impervious

Almostnone to

Well graded gravel and

gravel-sandmixtures,
little or no fines

Excellent

Almostnone

Well graded gravel-sand

mixtures with excellent
clay binder

Practicallyimpervious

Very slight

Uniform gravel with

little or no fines

Excellent

Almost none

Poorly gradedgravel and

gravel-sandmixtures,
little or no fines

Excellent

Almost none

Gravel with fines, silty

gravel, clayey gravel,
poorly gradedgravel-sand-clay
mixtures

Fair to practically
impervious

Almost none to
slight

Well graded sands and

Excellent

Almost none

Well graded sand with

Practically impervious

Very slight

Uniform sandswith
little or no fines

Excellent

Almost none

Poorly gradedsands,
little or no fines

Excellent

Almost none

Sands with fines, silty

sands, clayey sands,
poorly graded sand-clay

Fair to practically
impervious

Almost none to
medium

Silts(inorganic) and
very fine sands, rock flour,
silty orclayey fine sands
with slight plasticity

Fair to poor

Slight to medium

Clayey silts (inorganic)

Practicallyimpervious

Medium

Organic silts oflow

plasticity

Poor

Medium

Silt and sandy clays

Fairto poor

Medium to high

Clays(inorganic) of
medium plasticity

Fairto practically
impervious

High

Organic clays of medium

plasticity
Micaceousor
diatomaceousfine sandy
and silty soils, elastic
silts

Fairto practically
impervious

High

Poor

High

Othermatenals

rubble

Gravels and
gravelly soils

.
Coarse soils and

other materials

slight

gravelly sands, little

or no fines
excellent clay binder
Sands and sandy

soils

mixtures

Soils having low

compressibility

Fme

II

Soils having
medium
compressibility

Soils having high

.
compressibility

(inorganic) ofmedium
plasticity

of
Clays(inorganic)
.
high plasticity, fat

tohigh

Practically impervious

High

Practically impervious

High

Fairto poor

Very high

clays

Fibrous organic soilswithvery high

compressibility

Organic clays ofhigh

plasticity
Peat andotherhighly
organic swamp soils

Grounddrainage

The topography of the land and the direction and

movement of any groundwater should he determined as
they will have a hearing on any proposals to provide
drainage to reduce local groundwater pressures.
If there are any drains or land drains, their positions
should he estahlished. Any new construction proposals
should not interrupt drains that still function unless
nieasures are taken to redirect theni or to intercept the
water hy a new drainage system.

Soiltpe and conditions

The typeof soil can greatly influence the quantity of

water reaching the basement wall. Free-drainingsoils
present fewer problems than clays, which tend to he
[Link] is important. therefore, to determine the
soil type and, in particular. its drainage characteristics.
Tahle 1. adapted from reference 5, gives the characteristics of the main soil types.
Some soils contain chemicals that may harm both the
structure and the waterproofing systeni. Check the
ground for materials that are detrimental, such as peat

and sulfates.

The presence of, or potential for, natural gases such as

radon and methane should he ascertained. The likelihood of radoncan he established f'rom the underlying
geological structure, and guidance for its control may he
found in reference 6.

Construction options

Basement site locations andforms

There are many potential basement locations. Design

forms and waterproofing methods will therefore depend
on. for example, the prevailing terrain, soil conditions,
water tables, proximity' of adjacent buildings and the
requirement ofthe end user. Typical locations and forms
of basement construction are illustrated and summarized
for threetypes of site: sloping, flat and infill.
Sloping sites
Sloping or elevated sites allow both full and semibasements or split-leveldwellings to he built, with cutand-filloptions (Figure 3). Since these sites can normally
he effectivelydrained, properties would be at little risk
from percolating groundwater. EconomicalType A
tanked basements or Type C structures can therefore be
built. simply designed in concrete or masonry. with
drainage provisions.

Flat sites
Flat sites provide the opportunity for basements wholly
or partially below ground (Figure 4). Excavatedmaterial
may he re-used to landscape around basements partially
below ground, giving the dwelling an elevated aspect.
Type A or C construction mayhe used if the site is freedraining or is in an elevated position with drainage
provisions.

Methaneand other gases are likelyto he linked to infill

and made-up ground. particularlywhere large amounts
of organic matter have been buried. Such sites can also
present risks from acid wastes, mineral oil shales, and
other fill materials.
Some slags and other residues often contain toxic
materials and some furnace ashes may he reactive.
Reference 7 gives information on site preparation and
resistance to moisture, and includes guidance on ground
contaminants.

Movement risks likely to affect basements

A change in ground moisture content - caused, for

example, by the removal of trees - can result in ground
movement and affect the loadhearing capacity' of soil.
Clayand peaty soils are particularlyproneto volumetric
changes leading to varying foundation pressures and
movement.

(a) Semi-basement

Perimeter drain to
discharge iodownaide

The remains of former buildings or structures on the site

need to he assessed. They are best removed to avoid
differentialmovement due to hearing over strong points.
Steeply sloping sites may have high land-slip risks, which
should he assessed before proceeding further.
Particularcare is needed where there are changes in the
soil strata that may cause differentialfoundation movement. Althoughsuch matters can he catered for structurally. they do present problems. For example, although
expansion joints are a common solution, they may not he
appropriate because of the difficultiesof maintaining
watertightness, particularly in a waterlogged site.
If the risk of movement is high, movement joints should
be considered. Where possible, designers should not
attempt to create waterproofed expansion joints, hut
instead shoulddesign discrete boxes that can he separately waterproofed.

(b) Split-level dwelling

Figure3: Basements on sloping or elevated sites

Basements constructed on a flat site in low-lyingareas

with impermeable soils can be difficult to drain. As there
may be problems with perched, fluctuatingor permanently high water tables, substructuresdesigned in
water-resistantType B constructinn would therefore be
advisable. Any window fire exit must be above the
highest anticipated water level.
Cut-off
drain

Perimeterdrainto
diacharge to downaide

(c) Split-level with basement whollybelow ground and with

sideaccess

Perimeter drainto
diacharge to downside

Infihl sizes
Inner city areas provide more opportunities for house
basement construction because high land values increase
property costs. Infill sites between adjacent dwellingscan
he developed (Figure 5). However, these may he more
susceptible to periodic flooding from existing defective
water mains. Design preference is for Type B construction, perhaps with internal waterproofing or drained
cavity provision.
Where adjacent properties haveto he underpinned, it
can he difficultto achieve continuity in external or preapplied waterproofing systems. Alternative systems
shouldtherefore he looked at.
Semi-basementson infill sites can probably use a hunded
catchment area. If so, the hund walls should he designed
as Type A tanked constntction or Type B water-resistant
concrete, with a drainage sump (Figure 5(h)) for rainwater. Clearly, this form of construction can he adopted
for both flat and sloping sites.

(d) Projecting basement

Figure3: Continued

(a) Independant structure with basement wholly below ground

groundlevel

(a) Basement partially below ground

Drainage aump

Retainingbund wall

(b) Semi-basement on infill terrace development

(b) Basement wholly below ground

Figure4: Basements on flatsites

Figure5: Basements on infill sites

11

Designfactorc affecting construction

Basement drainage

Attentionshouldhe given to the drainage requirements

for Type A tankedstructures and reinforced concrete
Type B structures. Lack of properdrainage to basement
surrounds may result in hydrostatic pressure and subsequent leakage through defects in the waterproofing or
concrete.
Installinga geocomposite drainage sheet and fin or land
drains will help deflect and drain water away from the
perimeter of buildings, so improving the total waterproofing (see Wateiproofingdetails on page 13).
An additional water-activated pump may be used to deal
with run-off water. This can be particularlyuseful where
thewater table becomes perchedbecause the soil is too
impermeable to handle the percolating surface water, as
with a clay soil. Such pumps, which are normally
installed outside the structure, can he used to ensure that
theseverity of water conditions does not exceed that
takenfor design. They can he used either to extend the
application ofType A and B construction or to provide
an additional escape for water, hut may not he appropriate for all waterproofingsystems. The outlet from such
pumps must discharge to areas where the water cannot
feed hack to the pump inlet.
The orientation of the basement area to the general flow
of groundwater should also be considered - see Figure 6.
Any L- or U-shapes with a re-entrant angle against the
natural drainage flow can act as damsand increase the
risk of hydrostatic pressure. Where basements are
constructed against the flow of water, sub-drainage
should he provided and graded to storm drains or open
outlets on the downside of the building.

Steppedand staggered
foundationsmakeitdifficult
to achievecontinuity of
waterproofing. Thereforethe
preferenceis forsandwich
construction with provision
forexternalrelief drainage

(c) Staggered foundations

Figure 6: Continued
Foundationdesign
Structuresshouldhe designed to keep foundations as

simple as possible. Expansion joints and complicated

shapes are best avoided, since theyare points of weakness and need a lot of attention to detail.
Complicated foundation designs do not lend themselves
to external waterproofing. When deciding on the form of
construction and waterproofing,the designer should
consider 'huildahility'and the acceptable level of risk,
relative to cost of achievingthe desired performance.
Considerationmust also he given to how remedial work
may he carried out if this performance is not anained.
Common foundation designs are shown in Figure 7with
suggested waterproofing options.

Type Astructure
Confineto slopingor

elevatedsites with good

drainage

Externalor internal
waterproofing
High-risk
design due to lack
of
continuitybetweenwall
and floor. Reinforcement
mayberequiredto control

Drainage mayberequire

to alleviatebuildupof

cracking

hydrostatic head

(a) Stripfoundation
(a) Non-preferred orientation

TypeA structure
Confinetoslopingor

elevatedsites with good

drainage

Orientationof basement
design to avoid possible
'dammingof the ground
waterflow

Externalwaterproofing may
be requiredto modifythe
exposuresituationof the
retainingwall

Difficulttoachievecontinuity
of waterproofing

membrane

whenappliedexternally

(b) Preferred orientation

Figure6: Drainage and orientation

(b) Piled ring beam and reinforoed masonry wall

Figure 7: Typical foundation designs

 Type C structure
Ideal forslopingor
elevatedsites

Externslwaterproofing may
berequiredto modifythe
esposuresitustionofthe
retainingwall

Difficult to achieve continuity

of wsterprooting

membrsne

whenapplied externally

(c) Piled foundation

Type A structure
Confinetoslopingor

elevatedsites with good

drainage

Simpledesign
Externalwsterproofing

mayberequiredto
modifythe exposure
situation of the retaining
wall

Waterproofing details

Details ofwaterproofing options andforrns

ofconstruction

The principal form of constroctronoutlined in Decidiog

on/orm ofconstntction on page 3 may involve a variety
of waterproofing options. The principal details and
elements of the main waterproofing systems are shown
in figure 8.

/ //
//,

Twoteaveaof
afructualwall

(notlied)

Mentrane

Basement

(a)Sandwichedwaterproofing

(d) Reinforced masonry wall with reinforced concrete raft

Membrane/waterproof
render

Type Bstructure
Suitableforpermanent

Concrete ormasonry
structural wall
(notwaterproof)

orvariablewster tables
aboveslsb level

Reinforced concrete

to BS 8110or
BS 8007as sppropriate

Protection/loadingcoat
(ifrequired)

design

Maybecombined with
extemat/intemal

waterproofingor drained
cavityconstruction to
enhanceperformance

(b) Internal waterproofing

(e) Reinforced water-resistant concrete box

Type C structure
Suitsbleforpermanent

orvariablewatertables

Protection(ax apecified)

aboveslab level

Reinforced concrete

Membrane

design to BS 8110or
BS 8007as appropriate

Concrete ormasonry
atrtctural wall
(notwaterproof)

Intemaldrainedcavity
construction

I
(f) Drained cavityconstruction with piledfoundation

(c) Extemalwaterproofing
J

Figure 7: Continued

Figure & Alternative waterproofing systems

13

Permanent masonry
enabtingworks

Concrete ormasonry

stnjctuetwat
(not waterproof)

Membrane tesleneded
totemporary/enablingworks

.. /

I
(d) External(reverse)waterproofing

Structuralwall

Ventilatedcavity

ormasonry
structuralwall
(notwaterproof)
Concrete

Innerskin

I
(h) Drained cavity, no waterproofing towalls, structure not
providing TypeB standard

Figure & Continued

Water-resistingstructural

wallto BS 8110 orBS 8007

asappropriate

Preformed cavity
drainagesystem

Innerskin

As already indicated, each waterproofing system may he

used as the sole protection or combined to give additional protection. The final choice depends on the site
conditions and the level of waterproofing necessary.
Some systems may also make use of externally applied
geocomposite drainage sheets to prevent or lessen
hydrostatic pressure reaching the external structure or
waterproofing system (Figure 9).

(e) Drained cavitywith integral protection

Protection (if required)

Preformed cavity
drainagesystem

Geocomposite
drainage sheet
(altemalive to
granularbackfill)

Membrane

Basement structure

Innerskin
Water-resistingstructural
wall to BS 8110 orBS 8007

as appropriate

Percolating

(f) Drained cavity with integralprotection and external

waterproofing

:4

.,

/
/
7
/- -

..

..

:-

.
.

..

-l

Preformedcavity
drainagesystem

bondedto temporary/
enablingworks

Water-resistingstructural

wall to BS 8110 orBS8007

asappropriate

Innerskin

(g) Drained cavitywith integral protection and external

Figure & Continued

.'- ,:-.-

Enablingworks

Membranefastened/

(reverse) waterproofing

External orinternal
waterproofing asappropriate

groundwater

Perimeter drainage (finorland drain

to discharge watertodownside)

Figure9: External drainage

To be effective, all laps in the waterproofing system must
be fully weathered and sealed. The system will generally
need to be continuous around the basement walls and
floors (Figure 10) and extend at least 150 mm above
ground level. Continuityof waterproofing betweenthe
junction of the superstructure and the basement walls
must alsohe assured (Figure 11).

p, Externai orinternal
waterproofing asrequired

I
I
I

The effect foundations have on achievingcontinuity in

thewaterproofing system must be assessed (see Foundation design on page 12). Details to cater for steps in the
foundation can he produced as in Figure 12.

I
I

Basement Structure

5'

.1..

.
DPM

Figure 10: Continuous waterproofing to basement

Continuity of
waterproofing

witttDPM

:.

DPC

Airbrick

0'

External
waterproofing
withdrainage
asrequired

Basement slab

Cavity

D::

tray

Consuft with
manufacturers
forspecificdetail

External
waterproofing

Honzontal
waterproofing
with protection
where required

(a) Externalwaterproofing

0
(a) Linking of external waterproofingwith DPC/cavitytray

Continuity of
waterproofing

with DPCand DPM

DPM

Innerloadingwall
5Jrbdck
Waterproof
membrane
Cavity fill
(nowallties)
Loading slabto resist
hydrostatic pressure

asrequired
Consult with
manufacturers
forspecific detail

waterproofing

Fin drain

(b)Linking of internalwaterproofing with DPC/cavity tray

Figure 11: Continuityof waterproofing - linking with

superstructure

a -

' a

(b) Sandwich Construction

Figure12: Continuityof waterproofing - step changes in

construction

15

DPM

DPC

.c'

no outer waterproofing, it would he acting as a cavitydrained system. The vall ties would therefore need to he
omitted and the inner leaf designed as a loadhearing

with DPCand DPM

Q.

-.

..

single-kaf wall. Appropriate floor details would also

have to he adopted.

Continuity of
waterproofing

Innerwaterproofing or
cavitydrainage system

:
:

Innerloading walland
slabsasrequired

:-: :.
. r'

(C)

..c'

Internalwaterproofing

Figure13: Discontinuityof waterproofingon free

Cavity
tray

Continuity of waterproofing

withcavitytray

cs,.
Continuouswaterproofing
system. Roofareatobe laid
to fallswith drainage provision

,
-

'.

Prngb:ntr
(d) Externalwaterproofing ofprojecting basement roof

draining site
Discontinuityof waterproofing is possible here because
any water rising by capillaryaction is effectively
prevented from reaching the inside face of the inner leaf.
In addition, any water penetrating the outer leaf is
intercepted by the cavity and discharged belowthe slab
level. Such construction cannot he used where the water
table is high or variable. Nor is it feasible with soils of
low permeahility on a flat site, as water could build up
within the cavity and rise above slab level. Discontinuity
of the waterproofing system must, therefore, he
considered only where the groundand structure are able
to prevent water ingress. This is possible only with
certain constructionson sloping sites or in freely draining
soils with a low water table. Discontinuitymay alsoonly
he acceptable where natural gases such as methane and
radon are not present.
Preference should always he given to taking services up
and er the walls to avoid penetrating the basement
walls below ground. If holes are unavoidable, they must
he properly detailed. Details will vary according to the
category and size of the penetration and the waterproofing system being used. Figure 14 shows a typical
approach. The service itself must alsohe waterproofed
into the service penetration.
Because of the variationsbetweendifferent waterproofing systems and typeand form of service,they must
he discussed with the manufacturer and specific details
decided k)r the project in hand. Avoid using general
manufacturer'sdetails as theyare most unlikely to suit
every case.

Figure12: ContinLied
Discontinuitycan sometimes he acceptable, as Sllo\Vfl in
Figure where a masonry wall is detailed for use on a
sloping site. The detail could also he appropriate on a
free draining flat site. This is not a cavity drain system
(Type C) but in effect a Type A construction that can
intercept water finding its way through the outer leaf.
The Figure also shows the necessary ventilation of the
cavity, and aterproofing to the top of the retaining wall.
The detail is shown with the inner leaf tied to the outer
leaf. Where the cavity is to he the main intercept, with

rr

Aitemative o(
additional
hydrophilic strip
orcrystallisation
coafing

Waterproofing
membrane

Anyservicewithin
penetration will also
needto be sealed

Note:Service penetrations below ground should

Figure 14: Service penetrations through waterproofing

Selection procedure
To ensure that the risk of moisture penetration is kept to
an acceptably low level for the life of the structure, the
appropriate systems must be combined and considered
together. Having completed the investigation already
outlined, the design team should nowbe able to decide
the waterproofing strategy. Figure 15 is provided to help
in the selection process. However, it was shown at the
beginning that choosing and specifying a waterproofing
system is a specialised task. It is therefore most desirable
that the manufacturers of the likelysystems are contacted
early. Their expertise will help ensure success.

Guide to assessing basement designs

Figure 15 gives general guidance on the suitabilityof

various forms of construction under differingwater table
positions.
The broken lines represent the maximum acceptable risk
and therefore the minimum acceptable construction for

the prevailing water table. Constructionsto the right of

thebroken lines have progressivelylower risk, quantified
by the variation in depth of tint. A line running through
a box indicates a variable risk of acceptance and
unacceptance, depending on the prevailing soil conditions as learned from the site survey.
The position of the line within the box is an attempt to
further quantify the risk. For example, a Type A
construction with waterproofing in a low water table is
likely to provide an acceptable solution in many soils but
may be unsuitable or require additional drainage or
waterproofing in soils with particularlylow permeability.
At the extreme, the low permeability might cause a
temporary perched water table, so creating in effect a
variable water table or hydrostatic pressure on the wall.
Similarly, if a variable water table stays high for some
time, thus behaving like a permanently high water table,
a Type A construction with drainage might not be
acceptable without further upgrading. Such upgrading
could involve internal waterproofing or the creation of a
drained cavity.
An example of a degreeof upgrading of a Type A
construction is given in Figure 13 in which a conventional cavity wall provides a secondary means of defence
against water ingress, and would be effective under
certain ground/soil conditions (see Waterproofing details

on page 13).

The above shows the significanteffect that the water

table has on the selection process, and how, in consultation with the waterproofing manufacturers,it may he
possible to modify a basic construction to make it
suitable for a more severe situation.
A Grade 3 or Grade 4 environment can he achieved by
using a similarconstruction to that required for Grade 2,
hut with additional ventilationor dehumidification,the
costof which may be influenced by the initial type of
construction and the external soil conditions.

Figure 15: Design assessment guide to assessing designs for basements

17

Assessing risk

Ground conditions dictatc thc options available. The least

severe give the most options. while the most severe
leave the design team with very few. The severity falls
into three hasic categories according to the position of
the water table, although variations can occur within
them. If natural gases are present, specialist advice
should he sought.

Permanently lou' eater table

If the water table is permanently low, and there is no

significantrisk of percolating water building up a

hydrostatic head, then conditions are the least severe. In

this situation, the design team has an almost free hand to
choose the most appropriate form of construction and
waterproofing system.
With low-permeabilitysoils such as some clays, there is a
risk of'a perchedor variable water table - and therefore
of water pressure against the structure - unless adequate
drainage can he provided. Such drainage could, for
example. consist of land drains dischargingto the
downside on a sloping site.
An alternative would he a water-activatedsubmersible
sump-pump takenbelow the lowest slab level. This may
also he considered on a normally free-drainingsite to
cater for unexpected adverse conditions.
Where groundwater contains aggressive chemicals such
as sulfates, the choices are reduced to Type A or B
construction in consultation with the membrane nianufacturer. If Type A is used, the structure shouldhe tanked
with an external niembrane capable of resistingthe
aggressivechemical. With Type B. the concrete must
he able to withstand the aggressive chemicals. If in
doubt, consider applying a suitable external protective
membrane.

Variable eater table

If the site cannot he drained and the water table rises
occasionally,the severity is increased. Just howsevere
depends on how high and for how long the water table
rises. Generally. in these circumstances,only a Type B or
C construction can he considered to eany an acceptably
low level of risk.

When selecting a Type B construction, consider incorporating some form of waterstop in construction joints (see
Figure 2). If the water table remains high for long
periods, then a second, hack-up waterproofing system
could he considered. However, do not lose sight of the
fact that the water-resistantstructure must remain the first
line of defence against water penetration.
When a Type C construction is selected, the structure
must still to play'amajor role in keeping out water. If
moisture ingress is too rapid, the cavity is more likely to
he unable to copewith the water. In addition, the
method of getting the ingress water away plays an
important part in assessing the risk. If pumps or drains
fail, water is likely to enterthe basement.

If the groundwater contains aggressive chemicalssuch as

sulfates, a Type B construction should consist of a
suitably resistant concrete or have an appropriate
externally applied membrane. Type C construction
should include an externally applied membrane to
protect the structure.

Permanently high water table

If the water table is permanently above floor level, the
severity is increased. However, if a drainage system can
he installed to lower the water table permanently. the
severity is proportionally reduced, leaving the design
team with the same options as given above for Permanently Ion' u'atertable.
F-lowever, if there is any doubt about the long-term
effectivenessof the drainage system, the risk is increased
and the structure must he considered to he in a category
of either variable or permanently high water table.
In this, the most severe category, the nature of the risk is
the same as for a variable water table except that the risk
is higher. This is because the water exerts a permanent
pressure on the structure. To reduce risk, a hack-up
waterproofing system should always be considered.
All other factors discussed under Variable eater table

apply.

Glossary
Airdry

When the surface humidityof a material

is equal to that of the ambient
surroundingair

Combinedsystem

Two ormore waterproofingsystems

used together

Constructionjoint

joint formed in-situ,for example in

concrete, when continuity is not possible

Damp

The condition ofa material when wetter

than air dry

Damp-proof

Impervious to moisture, not permitting

Dampresistance

The abilityof a material to exclude

moistureto enter
moisture

Damp-resistant

Drainedcavity
Expansionjoint

Having a high resistanceto moisture

penetration
A continuous cavitywhich interceptsand

drainsawayincomingwater

Joint that permits relativemovement

caused byexpansion and contraction
due to changesof temperatureor
moisture

External
waterproofing

Where the waterproofingsystemis

positioned and placed against the
outside face of the main structure

External(reverse)
waterproofmg

Where the waterproofingis positioned

outside the mainstmcture hut placed
against the enablingworks

Free-draining

Ground through which freewaterrapidly

drains away

Highwater table

Where the watertable is above the

underside of the lowest floor level

Hydrostatichead

Water pressure, expressed as an

equivalent depthof water

Hydrostaticpressure The waterpressureexertedas a result of

a hydrostatichead

Integralprotection

Where the structure itself providesthe

necessaryprotection to the passage of
water

Kicker

Small concrete upstand. cast above floor

level to position wall or column

formworkforthe next lift
Kickerless

construction

A mechanicalmeans ofretaining
formwork in position, eliminatinga
kicker

Loading coat

A materialapplied tothe waterprocfing

membraneto enable it to resist
hydrostaticpressure

Low-permeability

Resistant to waterpenetration

Low water table

Where the watertable is permanently

belowthe underside ofthe lowest floor
level

Membrane

A materialwhich formsa continuous

effective barrierto the passage of
water

Moisture

Water in the form of vapour as well as

liquid

Perched water table Where, because ofinsufficient

permeabilityof the soil, percolating

wateris held above the underside ofthe

lowest floor level,resulting in
hydrostaticpressure

Protection layer

An element used to provide protection

to a waterproofingsystem

References
(1) BRITISH CEMENT ASSOCIATION. Optionsforquality in

housing.- Basements 1: - benefits, viabilityand costs.

Slough (now Crowthorne), British Cement
Association,1992. 37 pp. (Ref. C/lU).

(2) BRITISH CEMENTASSOCIATION & BRITISH STRtJCTIIRAL

WATERPROOFING ASSOCIATION. Basement

u'ateiproofing: Siteguide. BCA, Crowthorne, 1994.

20 pp. (Ref. 48.059)
(3) BUILDING RESEARCH [Link]
condensation andfabric degradation. BRE, Garston,
1992. Digest 369. 8 pp.
(4) BRITISH STANDARDSINSTITUTION. BS 5930 1981. Codeof
Practiceforsite [Link], BSI, 1981.
148 pp.
(5)JACKSON, N ANI) DHIR, R. (Editors) Civilengineering
materials. Basingstoke, Macmillan Education 4th Ed.,
1988. 429 pp.
(6) BtILDING RESEARCH [Link]:guidance
onprotective measuresfor neu'du'[Link],
Garston, 1991. BR211. 10 pp.

(7) DEPARTMENTOF THE ENVIRONMENTANI)THE [Link]

The Building Regulations1991. Approved
Document C. Sitepreparation andreslstance to
moisture. London, HMSO, 1991. 23 pp.
OFFICE.

Otherpublicationsrelatingto basement
structures
BRITISH STANDARDS
BS 8007: Codeofpracticefor design ofconcrete

structuresfor retaining aqueous liquids.

BS 8102: Codeofpracticeforprotection ofstructures

Sandwiched
waterproofing

Where the waterproofingsystemis

between the two non-tiedleaves of the
main structure

Vapourcheck

Acontinuous vapour-resistantlayer

BS 8301: Codeofpracticefor building drainage.

Vapourresistance

The abilityofa materialto resist vapour

penetration

NATIONAL [Link] COUNCIL.

Vapour-resistant

Excludeswater and has a high resistance

to vapour penetration

Variablewater table Where the water is occasionallyabove

the underside of the lowest floor level
Water

Waterin its liquid form

Waterstop

A product or system,placed in-situ, to

Waterproof

Imperviousto water, not permitting

water to penetrate

Waterproofing
system

prevent the passage ofwaterthrough a

discontinuityor joint in site-placed
concrete

The total method orcombinationof

materials used to create a waterproof
protection

Water-resistant

i-havinga high resistance to water

penetration

Watervapour

Waterin its gaseous form

against waterfrom theground.

BS 8110: Structural use ofconcrete. Part 1: Code of

practicefordesign and construction.

NHBC Standards.
Vol. 1. Parts 1-5. Amersham. NHBC, 1991.
Chapter 3.1 'Siting of dwellings' reviews items to he
taken into account when developing sites. Relevant areas

include waterlogging, retaining walls and ground

stability.

Chapter 4.1 'Foundations - finding the hazards' gives

guidance on the identification of hazardous site conditions which need to he considered (e.g. groundwater).
Chapter 5.1 'Substructureand ground-hearing floors'
includes guidance on habitable rooms wholly or partially
below ground level, masonry below DPC and tanking
materials.
Chapter 5.3 'Drainage below ground' includes guidance
on groundwater drainage.
ZURICH MUNICIPAL. Building guaranteetechnical manual.

Farnhorough, Zurich Municipal, 1994.

Section3 'Damp proofing' includes requirements and
guidance on subsoil drainage to prevent waerlogging.
and on the application of basement tanking.
Section 13. Clause 13.5 'Damp proofing' gives guidance
on the application of tanking to existing walls in basements.

19

i;r

wA

1*SIGN GUIDE

CI/SfB
I

BRITISH CEMENTASSOCIATION PUBLICATION48.058

BQ1

BritishCementAssociation

rilish
tructural
aterproofing
ssocialion

UDC
643.8 : 699.82