f. MANUEL = a = a > Unit 1 Unit 2 unit Unit 5 ' Contents PURPOSE OF tool desi TOOL DESIG objectives Yoo! design in manufacturing Planning the di Challenges to the tool designer Requirements to become a tool designer TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF JIGS AND FIXTURES Figs and fix ation of fixt SUPPORTING AND LOCATING PRINCIPLES. Reforencing Basic rules far Tocating Pianes of movement Locating the work CLAMPING AND WORKHOLDING PRINCIPLES Workholder Rusic rules of clamping Types of clamps Special clamping operations Clamping accessories BASIC CONSTRUCTION PRINCIPLES | bodies, rill bushings et blocks Fastening deviei Contents Unit 6 Unit 7 Unit 8 Unit 10 Unit 11 DESIGN ECONOMICS Design economy Comparative analysis DEVELOPING THE INITIAL DESIGN Predesign analysis Designing wround the human element Previous machining operations Developing tooling alternatives Notetaking TOOL DRAWINGS Tool drawings versus production drawings Simplified drawings Making the initial drawing tool drawings Metric versus English dimen Dimensioning ning Geo d tolerancing ric dimensioning Supplementary symbols Geometrically dimensioned and toleranced tool drawings TEMPLATE JIGS Template jigs Variations of templat Design procedures HELD AND PLATE FIXTURES. jeld fixtures ling a vise-heic Plate Designing a plate fixture Calculating n clamps PLATE JIGS Plate jigs Designing a plate jig Designing a table jig Designing a sandwich jig or a leaf jig ANGLEPLATE JIGS AND FIXTURES ‘Variations and applications Designing an angle-plate jig Designing an angle-piate fixture 93 o4 95 95 96 100 302 104 108 113 Hg 123 123 124 127Contents ii Unit 13. CHANNEL AND BOX JIGS 190 a antiel jigs 190 Designing « channel jig 192 x fas 195 Designing a box jig 197 Unit 14 VISEJAW JIGS AND FIXTURES 204 The machine vise 204 205 207 212 SPECIAL TYPES AND APPLICATIONS OF JIGS AND FIXTURES 219 8 Modular tooling 219 . for welding operations 223 cg Inspection fixtures 226 Q Power clamping 230 < Low-cost tooling 234 a Unit 16 TOOLING FOR NUMERICALLY CONTROLLED MACHINES 240 a Introduction 240 9 Basic NC operation 240 : The Cartesian coordinate system 241 Incremental and absolute programming 241 Types of N/C systems 243 ‘Tooling requirements for numerical control 244 Types of workholders 245 Unit 17 TOOL MATERIALS 251 Properties of too! materials 251 ~ Ferrous tool materials 253 ° Nonferrous too! materials 256 x Nonmetallic too! materials 261 < Designing with relation to heat treatment 262 S S APPENDIX 266 GLOSSARY 267 PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 275 e & INDEX 276 §Preface INTRODUCTION The world’s demand for manufactured goods is growing at a staggering rate. Industry has responded to this demand with many new and sometimes radical ways of producing products. Despite changes in cutting tools, machine tools, and produc- ion methods, there are some things that never seem to change. Every part being pro Juiced must be held while it is machined, whether on a simple drill press or a multiple axis computer numerically controlled machine tool. The part, not the process, is t primary consideration in workholding Just as no single machine tool will perform every required operation, noindividuat dig or fixture can possibly hold every part. However, each workholder variation docs have basic similarities to other types and styles of jigs and fixtures. The subject of this ¢ similarities amiong these tools, rather than the differences. This text helps the reader develop a thorough understanding and working knowledge of how and why figs and fixtures are designed and built as they are. To do this, the discussion starts ‘with the fundamentals of what jigs and fixtures are and works through the various elements and considerations of design Throughout the text, two fundamental tool design principles are constantly Stressed: simplicity and economy. To We eflective, a workholder must seve money in production. To this end the construction of the tool must be as cost effective as possi- Ble while ensuring that the tool has the capacity to perform all of the intended functions. ORGANIZATION OF CONTENT The three-part approach of cach unit is directed toward making the material Ganderstandable and logical: (1) The introduction phase presents the basic concepts, ind fundamentals, (2) The explanation phase describes the particular technique nas they apply to each type of workholder, (3) The unit end IEeelicarions réquice the reader to apply the lessons learned by solving problems in toot IBesen. The reader becomes familiar with working with part drawings and production IPiaes showing the sequencing of operations in the shop. Fhe seventeen units of this text aro divided into four major sections, ‘The first Section (units 1-5) gives the reader an overview of the basic types and functions of jigs fi weil as 9 detailed description of the way these workholders are designed ader learns the basic elements of supporting, locating, and clampingPreface ix the part and then is introduced to the basic principles of workholder construction. ‘This section provides the background information for the more advanced study jater in” the text. The second section (units 6-8) introduces the reader to the primary considera- tions of design economies and the basic methods used to initiete and prepare the design drawings. In keeping with the worldwide standard of measurement and modem dra ing practices, the SI system (International System of Units) is introduced and explained. ‘The process of Geometric Dimensioning and Toletancing is also presented; many manu facturing drawings in industry use this system of dimensioning, and the reader should be comfortable with its basic principles. ‘The thind section (units 9-14) introduces and explains the processes involved in designing and constructing the basic types and forms of jigs and fixtures. From simple nplate and piate-type workholders to more detaited and complex channel and box- type tooling, each basie style is thoroughly explained and illustrated The final section (units 15-17) covers the emerging technologies in manufacturing as they relate to jig and fixture design. From modular component workholders and ‘ough the basic principles of power clamping and numerical control, low-cost tooling, t this section introduces and explores the tooling technology that will service industry requirements for ye: of commonly used materials an to come. Finally, a unit on to ling materials covers the proper: the effects of these properties and heat treat- ‘nt on workholder desi A plossary is provided for ready ref the terminology of workholder design. e and as an aid to the reader in mastering FEATURES ‘The features of this new edition are: © Easy-to-read presentation with numerous showing the ¥: lustrations and many new photographs iety of tools and workholders available and typical applic have been updated to the requirements of the ANSI Y14.5M-1982 dimensioning standard. © Drawings + A discussion of geometric dimensioning and tolerancing has been added to intro- duce the basic principles. Numerous examples are included, as well as applica tions in the review portion of the unit, + Expanded information on tooling for numerically controlled machines. * New information on low-cost to and one-of-a-kind machining ling useful for reduced quantity production runs + New information on modular tooling where lable tooling can commercially a be adapted and modified to meet a number of requirements * Metric dimensioning is used on approximately 20% of the part drawings * A mew glossary is provided for quick referenice to new terminology. An Instinctor’s Guide accompanies the text. ‘Tike guide contains the answers to the reviews at the end of each unit of the text.x Preface ABOUT THE AUTHOR Edward G. Hoffman has over 20 ig and industrial experience, includ- ing positions as both # journeyman toolmaker and tool engineer. He is currently President of Hoffman & Associates, an engineering consulting firm based in Colorado Springs, Colorado. Mr. Hoffman is a tool engineering consultant, technical writer, editor, and lecturer. He lias wsitten 12 books on tool and manufacturing engineering. subjects and is a member of the Society of Manufacturing Engineers Too} Engineering council and serves as a consultant to the Task Force on the Skilled Trades Shortage. He is a Certified Manufacturing in Tool Engineering and a Certified Advance Metrication Specialist ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Instructors who reviewed the revised manuscript are. Rayimond Czernek, uh Technical Institute, Pittsburgh, PA William E. Lucas, Testa Technica! College, Fremont, OH ey Long, Chabot Collene, Hayward, CA Poter Q, Mathews, Atluines College, Cambridge Springs, PA th following instructors shared recommendations for the revision. N. Keith Palimiter, Alfred State College, Wellsville, NY Vincent J. Lecce, New York City Technical College, NY, NY Richard Svoboda, Muskegon Comimunity College, Muskegon, MI John Crawford, Muskegon Community College, Muskegon, ML Fred Kabel, Indiana Vocational Technical College, South Bend, IN John D. Faircloth, Central Carolina Technical College, Sanford, NC Gerald J. Norman, Oregon institute of Technology, Klamath Falls, OR Stove linycke, Lake Michigan College, Benton Harbor, MI RM. Holcombe, Asheville Buncombe Technical Institute, Ashevill James C. Meide, Hennepin Technical Centers, Brooklyn Park, MN Joseph R. Rieger, Rochester Tool, Die & Precision Machining Institute, Rochester, NY Don W. Alexander, Wytheville Community Collége, Wytheville, VA R.K, Amold, Eastern Montgomery County Area Vocational Technical Schoot, Willow Grove, Pa, Will Unger, YMCA Night School, York, PA Neunit 1: Purpose of Tool Design ogsectives After completing this © ist the obj * identify the si TOOL DESIGN Toot design is rocess of designing ig the 160ls, methodsyand tech niques necessary ta improve and develop! nanufacturing efficiency and productivity. 1 gives industry the machines and special tooling needed for todiy’s high-speed, high-volume production, It does this at a level of quality and econ my which will insure that th’ cost of the produet is competitive. Since no single tool 1 OF process can serve all forms of manufacturing, tool a A is an ever changing, growing process Of creative problem solving, TOOL DESIGN OBJECTIVES The main objective of tool design is to lower manufacturing costs while maintaining Guality and increased production. To accom Plish this, the tool designer must satisfy the following objectives * Provide simple, casy to operate took maximus effi © Reduce manufacts 1s expenses by pro: ducing parts at the lowest possible cost. * Design tools which consistently produce arts of high quatity 'S unit, the student will be able to ives of tool design, ice Of specified design data, * Increase the rate of production with ex- isting machine tools * Design the tool to make it foolproof and to-prevent improper ise, * Sclect materiats which will give adequate tool life * Provide protection in the design of the tools for maximum safety of the operator. TOOL DESIGN IN MANUFACTURING As an important part of manufacturing, {ool design eceupies a position between prod. tet design and product production. Kirst, the need for a product is determined. Then, the drawings and specifications are developed ‘The product designers forward this informa. ion to. the process planning engineer, The Process planning engineer, working closely with the product designers and the tool de- Signets, plans the methods which will be used to produce the part Occasionally, the product designer eS OF modifies « design to simplify or Speedup production. Normally, the product designer sets the production rate, the part design, and chooses the machine tool. chan,2 Unit t Purpose of Too! Design Deadlines are scheduled and 2 budget is set yp. The tool designer must plan within eis framework. PLANNING THE DESIGN The amount of planning in a toofs design greatly affects This is an orderly process. All of the in ications pertaining to the proposed product ure evaluated, so the most ificient and cost-effective tool design can be selected. “Tamm Mis pS, THE tool designer carefully studies the p must understand the part and the manufac Part Drawings The tool designer receives a duplicate of h will be used to make part, figure 1-1. When analyzing the part the tool designer must consider sev- neral factors which directly influence the v drawiny art drawing whi e design choices, These factors are © overall size and shape of the part. © type and condition of the material used for the pa * type of machining operation to be * deptee of accuracy required, + number of pieces to be made * focuting and clamping surl BEST MACHINE Co, Baltimore Maryiong ["Suive stop [rawnor —[onecnae av: Tarenoves | nor [Bae jaar SHE 4120Unit 1 Purpese of Tool Design 3 GEST WACHINE COMPANY atinore, MerHend : PART 4 GOTST PART NAME ode Ston ‘QuaNTITY 7600 ORDER Taree OWS #D-5O7S1 PROCESS PLANNER “REVISION # Poge tof t| < Re. Tucker Dare ne DESCRIPTION oer. [ache Toor f “Ta ‘Rbrasive 1. | Galette Ges 500 ek lo 1.90 long att ew utort am. | SuBht S ere het cae 60 bri ross #66 Dr Press er ses | Del rex — 2 ie riz eee oe s ori, mi «7 Tunoier 5. | Oeburr Finishing #7-1053 | onngsgAtnas ona cng foe fone 1" | Ieisss | 6. | Faceiving gauge (1) #1-5079-3 | Segue ah siSoricve aves 4. | si miting eaters (23 sngoou | Sate Counterbore with pits a x sig er Ee sie 2.| on ver care) 28 ay Bf foeet wren ee Tae = Tool beSeRIPTION size [rec roo Fig, 1.2 Production plan4 Unit 1 Purpose of Toa! Design Production Pian The production plan, figure 1-2, is an itemized list of the manufacturing opera- tions and the sequence of the operations chosen by the process planning cngincer. The production plan can take many forms, depend- ing on the needs of each company. At the east, it should include a brief description of each machining operation and the machine tool designated for these operations. The tool designer also uses this plan to assist in the design. The production plan can include the following * Type and size of machine toot specified for each operation Type and size of cutters specified for cach operation. Sequence of operations Previous machining operations performed on the part. hy addition to the part drawing and pro- duction plan, the too! designer is informed of the amount of time and money which is available to spend on the design, Using this information, a little ereativity and experience, the tool designer begins to study the design alternatives. Alternatives One of the first steps in problem solving is determining the alternative solutions, ‘The same process is used in tool design to insure the best method is chosen. During this phase of the design, the tool designer must analyze all important information in order to answer the following questions: * Should special tooling be used oF exist- ing equipment modified? Should multiple spindie or single-spindie machines be used? Should the tool be single or multi purpose? the savings justify the cost of the What type of gauge, if any, should be used to check each operation? Answering these questions, and others related to the specific task, the tool designer develops ultemative solutions. From these alternative solutions, the most efficient, dependable, and costeffective design is chosen. CHALLENGES TO THE TOOL DESIGNER The tool designer has many manu- facturing responsibilities. In addition to technical design duties, the tool “designer may be responsible for obtaining materials, toolroom supervision, and tool inspection. The tool designer should understand the extent of these additional duties, Design In this phase, the tool designer is re- sponsible for developing the drawings and sketches of the tool design ideas. Design drawings are usually subject to approval by a chief designer, However, in stnaller companies, the tool designer quite often mukes the tooling decistons. Supervision ‘The extent of a tool designer's super- vision is normally determined by the size of the company, figure 1-3. Supervision for a single section, such as design or tool- making, or for the entire tooling department, may become the tool designer’s responsibility. In either case, the ability to lead others is heiptul. Procurement Often a tool designer is responsible for obtaining the materials to make the tool Jn these situations, the tool designer normallyFig. 13 A typical tool design department relies on vendors or salespeople to supply materials and parts which meet the design specifications. When selecting a vendor, a 200d practice is to choose the company which offers the most service to its customers Services, such us design assistance and prob- Jem solving, where their product is involved, are important factors to consider before making a final election, Auother point to con. sider is whether or not the vendor can supply special parts or components when necessary Generally, the speciaity vendors can furnish special items for much less than they cost to make in-house. Since most specialty vendors Offer these services, the decision should be made on a bas ch vendlor can meet the 's needs in the most timely, efficient, pendable manre tnspection Many times the tool designer is required to inspect the finished toot to insure that it meets speci This inspection, or functional tryout, is normally conducted in two phases. First, the tool itself is inspected ications REVIEW for compliance with the tool drawing, Second, the parts produced are carefully checked to assure they conform to part specifications. After the tool has been tumed over to the production department, tie tool designer should make periodic checks during production to insure the specified tolerances intained, figure 1-4, REQUIREMENTS TO BECOME A TOOL DESIGNER in order to perform the functions of a tool designer, an individual must have the fol- lowing skills * The ability to make mechanical draw- ings and sketches, © An understanding of modern manufac- turing methods, tools, and techniques. vo A * An understanding of basic tooimaking methods, ative mechanical ability. * A knowledge of technical mathematics through practical trigonometry. L._ List the seven objectives of tool design. ine the source of the following data by indicating # 1 for the # 2 for the production plan, and # 3 for additional 2> & Unit 1 Purpase of Tool Design Time allocation Overall size and shape of the part Required accuracy Sequence of operations Type and sie of machines used Money available Number of piev Previous machining Locating surfac Material specifications Type of cutters needed Type of machining required} unit 2: Types and Functions of Jigs and Fixtures OBJECTIVES After completing this unit, the student will be able to * identify the classes of jigs and fixtures. # identity the types of jigs and fixtures, © choose a class and type of jig or fixture for selected ‘operations on sample parts, JIGS AND FIXTURES Jigs and fixtures are production tools used to manufacture duplicate parts agcut rately.¢ The correct relationship and align- ment between the tool and the work must be maintained. To do this, a jie or fixture is esigned and built to held, support, and locate every part to insure that cach is drilled or machined within the specified limits. wi DRILL BUSHING Jigs and fixtures are so closely related that the terms are sometimes confused or used interchangeably. The difference is the way the tool is guided to the workpiece. A Jig is a special device which holds; s- ports, or is placed on a part to be inachined,’ It is a production tooi mace so. that it ndt only locates and holds the workpiece, bit also guides the cutting tool as the operation FIXTURE SET BLOCK REFERENCE EDGES FOR FEELER GAUGE 5 8 Fig. 21. Roferencing the toot to the workSEB Ueit2 Types and Functions of Jigs and Fixtures is performed. Jigs are usually fitted with hardened steel bushings for guiding drills or other cutting tools, figure 2-1. As a rule, small jigs are no ed to the drill press table. If, however, holes ubove 25 inch in diameter are {0 be diilled, it is usually necessary to fasten the jig securely to the table. ‘A fixture is a production tool that lo- cates, holds and supports the work securely so the required inachining operations can performed. Set blocks and fecler gauges are used with fixtures to reference the cutter to BORING TOOL~__ Fig. 22 Boring ig DRILL REAM the workpiece, figure 2-4B. A fixture should be securcly fastened to the table of the machine upon which the work is done. Though largely uused_on milling machines, fixtures are also designed to hold work for various operations ‘on most of the standard machine tools. Fixtures vary in design from relatively simple tools to expensive, complicated de- vices, Fixtures also help to simplify metal- working operations performed on special equipment. TYPES OF JIGS Jigs may be ‘divided into two general classes, boring jigs and drill jigs.” Boring figs are used to bore holes which are either too large to drill or must be made an odd size, figure 2-2. Drill jigs are use to drill, ream, tap, chamfer, counterbore, bunter sink, reverse spotface, or reverse counter- sink, figure 2-3. The basic jig is almost the same for cither machining operation. The only difference is the size of the bushings used. Drill jigs may be divided into two genera! types, open and closed, Open jigs are for simiple operations where work is done on only “one side of the part. Glosed or box jigs are TAP GNAMFER COUNTERBORE COUNTERSINK REVERSE ‘COUNTERSINK REVERSE SPOTFACE, Fig, 23 Operations common to a dsl jiget “alien ak used for parts which snust be machined a more than one side, The names used to identify these jigs refer to the way the tool is built. Template jigs are normally used #for accuracy rather than Speed. This typefot Jig fits over, on, of into the work and 45 not! usually clamped,’figure 2-4. ‘Templates are the least expensive and simplest type of Jig to use, They may or may not have bush- ings. When bushings are not used, the whole dig plate is normally hardened. Unit 2. Types and Funetions of Jigt and Fixtures 8 Plate jigs are similar to templates, figure 2-5. The only difference is that plate jigs have built-in clamps to hold the work, These figs can also be made with or without bushings, ~ depending on the number of parts to be made. Plate jigs are sometimes made with legs to taise the jig off the table for targe work. This style is called @ table jig, figure 2-6. Sandwich jigs are a form of plate jig with back plate, figure 2-7. This tyre of jig is ‘deal for thin of soft parts which conld bend or warp in another style of jig. Here again,40 Unit 2 Types end Functions of Jigs and Fixtures Fig, 26 Table jigUnit 2 Types and Funetions of Jigs and Fixtures 14 BACK PLaTE VICK-ACTING KNOB Fig. 28 Angleplate jig the use of bushings is determined by the number of parts to be made. could bend or warp in anather style of jig, Here again, the use of bushings is determined By the number of parts to be made Angle-plate jixs-are used to hold parts Which are machined at right angles to their Mounting locators, figure 2-8, Pulleys, cok fats, and gears are some of the parts which use / : / [=—Locarns PINS REMOVABLE Ta" BUSHING Fig. 29 Modified anote-piate fig this type of jig. A variation of this jig is the modified angle-plate jig. ‘This sig is used for machining angles other than 90. degrees, figure 2-9. Box jigs, ot tumble jigs, usually totally suiround the part, figure 2-10. Thisstyle of jig allows the part to be completely machined on every surface without repositioning the work in the jig.80x wig (SiNF REMOVER) Fig. 210 Box or tummbie jig Chanstel jigs are the simplest form of box Jig, figure 2-11, The work is held between two sides and machined from the third. In some cases, where jig feet are used, the work can be machined on three sides. Leaf jigs are small box.jigs with a hinged leaf to allow for easier loading and unloading, figure 2-12. The main differences between leaf and box jigs are size and part location. Leaf jigs are normally smalter than box jigs Sometimes they are made sa that they do not completely surround the part. Leaf jigs are usually equipped with a handle for easier movement We Indexing are used to accurately space holes or other machined arcas around @ part. Fo do this, the jig uses either the part itself or a reference plite and a plunger, igure 2-13. Larger indexing jigs are called rotary jigs Trunnion jigs are a form of rotary jig for very large or odd-shaped parts, figure 2-14, The part is first put into a box-type carrier and then loaded on the trunnion. This jig is well suiled for large, heavy parts which must be machined with several separate plate-type jigs Pump fies are commercially. made jigs which must be adupted by the user, figure 245. The leveractivated plate makes this tool very fast to load and unload. Since the too} is already made and only needs to be modified, a great deal of time is saved by using this fia Multistatton jigs are made in any of the forms already discussed, figure 2-16. The main feature of this jig is the way it locates the work. While one part is drilled, another can be reamed, and a third counterbored. The final station is used for unloading the finished parts and loading fresh parts. This Jig is commonly , used on multiple-spindle machines. It could also work on single- spindle models.Unit 2 Types and Functions of Jigs and Fixtures 13 paerearone rm SPRING PLUNGER: Fig, 242 Leat jig ourection J OF ROTATION Fig. 243 Indexing tig“14 Unit 2 Types and Functions of Jigs and Fixtures TRUNNION Fig. 248 Pump jig There are several other jigs that are sombinations of the types described, These complex jigs are often so specialized they Gamnot be classified. Regardless of the jig selected, it must suit the part, perform the INDEXING Fig, 214 Trunnion jig operation accurately, und be simple and safe to operate, TYPES OF FIXTURES ‘The names used to describe the various types of fixtures are determined mainly by how the tool is built. Jigs and fixtures are made basically the same way, as far as lo- cators and positioners are concerned. The main construction. differenc fo the increased tool forces, fixtures are built and heavier than a jig would be for ye part Piate fixtures are the simplest form of fixture, figure 2-17. The basic fixture is made from a flat plete which has a variety of clamps and locators to hold and locate the part. The simplicity of this fixture makes it useful for most machining operations. Its adaptability makes it a popular type of fixture, The angle-plate fixture is a variation of the plate fixture, figure 2-18, With this tool, is-mass. DueKNURLED nor] E Fig. 2-18 Angle-piate fixture LT mock Fig. 2.19 Modified angle plate fixture saws PorsteD, "70 Fit PART e i‘ es baz) (TE Oe Fig, 220 Vise jaw fixtureUnit 2 Types and Functions of Jigs and Fixtures 17 the part is normaily machined at a right angle to its locator. While most angle-plate fixtures are made at 90 degrees, there ase time other angles are needed. In these moditied ye) Figure 2-19, tool, the standard vise jaws are replaced with ‘ws which are formed to fit the part, Vise w fixtures are the least expensive type of i Fixture to make. Their use is limited only by the sizes of the vises available. | “Indexing foctures are very similar to in- } dexing jigs, figure 2-21. These fixtures are used for machining parts which must have ses, a late fixture can be used, Vise-jaw fixtures are used for machining small parts, figure 2-20. With this type of ft atieeres GA aia INDEXING — | PLUNGER JrINDEXING PLUNGER PLUNGER) 24 HOLE CIRCLE BINDER KNOB Lock KNoa— SECTION A-A Fig. 221 indexing fixture HEXAGON square GEAR SPLINE evways Fig. 2-22 Parts machined with an indaxing fixture18 Unit 2 Types and Functions of Jigs and Fixtures machined details evenly’ spaved, “The parts shown in figure 2-22 ure examples of the uses of an indexing fixture ion fixtures axe used primarily speed, high-volume production runs where the machining eycle must finaous, Bayley sivtures are the sin form of multistation fixture, using two. stitions, figure 223. This form of fixture allows the Joading and unlosding operations to be while the machining operation is in progress. For ex- mple, once the muchining operation is complete at station one, the tool is revolved und the cycle repeated at station two, At the same time, the part is unloaded at station one and a fresh part loaded Profiling fixtures ane used to wide tools for machining contours which the machine cannot normally follow. These contours can be cither internal cr external, Since the fixture continuously contacts the tool, an incorrectly cut shape is almost impossible, The operation in figure 2-24 shows how the cam is accurately cut by maintaining tact between the fixture and the bearing on the milling cutter This bearing is an important part of the tool and must al NOE XING yr PLUNGER fe >| Fig, 2.23 Duplex firture CLASSIFICATION OF FIXTURES Fixtures are normally classified by the type of on whieh they are used Fixtures can also be identified by a sub- For example, if a fixture is designed to be used on a milling machine, it is called a mitfing fixture, WC the task it is intended to perform is straddle milling, it is called 2 straddlesnilting fixture, ‘The same principle applies to a lathe fixture which is designed to machine radii. It is Hed a larhe-radius fixture. The following is a partial list of pro- duction operations that use fixtures. Assembling Lapping Boring Milling Broaching Planing Dritting Sawing, Forming Shaping Gauging Stamping Grinding Tapp Heat treating Testing Honing Turning Inspecting Weldin BALL PROFILING FIXTURE: BEARING pant —a cE] Fig. 224 Profiling fixture END MILEUnit 2. Types and Functions of Jigs and Fixtures REVIEW 6, What is the difference between a jig and How are figs and fixture What are set block What class of jig would normally Analyze the following part drawings and and s A. * fixtin homally identified? for c used t0 tap holes? gang-milling fixture is actually what class of tool? peratior performed, 4 ihe best jig or fixture for each, Figure 2.25 Operation: Milla stot .250 inch by .250 inch, 1, Box fixture 2. Plate fixture 3. Visejaw fixture Fivure Operation: Drill four holes, .500 inch in diameter. 1. Plate jig 2. Angle-plate jig 3. Channel jig AnOLES: Fig. 2-28 920. Unit 2 Types and Functions of Jigs und Fixtures C. Figure 2-27 Operation: Drill four hoies, two 375 inch; two .094 inch, 1. Channel jig 2. Plate jig 3. Box jie 378 2HOLES 3 sco pas 2 094- D. Figure 2-28. Operation: Drill four holes, 312 inch in diameter 1. Box jie 2. Angie-plate j 3, Template jig O32 Spots £0 SP ON Da.625 0.6 aUnit 2 Types and Functions of Jigs and Fixtures 21 E. Figure 2.29, Operation: Mill shoulder .750 inch by .750 inch by .375 inch. 1. Plate fixture 2. Angle-plate fixture 3. Indexing fixture 2 378 | 315 \ raver see | fig, 220unit 3: Supporting and. Locating Principles OBJECTIVES After completing this unit, the student will be able to: = identify the types of locators and supports used for jigs and fixtures, specify the us = analyze sample parts and pest suited for each REFERENCING To insure precis amy machinin, ition, the work “properly posi This is called sired _acewracy with respect to the t Jocated and rigidiy-s properly positionin, t-make sure that ial_is_easily cators, is suuition t joaded unloaded. Locators must also make prook Linde i gained if the parts take (oo long {0 load or untoad, oF if they are The tool designe support part designed properly, Hey can serve as supports acerrectly put into the tool st atso provide rigid If the part locators are jement of & part and 4d. properly require Fanning. Part locators should never J as an afterthought 9 locators and supports. Jeet the loeating and supporting devices designer must keep the following points in mind while designing the tool © positioning the locators © part tolerance * foolproofing Positioning the Locators Whenever locators _should machined sur ment of possibte, ‘ways contact the work fee. This permits aveur: jool and insures the repeat ability of the jig or fixture Repeatability is the feature of the tool which allows dif ferent parts to be machined consistently the save within their required tolerances Accurate location is an important clement in the repeatability of any tool. the part in thi Locators should be spaced as far apart This permits ‘the use of fewer locators and insures complete contact over Where chips or foreign matter may become a problem, the locators should be placed to avoid this interference. If this is not possible, the locators should be relieved, figure 31 as possible. the locating surface.~} Tolerance When designing a tool Keep the part tolerance in m the tool toleran; percent toleranee, and 50 y For example, if © should be between UnitS Supporting and Locating Principles 23 cost of the tool and adds litle to the quality the designer must of the patt, Ger rind. Asageneral 50 percent do not guarantee the desired precision. single factor that should determine this decision is the specified Recuracy of the part being machined, ent of the part a hole ina part must he located within #010 inches, then the Focators must be designed to fit the pagans of the hotein thejig mustbe between part at any size withiy the part limits, If the £002 inches and 4005 inches, figure 3-2. part shown This is necessary to maint precision, Specifying tool than 20 percent only serves | PART £000 #010 fa n figure 3-3 were made at its smallest allowable size, it would be 1.240 inches in diameter. If it were made to its ‘atest size, the diameter would be 1.260 fain the required tolerances closer to increase the SECTION 4 ~ f FROM .562.008 562 010 10.562 4.002 7 Fig. 3-2 Tolerance mnerally, tolerances greater than ”= 24 Unit’3. Supporting and Locating Principles MINIMUM SIZE ‘@Bi240 Icw MAXIMUM SIZE TOOL SIZE 1.260 INCH 1.260 IncH DESIGN SIZE aligee 0 Tc TOOL SIZE TO SUIT LARGEST VARIATIONS IN PART SIZES POSSIBLE SIZE OF PART Pig. 3:3 Part and too! size relationship inches. Any parts made within these sizes are Feotproofing correct. If the tool is made to fit the part at ookgobfing -it“anmeatmthe, tool ide- its design size of 1.250 inches, the parts signer uses to insure that the part will fit into between 1.250 inches and 1.260 inches, while the tool only in its correct position. The part correct, will not fit into the tool. To prevent jn. figure 3-4A must be machined on the this, the tool must be made to Ht the parts tapered end, so the tool designer includes at their largest or smallest limits of size, de. pin to prevent the part from being loaded pending on how the part is located. incorrectly. This pin foolproofs the tool, LOCATOR Locator FOOLPRCOFING FOOLPROOFING PIN PART PIN CORRECT LOADING INCORRECT LOADING FOOLPROOFING PIN O° —REQUIRED HOLE of C)d4o ett LAL LANES LOCATING PIN 8 Fig. 34 FoolprootingUnit 3 Supporting and Locating Principles 25 REFERENCE: SURFACE Fig. 35 Duplicate locators ‘The part in figure 3-4B shows a hole which Must be drilled with reference to the holes in the flange. A simple pin placed in oné of these holes makes it impossible to load the tool incorrectly, Other foolproofing devices are just as simple. If the foolprooting devices are not simple, they tend to complicate an othere wise easy task Duplicate Locators The use of duplicate locators should always be avoided. The locators in figure +5 are examples of duplicate locators, Locator duplication not onty costs more, but it could cause inaccuracis For example, the flange in figure 3-5A is located on both the underside of the flange DUPLICATE Locators PART and the bottom of the hub. Since these are Parallel surfaces, only one is needed and the other should be eliminated. If the reference Surface is the flange, as in figure 3-5B, the hub locator is not necessary. If the hub is the reference surface, as in figure 3-C, then the flange locator is unnecessary, To correct this, the tool designer must first determine which surface is to be referenced. Only then should the locators for tltat surface be specified. Locational inaccuracies develop because Of the difference in position and location tolerances between the tool and the work, figure 3-6. Locating the part from both ite Outside edge and the holes can create Problems. First, the location of the pins in the tool is fixed and cannot be changed to Qo 375 FIXED POSITION OF LOCATORS he 378 +.005 VARIABLE POSITION OF HOLES Fis. 36 Position and locational difforences<= 28. Unit 3 Supporting and Locating Principles suit each part. Second, the location of the holes in the part is variable within limits. When a part is placed in the tool which is at either extreme of the part tolerance, it To climimte this possibility, the hole locator can be made smaller to may not fit accommodate the variation, If this is done, the effectiveness of the hole locator is mini- mized, the To. avoid this problem, the must specify whether 0: be located fiom its holes or edges, never both. focator becomes useless tool designer not the part is to > PLANES OF MOVEMENT An unrestricted obje. any of tw shows an object with dhree axes, or planes, 1 is free to move possible directions. Figure 3 along which movement may ‘occur. An object is free to revolve around or move parallel to any axis in either direction. To visualize this, the planes have been marked EXT YN” and “LAF. The Fig 3-7 Planes of movement Restricting Movement fn order to accurately locate a part in a jig or fixture, movements must be restricted. This is done with locators and clamps. The fixture for the part in figure 3-8 illustrates. this principle of restricting move- ment. By placing the part on a three-pin hase, five directions of movement (#2, #5, #1, #4, and #12) are’ restricted, figure 3.9. Using pin or button type locators ininimizes the chance of error by limiting the area of contact and raising the part above the chips, Flat bases may also be used, but these should be installed rather than machined into the base, Installed locators are less expensive to use because they take less time to install and are replaceable. If button or fiat locators are used, the most portant consideration is keeping the part above the chips and in constant coritact with all three locators, To restrict the movement of the part around the "Z-2" axis and in direction #8, two more pin-type locators are posi- figure 3-10 To restrict direction #7, 1 single-pin locator is used, figure 3-11 The remaining directions, #9, #10, #11, are restricted by using a clamping device. This 3-2-1, er 6-point, locating method is the most ‘commion external locator for square or rectan- gular parts. Fig. 36 Adjusting blockUnit 3 Supporting and Locating Principles 27 Fig. 29 Three-pin base restricts five directions of movament. LOCATING THE WORK Parts are made in almost every possible shape and size. The tool designer must be able fo accurately locate each part, regardless of how it is made. “Fo do this, the tool designer must know the various types of lo- cators and how each should be used to get ‘che best part placement with the least number 0f locators, Locating from a Flat Surface There are three primary: methods of lo: solid sup- and equalizing cating work from a flat surface Poris, adjustable supports,Fig. 9:11 Sixcpin base restricts nine directions of movement, supports. These loc: the vertical position of the part, support the part, and prevent distortion during the machining ‘operation. ~ Solid supports ate the easiest 10 They can e hase or installed, figure 3-12 her be machined into the tool This iype of support is normally used when 1 machined ¢ acts as.a locating point ~ Adjustable supports are used when the paigh or uneven, stich as in east paris, There are many styles of adjustable ;-CARBIDE INSERT are the threaded, figure 3-13; spring, figure $138: and the push type, figure 3-13C. The threaded style is the easiest, most eco- nomical, und has a larger adjustment range nthe others, Adjustable locators are normally used with one or more solid locators to allow any adjustment needed to the work. — Equalizing supports, figure 3-44, are also a form of adjustable support. They provide eqital support through two connected contact points, As one point is depressed, the other raises and maintains contact with the part Sy SS Fig. 3:12 Safid supports3 Supporting and Locating Principies 29 STATIONARY MOVABLE __ Lock nur—, Lock Lock nur / SoREW ‘OPTIONAL BASE CAN BE 2 PRESSED INTO TOOL BODY AVAILABLE WITH OR WITHOUT. AOUUSTING SCREW Fig. 3138 Adjustabie supports, spring type30 Unit Supporting and Locating Principies / CONTACT POINTS. _-— CONTACT POINTS: PivoT POINT Fig. 3.14 Equélizing supports This feature is especially necessary on uneven cast surf —— The Jocators and supports are used interchangeably when discussing the evices used under a workpiece. The locating dlovices used to referey sof a part are galked Focators oF steps = Belore face of the part amd the type of clampi levice to be used, The support i must strong chongh fo resist both the clamping pressitre and the cutting forces. The clamps should be positioned directly over the sup Ports to avoid distorting or bending the part Locating from an Internal Diameter Locating a part from a hole or pattern is the most effective way to accurately position work. Nine of the twelve directions of move- ment are restricted by using.a sin fen ase restricted with two pins. When possible, it is logical Lo use holes as primary pin, and part locators. Several types of locators are used for iocating work from holes, Figure 3-15 shows q pes used for lange holes.! When large internal lo- Under holes locate the wark, fasten cator with both screws and dow normal conditions, two dowels and two Fig. 3.15, Internat locatorsUnit 3 Sunporting and Locsting Principles at ROG: nucier pan + FA { REGULAR CONICAL seem! 1 J RX Xi RGWy AS Fig. 318 serews are needed to hold the jocator. With re force, it is better to use larger dowels and screws rather than increase their number. With shank-rype locator’, it is a good Practice to use the press fit rather than the threaded locator for accuracy. Threaded locators are useful in areas where the con- struction of the too! will not permit the other type to be pressed out.. Another type has the advantayes of the press fit and the locking, properties of a thread. Pin-type locators are used for smaller holes and for aligning figure 3-16, for members of the tool, When the pins are used for TAPERED Of aULLET RouND NL, contact |p “area Fig. 3.47 ound and tapered tocators PART MOVEMENT ARRESTED WITH RELIEVED PIN ROUND Locavor’ © we Jocators and bushings alignment, special bushings should. also be used so they can be replaced when they wear. Pins used for part location are made with either tapered or rounded eas, figure 3-17, allowing the parts to be installed and removed easily The main difference between the pins used for location and pins used for alignment is the amount of bearing surface. Alignment pins usually have a longer area of contact. Locating pins usually have a contact area of 1/8 to 1/2 of the part thickness. More than this makes placement and removal operations, difficult Another style of pin commen to jigs and This pin is normally used atong with the round type to reduce the time it takes to load and unload the tool. His a part on one round and one diamond pin than to Hixtures is the diamond of relivved pin, casier to Hoeat toe: use, the round pin locates the part and the diamond pin prevents the around the pin, figure 2-18. Notice the direction of e+ DIAMOND OR RELIEVED LOCATOR fe it on Gwe round pins. suovement RELIEVED LOCATOR Fig. 3418 Locating with one relieved lorator= 32. Unie3 Supporting and Locating Principles movement the part has arourtd the round pin, By installing the diamond pin as shown, this movement is restricted To be effective, the diamond pin must always be placed to resist this movement Figure 3-19 shows how two diamond. pins could be used to locate a part, Not each restricts the direction of movement of the other. Two diamond pins should be used to locate a ps ce how t when the part has ad locational toferance. When locators must be made for a part, carefully Since both accuracy and speed are import Several the tool designer must plan them the locators are designed accordingly types of locators, which reduce the friction and jamming common to other types. of locators, are shown in figure 3-20. o> Locating from an External Profile Locating work from an external profil or outside edge, is the most common met of locating work in the early 5 Profile lution to an outside e ages of mach: work or the outside of a detail, such as a hub or boss, fok © © Fig. 319 Locating with tia relieved locators ining. locators. pasition the PART lowing are examples of the most common Ways a part can be focated from its profile. ~ Nesting locators position a part by enclosing it in a depression, or recess, of the same shape as the part. Nesting is the most acctitate form of locating device for profile location. Since the nest must conform to the shape of the part, nests are very expensive to design for complicated shapes. The most common type of nest is the ring nest, which cylindrical profiles, is normally used for figure 3-21. The fuif nest completely encloses shapes other than cylindrical, figure 3-22. The partial nest is a variation of the full nest se5 a part of the work Piece, figure 3-2 and only ex 3 Vee locators are used mainty for round work. They can locate flat work with rounded oF angulor ends and flat discs, figure | 3:24. The vee-block locator is normally j used to locate round shafts or other work- pieces with cylindrical sections, figure 3-25. One advantage vee locators have over other locators is their centralizing feature. When Using vee locators, be sure the locator is bowel PIN SOCKET HEAD ‘CAP SCREW Fig. 3-21 Ring nestUnit 3 Supporting and Locating Principies 33: Fig. 3.23 Partial nest Fig. 3-24 Voe-block tocators Fig. 325 Veo-block locator TOOLING OPERATION TOOLING oPeRATICN DIRECTION, DIRECTION if CENTER Position ERROR TOLERANCE 7 VARIATION Fig. £26 Positioning vee locator to allow for differance in part sce rea24° Unit 3 Supporting and Locating Principles Fig. 3:28 Installed fixed-stop locators positioned to ences in The most common type of fixed locator : part sizes, fiw is the dowel pin, Dowel pins also attach : —~ Fiveds for parts other Jocational devices, such as the block in ; which cannot be placed in either a nest or figure 3-29. locator. Fixed-stop locators a When possible, split pins or groove pins machined into the tol body, figar shoukl be used in place of dowel pins to oF installed, figure 3-28, re cost. Split pins and groove pins : N tstailed focators are normaliy more hold as well as dowel pins, figure 3-30. They economical to use because of the time it takes 40 not- require a reamed hole, so they are not to itiake the tachined locators: Since in as accurate, When the tolerance permits, th stalled locators can be replaced when worn, 10 f ne and cost, these pins should i the entire body stoes not have to be —_ be used I mate avai ~ Aujustable-stop locators can also be used to keep the cost of a tool to a minimum, ; | PF =e y Fig. 3-29 Doweled jocators Fig. 3-30 Split and grooved dowels be: 2 SET SCREWS— MOVABLE PAD-————- VARIABLE TORQUE t ; Lockine i SCREW \ Adjustable stop locatorsfigure 3-31 their position on the tool body does not have to be Since these stops are adjustable, as closely controlled LOCATING SCREWS Unit 3 Supporting and Locating Principles 35 One common method of locating parts is to use both fixed and adjustable stops. The tool in figure 3-32 shows how the fixed locator is used to reference the end of the part, while the adjustable locators are used on both sides, Using adjustable locators for this jig allows the part to be positioned exact- ly. If adjustment is necessary because of wear or misalignment, it can be corrected easily. Another advantage cf the adjustable- type locator is its ability w double as a clamp. This is done by replacing the adjustment Solid and adjustable tocators IGHT LINES Fig. 334 Sight locators sicu Tine Uocaror SLO pane HOOK CLAMPS sorew with a knurled-head screw, figure 3-33,36 Unit Supporting and Locating Principtes aS Sight locators 9 inn rough ports in a rate. Figure 3-35 shows two styles of ejectors inp, figure 3.34, common to both digs and fixtuces. There are two methods of referencing a part by sight location: by lines e as in figure 3-34, or slots, figure 3-348. In both cases, the part is aligned with the marks untit it is in th thet clamped and machined, tool for approsinute nahi hed on the tool, approximate center. [tis JA. NX ee — Ejectors Ejectors are used to remove work from compressen) close-fitting locators, such as full nests or ring : nests. These devices speed-up the unloading of the part from the tool. This reduces the SPRING PLUNGER in-tool time and increases the production Fig. 395 Electors AIRS REVIEW 1. Where should locators contact the part? Why’? 2. What is repeatability? What pereentape of the part tolerance must be applied (0 the tool? 4 Why should the tool be foolproof? 5. What is duplicate locating? 6. Select the proper locator from the choices listed to best locate the following sample parts. A. Figure 3-36. Operation: Drill 2 holes as shown, 1. Groove pads 2. Vee pads 3. Ring nest AON I Oe \ HOLes >h.201 2.90 ————s 2 PLACES THICKNESS 38 Fig. 336= Unit 3 Supporting and Locating Principles 37 B. Figure 3-37 . | ‘Operation: Mill slots as indicated by dotted lines. 1. Pin locators 2. Nest locators 3. Adjustable locators Oe / SHoues J F0.5P ON O1563 8c Piss 2 PLACES BpLaces THICKNESS .75 ©. Figure 3-38, Operation: Mill vee groove indicated by dotted line. 5 1. Vee pad and dowel pins ' 2. Adjustable locator and nest 3. Diamond and dowel pins G.56 2HOLES THICKNESS .218 33896 Unit 3 Supporting and Locating Principles Sight locators align cough parts in rate. Figure 3-35 shows two styles of ejectors tool for approximate machining, figure 3-34. common to both jigs and fixtures, T ethods of referencing a part by sight location: by lines etched on the tool, as in figure 3-34A, or slots, figure 3-348, In both cases, the part is aligned with the marks until i€ iy in the approximate center, It is then clamped and machined here are two 1 Ejectors Bjectors are used to remove work from , RELEASED close-fitting locators, such as full nests or ring SS : SSS nests. These devices speed-up the unloading of the part from the tool, This reduces the SPRING PLUNGER es the production Fig, 298 Ejector in-tool time and iners REVIEW 1. Where shoutd locators contact the part? Why? What is repeatability? 3. What percents ¢ of the part (olerance must be applied to the toot? 4 Why should the too! be foolproof? What is duplicate locating? 6, Select the proper locator from the choices listed to best locate the following sample parts. : A. Figure 3-36. Operation: Drill 2 holes as shown, A. Groove pads 2. Vee pads 3. Ring nest . 2gt 2.38 ee PLACES THICKNESS 38 Fig. 398Unit 3 Supporting anc Locating Principles 37 B. Figure 3-37, Operation: Mill slots as indicated by dotted lines. 1, Pin locators 2. Nest locators 3. Adjustable locators fe ee os09 Ps FA ak 4 | | ee, nett PLACES. aPLaces ae j Fig. 3-37 j C. Figure 3-38, Operation: Mill vee groove indicated by dotted line. ‘ 1. Vee pad and dowel pins i 2. Adjustable locator and nest 3, Diamond and dowel pins 9.58 2HOLES | THICKNESS .21838 Unit 3 Supporting and Locating Principles D. Figure 3-39. Operation: Drill three holes as shown. 1, Diamond pin and equalizer 2. Solid and adjustable locators 3. Adjustable pads and dowel pins“. THICKNESS .25, Fig. 339 E, Figure 3-40, Operation: Drill hole indicated by dotted line, 1, Dowel pin and adjustable support . 2. Diamond pin and round-pin locators 3. Internal and round-pin locators THICKNESS .50 Fig. 340Unit 3 Supporting and Locating Principles 39 F. Figure 3-41, Operation: Drill and ream holes as shown. Ring nest Adjustable locators 3. Sight locators 1 Fig, 3.41unit 4: Clamping and Workholding Principles OBJECTIVES, After completing this unit, the student will be able to + explain the basic principles of workholders 1 types of workholding devices. ‘© match the characteristics and applications to a particular type of clamping device. WORKHOLDERS. ‘The term workholder is used to identity the parts of a jig or fixture which clamp, chuck, hold, or grip a part. The main purpose. ately hold the position of the part against the cutting of these workholders is 10 2c: forces, must be forces, but not so strong that it dantages the To do this, the workholder, or clamp, trong enough to resist the cutting part. Clamps, like locators, must ailow for rapid loading and unloading. require an excessive amour reduce the production rate and increase part costs. To use the proper clamp for each job, the tool designer must: know the basic principles’ of camping, commonly used to hold th Clamps which of time to use BASIC RULES OF CLAMPING ‘The function of a clamp is to hold a part during a machining cycle efficient To be effective and clamps musi be planned into the tool design. 40 Positioning the Clamps Clamps should always contact the work at its most rigid point. This prevents the clumping force from bending er damaging the part. The part must be supported if the work is clamped at @ point where the force could bend the part. The flange in figure 4-1 shows this point. The ideal place to clamp the part is from its center hole, If it is held by the outer edge, the part must be supported, figure 4-2 Clamps are also positioned ‘so they do not interfere with the operation of the tool or machine. It is important that the clamps be placed so the operator can work easily, yet safely. Tool Forces Tool forces are forces generated by the cutting action. These forces are caused by resistance of the workpiece being cut or sheared by the tool, To clamp a part cor rectly, the tool designer must know how tool, or cutting, forces act in reference to the tool. A properly designed tool can usefctane Year coaM PART =~ Fig. 41. Flange ring the cutting forees to its own advantage. The drill jig in figure 4-3 is an example of how the Cutting force is used to hold the work Most of the force is in a downward direction against the base of the tool. The forces that must be resisted cause the part to revolve around the drill axis. This, in turn, causes the part (o climb the drill when the drill breaks through the opposite side of the part. In this drill jig, the forces which cause the part to revolve are restricted and held by the locators. This leaves the climb- ing action to be restrained by the clamp, This climbing force is a small fraction of the drilling force and is treated as. such when clamped This same principle is used for all opera- tions The necessary clamping pressure is reduced a great deal when the bulk of the Fig, 4-2 Supporting the flange ring tool forces are directed at a solid part of the tool body, Clamping Forces Clamping force is the force required fo hold a part against the locators. Clamp- ing prevents the part from shifting or being pulled from the jig or fixture during the machining operation. The type and amount of clamping force needed to hold a part is usually determined by the tool forces working on the part and the way the part is positioned in the tool, Sometimes the operation being performed is a factor. In the case of the bored ring in figure 4-4, if the ring is clamped as shown in A, the part could. bend. If it is held as in B, this possibility is reduced. TOOL ROTATION: Locators DRILL ‘CLAMP SCREWS Fig. 4-3 Using cutting force to hold partUnit 4 Clamping and Workholding Principtos HEEL FIN | ee CLAMPING PRE: rN URE Fig, 4-4 Clamping forces Clamping pressure, ay a general rule should only be enough to hold the part iwainst the locators, The locators should re- sist the bulk of the thrust. Jf a part must be clamped with a great deal of pressure, the tool should be redesigned so the tool thrust is directed at the locators and the tool body. Clamps must never be expected to hold all of the fool thrust. TYPES OF CLAMPS ‘There are various methods of clamping common to both jigs and fixtures. The type of clamp the tool designer chooses is deter- mined by the shape and size of the part, the type of jig or fixture being used, and the work to be done. ‘The tool designer should choose the clamp which is the simplest, easiest to use, and most efficient, Strap Clamps Strap clamps are the simplest clamps used for jigs and fixtures, figure 4-5. The basic operation of these clamps is the same as a lever. Strap clamps can be grouped into three classes, each representing a form of lever, figure 4-6. Figure 4-64 shows the first clamp which has the fulcrum between the work and the effort, This is the prin- ciple of a first-class lever. The second clamp, figure 4-6B, places the work between the fulcrum and the effort, as with a second-class lever. The third clamp, figure 4-6C, uses the principle of a third-class lever by plac- ing the effort between the work and the fulcrum, Strap clamps are used in almost every area of jig and fixture design and construction.Some more common types of strap clamps are the hinge clamp, the sliding clamp, and the lateh clamp, figure 4-7 Unit 4 Clamping and Workholding Principles 43 he fulcrum is positioned so that the clamp bar is parallel to the base of the tool at all times. Due to the slight differences in Zu & Fig. 45 Strap clamps me ee 7 sath 3 FULCRUI R Bu Eyer rao aT on ai Mee. FULCRUM Lue PIN FIRST CLASS LEVFR ACTION SECOND CLASS LEVER ACTION THIRD CLASS LEVER ACTION A 8 c Fig. 6.6 Lever clases of strap clamps SLIDING SLOT yl ‘SLOT aS HEEL PIN HINGE CLAMP Fig. 67 Ty be SLIDING CLAMP. ER ig pe of strap clamps44 Unit 4 Clamping and Workhotding Principles part thickness, this is not always possible. To make up for these differences, spherical washers or nuts are used. Spherical washers and nuts provide a positive base for clamping elements, figure 4-8. They also reduce un- necessary stresses to the threaded members, Strap clamps can be operated by either manual or power driven devices. Manual devices include hex nuts, hand knobs, and cams, figure 49, Power devices include hydraulic or pneumatic systems, figure 4-10. The holding power of a strap clamp is determined by the size of the threaded member binding the clamp, The chart in figure 4-11 lists the recommended clamping pressures for the six most common UNC and ISO metric clamp screws, The values shown are based on standard commercial bolts of 50,000 psi (pounds per square inch) minimum tensile strength. Commercial bolts and studs made particularly for clamping normally have 2 minimum tensile strength value of 75,000 to 100,000 psi. The values given for these clamp bolts should be adjusted to reflect the difference in tensile strength. Screw Clamps Screw clamps are widely used for jigs and fixtures. They offer the tool designer almost unlimited application potential, lower costs, and in many cases, less complex de- signs. The only disadvantage in wsing screw clamps is their relatively slow operating ~o—4 WASHER SET Fig. 4-8 Spherical nuts and washers PuMP | RESERVOIR |_____»} oR BOOSTER | VALVE MANIFOLD, PART | Fig. 410 Basic system for power clampingUnit 4 Clamping and Workhotding Principles 45, ScREW SIZE HOLOING FORCE [wernic [oustSiany | METRIC [ous tiBlany | Ewe [4 To7ONEwrons |roisoLB | TOIIO NEWTONS [TO 25018 [roteronewrons [T0375 L6 rsune [roanonewrons [ro700L8 | mie | S-11unc |Toasaonewions |ron00Le | zo |2-tounc | ro7120newrons |ro1600L8 Fig. 4.11. Recommended hong pressures speeds, The basic serew clamp uses the commercial components which improve the torque developed by a screw thread to hold a part in place. This is done by direct pressure or by acting on another clamp, figure 4-12. There are variations of the screw-type clamp, Numerous styles of commercial clamps have been developed to include advantages. of the its disadvantages serew clamp and reduce ‘The following are the Fig. 412 Indirect clamping with 2 screw clamp efficiency of the screw clamp. Swing Clamps Swing clamps combine the screw clamp with a swinging arm which pivots on its mounting stud. The holding power with this clamp is generated by the screw, The rapid action needed is accomplished by the swing- ing arm, figure 4-13. OPTIONAL BASE DOWELS TO. LIMIT SWING Fig. 4.13 Swing clamp2 rr rsspemnapams ca a i lal 46 Unit 4 Clamping and Workholding Principles 4.14 Hook Clamp Hook Clamps Hook clamps are similar to swing clamps but much smaller, figure 4-14. Hook clamps are useful in tight places or where several small clamps must be used rather than one large clamp. A variation of the hook clamp is shown in figure 4-15. ‘The modified hook clamp is made to be operated from the opposite side of the tool. This is useful in tight places or where a safety hazard might be present if the tool is operated from the front side. Quick-Acting Knobs Quickacting knobs axe useful for in- creasing the output of low cost tools. These knobs are made so that when pressure is released, they can be tilted and slid off a stud, figure 4-16. The knob is slid over the stud until it contacts the part. i is then tilted to engage the threads and tumed until tight, Several other accessories are com- mercially available to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the screw clamp. The common accessories and attachments are shown in the design portion of this text. Cam-Action Clamps Cam-action clamps, when properly selected and used, provide a fast, efficient, on begasessd yy TILT ANGLE TO. RELEASE KNOB 4-16 Quick acting knob paRT Fig, 417 Direct pressure cam clamp and simple way to hold work, figure 417, Due to their construction and basic operating principles, the use of cam-action clamps is limited in some types of tools.Cam clamps, which apply pressure directly to the work, are not used when there is a strong vibration present. This might cause the chimp 10 loosen, creating a dangerous condition. Direct pressure cam clamps must be positioned to resist the natural tendencies of the clamp to shift or move the work when the clamp is engaged. To prevent this movement, the clamp is always positioned so the work is pushed into the locators when pressure is applied. Commercial cam clamp assemblies use cam action rather than screw threads to bind strap clamps. This indirect clamping. has all the aalvantages of the eam action, f 4-18. It also decreases the possibility of Fig, 4-18 Indirect pressure cam clamp oe HIGH CENTER Fig. 4.19 Flat escanteie eam Unit 4 Clamping and Workholding Principles 47 foosening or shifting the work when clamping, ‘There ore three basic types of cams used for clamping mechanisms: Flat eccen- flat spiral, and cylindrical Flat eccentric cams are easiest to make and can operate in either direction from their center position. The basic eccentric cam locks when the cam reaches its high center position, figure 4-19, This limits the full lock range to a rather small aca. Movement beyond this high center position automat- ically loosens the clamp. For this reason, eccentric cams do not hold as well as spirale Ns ype ca Flat spiral cams are the most common style of cam clamp used for jigs and fixtures. ‘Commercial cam clamps use the spiral design father than the eccentric because of its superior holding properties and wider locking range, figure 4-20, Cylindrical cams are also used in many Jig and fixture applications. Cylindrical cams actuate the clamp by a lobe or through a groove cut into the surface of the cylinder, figure 4-21. The quick-acting cam clamp is one commercial variation which uses the cylindrical cam principle to combine fast action with positive holding, figure 4-22, Wedge Clamps Wedge-type clamps apply the basic Principle of the inclined plane to hold work in a manner similar to a cam. ‘These clamps are a LOCKING RANGE Fig, 420 Flat spical com48. Unit 4 Clamping and Workholding Principles normally found in two general forms, flat and conical wedges. Flat wedges, or flat cams, hoid the part by using a binding action between the clamp and a solid portion of the tool body, figure 4-23. Wedges having a slight angle, from 1 degree te 4 degrees, normally hold the work without additional attachments. This type of wedge is considered to be self- holding. Large angle, or seifrcleasing wedges are used where more movement must be made, figure 4-24. Since sclf-releasing wedges will not hold by themselves, another device stich as a cam or screw, must be used to hold them in place. Conical wedges, or mandrels, are used for holding work through a hole, figure 4-25. Manerels are available in solid and expansion types. Solid mandrels are limited in use to one specific size hole. The expansion man- drels are made to fit a range of sizes Toggie-Action Clamps Toggteaction clamps, figure 4-26, are made with four basic clamping actions: hold down, squeeze, pull, and straight line. Toggle clamps are fast acting. Due to the way they ea are made, toggle clamps have the natural ability to move completely free of the work, allowing for faster part changes. Another advantage of toggle clamps is their high ratio of holding force to application force, CLAMP RODS cam up — POSITION -}-—v0wn position Fig. 4-21 Cylindricat cams Fig, 4.22 Quick-acting cam clamp 1.42 Ny LR arenes arron LOCATOR 07 WA CAM ACTION OF WEDGE CEND VIEW) Fig, 4-23 Self holding wedge clampUnit 4 Clamping and Workholding Principles 49 PART PART i | Fig 424 Stating weds clamp TAPERED ANGLE f <<] APPROXIMATELY 008'/FT SOLID MANDREL EXPANOING SLEEVE EXPANSION MANDREL, Fig, 4-25 Conical wedoee HOLD DOWN ACTION PULL ACTION SQUEEZE ACTION STRAIGHT=LINE ACTION Fig, 4-26 Toggle clamps50. Unit 4 Clamping and Workholding Prinetpes suicury sevow cevren | tinsvnetrosinve tex a PRESSURE PRESSURE, ENGAGED A |_____ ENTERS MOVE TO _ RETRACT CLAMP RELEASED B Fig. 4.27 Toggle action POWER OPERATED ea fir Toot s00x—5 ao rm Fig. 4.28 Power clamps § Fig, 429. Special chuck jawsToggle clamps operate on a system of levers and three pivot-points. When the clamp is locked, the pivots are in fine, as in figure 27A. When retracted, the pivots and levers are positioned as in figure 4-27B. These togele clamps can be used! in a variety of ways with the special mounts, spindles, and handles which are available, Power Clamping Poweractivated clamps are an alter: native to the imameally operated clamping 's nosmally. operate under hydraulic power, pneumatic power, or with an air-to-hydraulic booster The system used ermined by the type of power supply available, The air-to-hydraulic system is preferred. It can operate from the regular shop line pressure. No pumps or high Pressure valves are needed devices. Power clamping sys 7 LOS * © y} PIE TYPE DESIGN To suIT on PARTICULAR CHUCK Unit 4 Clamping and Workholding Principles 61 The advantages of using power clamps are better control of clamping pressures, less wear on moving parts of the clamp, and faster operating cycles. The main dis- advantage is cost. This is easily offset by the increased production speeds and higher efficiency. Typical applications of power clamps re shown in figure 4-28, Chucks and Vises Com mercially available chucks and vises offer the tool designer devices which, when modified, greatly reduce tooling costs. Quite often, because of tight budgets, one chuck must be used for several tools. To do this, the tool designer simply modifies the jaws to suit the job at hand, figure 4-29. Blank chuck jaws are easily modified to suit Practically every clamping need, figure 4-30, a BF Fig. 430 Blank chuck jawe REGULAR52. Unit 4 Clamping and Workholding Principles 7 CUT TO SUIT PART: ed Fig. 4-31 Modified vise jaws Blank vise jaws can also be modified to suit each job, figure 4-31. Using standard chucks and vises for special tools can save the too! designer a great deal of time and money while also increasing the efficiency of the job. Nonmechanical clamping Nonmechanical clamps hold parts which cannot be held practically in other devices because of size, shape, or the possibility of distortion, The main types of non- mechanical clamps used for production manufacturing are magnetic and vacuum chucks, Magnetic chucks are usually restricted to use on ferrous metals. However, with the ‘mechanical devices shown in figure 4-32, almost any material can be held, Magnetic chucks and accessories are available in numerous styles and shapes, figure 4-33. Figure 4-34 shows a magnetic keyway-tnilling fixture in operation magnetic chucks. Vacuum chucks are used to clamp parts which are nonmagnetic or which must be, clamped uniformly. Vacuum chucks equalize the clamping pressure over the This is a typical use of entire clamping surface. Like magnetic chucks, vacuum chucks are suitable for almost every machining operation, The basic operat- ing principle of the vacuum chuck is shown in figure 4-35. To clamp smaller parts, the exposed chuck ports can be covered with a mask, or closed by tightening the special port screws. Figure 4-36 shows the chuck in operation. SPECIAL CLAMPING OPERATIONS The clamps discussed so far in this unit are generally used to hole symmetrical shapes for parts which lend themselves to conven tional clamping. There are operations which present the tool designer with a real problem in creative clamping. Clamping odd shapes and multiple clamping are two of these problems. Clamping Odd Shapes Several methods can be used to hold odd-shaped work. The best is to. make the clamps and locators conform to the shape of the part, Machining intricate de- tails into the tool body is one way of doing, this, but because of high cost it is rarely done. The alternative to machining is castingUnit4 Clamping and Workholding Principles 53 NONMAGNETIC MATERIAL PART /— CLAMP: SPRING a STEEL IN UNCLAMPCD POSITION BACKING. PART, IN CLAMPED. POSITION Fig. 4.32 Mec ears IRREGULAR PART 8) PART NONMAGNETIC. MATERIAL TALL PARTS ~~! AUK, MAGNETIC MAGNA PARALLEL VISES, PART part part \——mnenetic Huck hi IRREGULAR ROUNDS eo sant Fa NONMAGNETIC MATERIAL / apet” vise MAGNA vist PART —MAGNETIC CHUCK. ical device to hold nonmagnatic parts tee. Na (3679 PALAWAN STATE COLLGE LIBRARYFig. 424 Magnetic keyway-nilling fixture RECTANGULAR ROTARY PERMANENT MAGNET TYPE CHUCK ROTARY RECTANGULAR ELECTROMAGNETIC TYPE CHUCK MAGNETIC CHUCK ACCESSORIES Fig. 4:33. Magnetic chucks and accessories Fig, 435Fig. 4-36. Vacuum chuck wsed for milling operation: the special shapes. The most popular com. pounds for these special shapes are epoxy resins and low-melt alloys. castiny ‘poxy resins are useful for casting special vise chuck jaws. These resins can be used -alone or mixed with a filler material STATIONARY JAW such as metal fillings, sand, or ground glass Epoxy resins are easily shaped by placing the part in a shel filled with the compound, figure 4-37. A releasing agent is applied to the part so it can be easily removed once the epoxy has hard CAST TO SUIT PART MOVAGLE vaw Fig. 4-27 Cast vise jaws of epoxy resin66 Unit 4 Clamping and Workholding Principles SPACER © Fig. 4.38 Using lowselt alloys Low-melt alloys of bismuth, lead, tin, and antimony are used to pour-cast special, shapes, figure 4-38, With this method, the part is suspended in the shell and the low- melt alloy is poured around the part, Wooden blocks are used as spacers which are removed before using the cast jaws. ‘Multiple Clamping Devices Many times production operations call for making more than one part at a time. ‘The tool designer must know how to design clamps capable of holding several parts. Designing a clamp to hold more than one workpiece requires imagination. Using the basic ideas and rules for single-part clamping, the tool designer can easily design clamps to hoki any number of parts. The main points to remember in multiple clamping are: the clamping pressure must be equal on all parts, and the clamp must only have one operating, or locking, point. Clamps which do not apply equal pressure can damage the parts being machined or create a dangerous situation if a part pops otit of the tool during the machin- ing cycle. Using more than one operatingpoint reduces muhiple-type type tools ar. Unit 4 Clamping and Workholding Principles 67 5 SINGLE OPERATING INGLE OPERATING . POINT POINT, Fig. 4-39 Multiple clamping the gains made by using a and effectiveness of clamps. Accessories tool. Examples of multiple. stch as o shown in Figure 4.39, pad mp screws, handles, jacks, leveling and spring plungers a © only a few of the accessories availible to make the tool CLAMPING ACCESSORIES There are several commercially made accessories tha designer's job easier, t increase both the application _of this text. REVIEW L. Whore should the camp contact ? 2. Why must clamped areas have support? 3. What causes tool forces? 4. How can the tool Forces be used to advantage? 5 How are the type and amount of necessary clamping forces determined? Where should the bulk of the tool thrust be directed? How much clamping force should be used? = What should be done if the elamps cann told the part? What is the purpose of spherical washers? What determines the allowable force applied to a bolt? These and other accessories are shown in the design sections58 Unit 4 Clamping and Workholding Principtes 1}. Match the letter values to the numbers indicating the orapplication of that clamp type. Generally for ferrous metals 74 A Strap clamp \aB. Screw camp Uses epoxy oF low-melt alloys GC. Toxsle slamp Either Slat or conical AB. Cam clump PAE. Power cle Lever action Must have single operating point Pivot and lever action WF. Vacuum chuck /6. % G. Molded clam 7. Used'only for plastics TH Mapnetic chuck «8. Best pressure control 2 |. Wedge clamp = 9, Could loosen wien vibrated £,0-4. Multiple clamp 10. Operates on spring pressure / 11, Fqualizes clamping pressure 12. Uses thread generated torqueunit 5: Basic Construction Principles OBJECTIVES After completing this unit, the student will be abie to © identity the charac’ © identity various drill bushings, istics of tool bodies, © describe the proper placement and clearance for drill bushings. © identify common jig and fixture hardware TOOL BODIES The tool body provides a rigid base for mounting the locators, supports, clamps, and other details needed to reference, locate, and hold the part while work is performed, The basie size, shape, material, and method used to construct the tool body are determined by the part to be machined Asa rule, the size and shape of the tool body is determined by the size of the part and the operation to be performed. The choice of material and method depends on economy, required rigidity, accuracy, and the projected tool life Tool bodies are made in three general forms: cast, welded, and built-up, The materials used for tool bodies are steel, cast iron, aluminum, magnesium, epoxy resins, and wood Cast Too! Bodies Cast tol bodies are made of cast iron, cast aluminum, or cast resins. The main advantages of using cast bodies include stability, savings in machine time, and good distribution of material, Cast toot bodies are also best for part nesting and offer vibration dampening, The main disadvantage in using cast tool bodies is higher cost due to the required pattern and longer lead time. Lead time is the time spent between design, and fabrication of a part or assembly. The time needed to obtain stock, tookup, and begin actual production are all a part of the lead time Welded Tool Bodies Welded tool bodies are usually made from steel, aluminum, or magnesium. The main advantages of using this type of tool body include its high strength and rigidity, its design versatility and case of modifica- tion, and its short lead time, The main disadvantage of weided tool bodies is the audded cost of the secondary machining. Built-Up Too! Bodies Built-up tool bodies are the most com- mon form of tool body and can be made from almost any material, such as steel, precast 30,60 Unit 5 Basie Construction Principles sections, aluminum, magsesium, and wood, The main advantages of using built-up tool ability, des ease of modification, howies are adap versatility, al time, Another important advantage is the use of standatd parts. A built-up tool body requires a slightly longer lead time than that used by the welded tool body. This is because of the added time needed to drill and tap the moun and short 2 holes and check the fit of the parts botore using the tool PREFORMED MATERIALS Preformed materials can greatly reduce the cost of any too! body. Since preformed materials are available in a variety of sizes and shapes, the time required to. machine a tool body is also greatly reduced. The most common types of used to construct tool bodies are: precision ground fat stocks, east-brucket_ materials, precision structural steel sections, and precast too! bodies. reformed materials ground drill rods, Precision-Ground Flat Stock Precision-ground flat stock is available in a variety of sizes from 016 inch X .500ineh ANGLE LoUGh U SECTION through 2.000 inch X 4,000 inch, and lengths up to 36 inches, Precision-ground flat stock is made in three general classes: low-carbon, and air-hardened tool steel. Ail precision-ground flat stock is normally manufactured to a tolerance of #.001 inch in thickness and width. oilshardened, Cast-Bracket Materials Cust-bracket matertals are wailable in various shapes and sizes. Materials include cast iron, cast aluminum, and cast steel, figure 5-1. These sections are usually made in 25-inch lengths. The toolmaker can then cut off the required amount for each job. Precision-Ground Drill Rod Precision-eround drill rod is available in different diameters and in 36-inch length: ‘These precision-ground rods are ideal for locators, stops, or other details which require an accurate, round contour. Since drill rod can be hardened, parts can be heat treated if necessary after fubrivation. SGUARE BOX SECTION JL ol RECTANGULAR Box PRECAST V SECTION FLAT OFFSET T SECTION Fig. 6-1 Castoracket materialsUnit Basie Construction Priniples 6} LLwitg WIDE FLANGE STANDARD. CHANNEL, RECTANGULAR SQUARE BEAN BEAM ‘BOX TUBING TUBING EQUAL ANGLE UNEQUAL ANGLE TUBING OR PIPE Fig. 5:2 Structural steel sections Structural Stee! Sections these sections are useful in tool construction Structural steel sections are normally Figure 5-2 rolled in lengths of 12 to 20 feet. Thi allows the tool designer an alternative to Precast Too! Bodies higher priced materiais. Structural steel Precast tool bodies meet many types of Sections ‘are not as accurately finished as tooling needs, figure 5-3. This type of tool Bround sections, When the tolerance permits, body sives hours of construction time, fea ep pe FIXTURE BASES Fig, $3 Precast tool bodies62 Unit § Basie Construc The body is already made, so th quireinent is installing Use supports, Tocators mps, and bushings. DRILL BUSHINGS Drill bushings are used to locate guide drills, reamers, (3s, countersinks, spotfacing tools, rotatiny lols common modily a hole. Figure 5-4 shows the standard g the size of drill ily hardened exact sizes to insure the needed for designat Drill bushings method bushings. ous and ground repeatability in the jig ised to make oF Types of Bushings The most bushir bushirigs Renewabl divided into two groups, used. where bushings are changed many es during the jig life Stip renewable. bushings more than one operation is pe same location, such as Figure 5-5. These bush liner bushing renewable s. and liner bushings. special operations. bushings are m types of drill bushings, pres-fit ‘There are also commonly slip and fixed. They are used when ertormed in tlhe drilling and reaming, hings are used with a and are held in place by the COMMERCIAL Si TE DESIGNATIONS OF DRILL BUSHINGS. P BUSHING TYPE DESIGNATOR a 3 a 4 INSIDE OUTSIDE 1a. OIA EXPRESSED AS DECIMAL- " LENGTH EXPRESSED IN 5 - SLIP RENEWABLE F —FIKED RENEWABLE FRACTION-NUMBER OR STANDARD LC HEADLESS LINER LETTER SIZE OF INCREMENTS OF HLL HEAD TYPF LINER NOMINAL DIAMETER ao ek P HEADLESS PRESS FIT 8% H- HEAD TYPE PRESS FIT 1y ETC, }LUNGROUND OUTSIDE DM (USED WITH TYPE DESIGNATER) ore to DIAMETERS [be ANS| STANDARD DESIGNATIONS OF ORILL BUSHINGS 2500 | S 48 16 U insioe oA | Busing Type | OUTSIDE Lenore DESIGNATOR bia expnesseo as | same as | EXPRESSED IN | EXPRERBEDIN | AOD HERE ED? ee eES ERATION | COMMERCIAL | dy INCREMENTS | ig INCREMENTS UNFINISHED NUMBER OR LETTER | EXCEPT FOR OUTSIDE. DIA NES OR LERLES | eCocariowors| 493% ' out FoR ei FINISHED: DIAMETER on 48 or 16 OUTSIDE DIA Fig 5-4 Designating sizes for drill bushingsSZ Fig. 5.9 Stipronewable bushing radial lock and the bushing head. When another size bushing is required for a hole, the first bushing is removed by turning it counterclockwise and lifting. The new bushing is installed by placing it in the hole with the radial lock aligned and turning it clockwise, figure 5-6 Fixed-renewable bushings are used where only one operation is performed in each hole, but where soveral bushings must be used during the life of the tool, figure 5-7. Fixe Fenewable bushings are also fit into a liner. They ste held by @ mechanical clamp and take considerably tonger to remove than Miptenewable bushings. ‘The most common types of fixed-renewable clamps are shown in figure 5-8, along with the matching bushing head type. Pressfit bushings ate made in two general forms, head or headless. These bushings are intended for use. in limited Production tooling where no bushing change is required, figure 5-9. Since press-fit bushe ings are pressed directly into the fig plate, repeated changes could affect their accuracy, Liner bushings are available in head oF headless types, and are pressed into the jig Plate, figure 5-10, These bushings are used to provide a hardened hole where renewable bushings can be located, Since the liner bushing is hardened, there is fttle chance of affecting the accuracy of the tool by changing the bushings. Several variations of these bushings are available for special applications Unit § Basie Construction Principles 63 LockeD ae &S (ob Raita is a ‘SC 2 8d Q F Fig. &8 Common types of fixed-renewable bushing clamp: SS it bushings Se Fig, 510 Liner bushingsG4 Unit Basie Construction Principles Special-purpose bushings allow for special jobs. The great diversity of drilling operations common to manufacturing de- mand a variety of special bushings, figure 5-11 Template bushings are used for ine stallations in thin jig plates. This type of bushing is pressed into the hole and 2 lock ring is installed on the oppoxite side, figure 512, Oit-groove bushings permit positive and complete lubrication of th continuous high-speed drill figure 3-13 Serrated and knurled bushings are used for applications where a bushing is cast into bushing for operations, aol, cea es a ons Fig, 5-11 Special-purpose bushings a jig plate, such as epoxy resins, figure 5-14. ‘The knurled surface provides an excellent grip and prevents loosening of the bushing during use. Serrated bushings can also be pressed directly into jig piates made of softer materials, such as wood or composition board. Extended-range bushings are used where regular bushings are too short to properly support or guide the tool, figure 5-15. Standard bushings are available in sizes up to 175 millimetres tong. Carbide bushings are also available in most sizes for extended service in high-speed production, The additional cost of carbide bushings is justified for shorter runs where the material being machined is very abrasive. {installing Drill Bushings Corvectly fitting drill bushings is an im portant factor in jig work, If the drill bush- ings are not properly installed, they could fall out during use, or bind and break the tool. The correct method of installing these bushings is shown in figure 5-16. Proper sizing of mounting holes also gned to receive drill bushings must be made under size, and includes roundness. Holes de be perlectly round to allow the bushing to, fit correctly Template bushing; Fig. 913 Oibgroove bushings Fig. 5-14 Serrated and knurled bushings 2 U Fig, 518 Extended-range bushing see] dig Plates Jig plates are part of a drill jig which hold and position the drill bushings. The thickness of the jig plate is normally dependent on the size of the bushings used. As a rule, the bushing should be long enough to support and guide the tool properly. A length be- tween one and two times the tool diameter is usually sufficient to prevent inaccuracy figure 5-17. ‘The wall thickness of the bushing should casily be able to withstand all the cutting forces and maintain tool accuracy Bushing Clearance For most applications, the end of the bushing shold not touch the work. A clearance of one to one and a half times the tool diameter is sufficient for the required asso BOLT Counc LJ concen jul La ousiinio— 5 susine——_9 ss ESS QRS S WS sy ee a Nae PLATE ll ~ PLATE Pare ARBOR PRESS METHOD bRAW-BoLT HAMMER aNo PUNCH METHOD METHOD Fig, 6-16 Instalting drift bushings66 Unit 5 Basic Construction Principles — Se 1702 TIMES TOOL DIAMETER ect Fig. 5:17 Jig plate ISGUASS} [ef Lt r01§ sme TOOL DIAMETER Fig. 5-18 Bushing clearance Lrimes TOOL DIAMETER EXTREME ACCURACY FIXED RENEWABLE BUSHING LINER BUSHING FOR HIGH VOLUME PRODUCTION chip clearance, figure 5-18. Exceptions to this are when extreme accuracy is called for, secondary operations is necessary, and when drilling into inclined irfaces. In these cases, the bush- ing shuld be as close to the work as possible to allow for the desired precision, figure 5-19. Proper bushing clearance is important to the overall function of any jig. The chips cause the bushing to wear rapidly if the bushings are unnecessarily close. If placed too far away, precision is lost. when accuracy in ‘or curved Burr Clearance When install portant factor to remember is burr clearance. In any drilling operation two burrs are pro- duced, primary and secondary, figure $-20. The primary burr is made on the side opposite the drill bushing. The secondary burr is produced at the point where the drill enters the work. These burrs must be considered provided is bushings, another im- BUSHING PLACEMENT FOR ORILLING Si PLACEMENT alt FOR ACCURATE SECONDARY OPERATION — PRESSFIT BUSHING FOR SHORT RUN PRODUCTION ‘SHAPED TO ‘SUIT CONTOUR Fig. 6-19 Bushing clearance in special casesP = up go re \ ‘PRIMARY BURR Fig. 820 Primary and socondary bures Another problem facing the tool de- signer is placing bushings for holes which are close together, fisure 5-21. In these cases, thin-wall bushings can sometimes be used, Figure $-22 another method of grinding flats on adjacent bushings to allow When necessary, holes can be drilled, reamed, and the bushing alter- | nated from one hole to the other, figure 5-23. shows for clearance. SET BLOCKS Setting the cutters for fixtures requires method than that for jigs. Set blocks and feeler gauges are used to set the work and the a differen relationship between the tool for machining operations such as mill ing, turning, and grinding, Set blocks, also known as setup gauges, are normally located directly on the fixture. The surface used to reference the cntter is controlled by the type of operation being performed Using fecter gauges to insure the proper clearange prevents damage and wear to the Bet block ting the cutter. Typical lrated in figure $-24, Fig. 5-24 Typical uses of sot blocks Fig, 5:21 Placing bushings fer holes ae | Sa SOILS Fig, 5-22 Grinding flats on adjacent bushings —— > S (OD) —Lock screws HOLE PATTERN WITH SLIP “RENEWABLE BUSHING REMOVED i ne Fig. 5-23 Drilling and reaming holes, AREA SETTING SURFACES me{68 Unit 5S Basie Construction Principles SOCKET HEAD FLT HEAD Sonne veao suTTON MEAD Fig. 5:25 Cap screw ‘One point to keep in mind when designing set blocks is the allowance for the fi e made thick enough gauge. ‘They should to resist heuding or warping during use. Stock thicknesses between 030 and 100 inch, or larger, prevent bending and are easily mounted on the tool. Another convenience is to etch the size of the fecler and the tool part number directly on the fecler gauge. 1 sage PONE Then, the operator knows the is being. used to set the cutter p aq FASTENING DEVICES u Many types of fasteners are used in a building jigs and fixtures. Screws, nuts, Fig, $27 Stondard set screws i bolts, washers, lock rings, keys, and pins . are all used to make tools. A point to remem- _ Setscrews ber when designing tools is to use standard The setscrew is another type of screw hardware. Special bolts and fasteners cost widely used in jig and fixture work. Standard more money and add little to the tool value. setserews are available in many sizes and point styles, figure 5-27 and 5-28 Cap Screws The socketshead cap serew is the most common type of serew used in jig and fixture ‘Thread inserts provide renewable work. This screw provides superior holding threaded holes in materials which cannot Thread Inserts SACRA ARE ‘Hf power with easy installation and minimal normally hold threads, such as epoxy resins 8g space requirements, figure 5-25. or soft aluminum, figure 5-29. Thread Variations of this screw form are shown inserts also allow replacement of threaded i in figure 5-26. These screws are available in holes in other materials which could wear plain or self-locking styles. because of heavy or prolonged use. eescararenUnit § Basic Construction Principles 8 SERRATED cup poINT FLAT POINT = wo ROUND POINT CONE POINT —_D0¢ POINT Fig, 5-28 Point styles for standard setserews @ Fig. 5.29 Thread insert aa REGULAR fh FLANGE PLAIN Nuts and Washers A variety of nuts and washers are also commercialiy available to assist the tool designer. The most common types are shown in figure $-30. Special Purpose Bolts and Nuts Jigs and fixtures, while normally de- signed around standard hardware items, do NUTS O7 Heavy pUTY vam EXTENSION SPHERICAL FLANGE KNURLED vate WASHERS Lock c SWINGING © INTERNAL EXTERNAL’ RoovED ‘STAR STAR FACE Fig, 5:30. Common types of nuts and washers |TRS; iad atassi ga WSs elas een ero Fig, 531. Special purpose bolts and nuts ‘occasionally require special T bolts, slot nuts, and studs, These are commercially avail- able, T bolts, slot nuts, and studs are used primarily to hold special tools to machine ey are available in a variety of re 5-31 tables. sizes to fit most machine tables, fig Retaining Rings Another type of fastener wich many hours of work is the retaining ring. These rings are available in internal and When properly installed, external styles INTERNAL RETAINING RINGS they provide sufficient strength for most ‘ooling applications, figure 5-32 Interchangeable Fixture Keys The interchangeable fixture key is a special device which can save countless hours of machining time. This key is used. to precisely locate the base of the tool in the table T slot. The conventional method of installing standard fixture keys requires milling a groove in the fool base and fitting rectangular ye EXTERNAL RETAINING RINGS Fig, 6-32 Retaining regs| Fig, 6:34 Interchangeable fixture key A ES EA ELST Unit S Basic Construction Principles 71 | f aa YP ° | PLAIN TYPE a Fig. 533 Conventional installation of standard fixture key72. Unit Basic Construction Principles keys to the slot. ‘The Fig. 5-25 Common types of dowel pins sare then held in Dowels and Jig Pins | place with cap screws, figure 5-33. Using Dowel pins are ‘normally. used - with the interchangeable-style key, figure 5-34, screws to keep mated parts aligned, The fequires only two holes to be drilled and tive. most common: types of dowel: pins | reamied. Then, the key is placed in the are plain, tapered, pull, grodved, and spring hole and, using a hex wrench, locked into figure 5-35. The ered dowel is self-holding. position Some tapered dowels have threaded portions Fig. 536 Tapered dowels with threaded portions which aid in installing or removing the pins, Pall dowels are used in blind holes Two types of pull dowels are shown in figure 8-37 and 5-38. Plain, grooved and spring dowels are basically used in the same manner. ‘The dif degree of precision they require. Plain dowels require for installation, When possible, the use of groove where frequent disassembly is neede ference among the three is the an accurately drilled and reamed he TAPPED HOLE ie WASHER2 ot Te ae Unit § Basic Construction Principles 73 REMOVING ff Fig, 6-38 Installing and removing a tapered pulldowel74 Unit S Basle Construction Pri Esa) 7 PIN L PIN Fig. 6-39 Typee of jig pins fied where and spring dowels should be spe treme precision is not necessary. This fachining time and mo Jig pins are used to hold approximate alignment belween (wo OF more tool, They act as hinge pins or locator pins, Jig pins are commonly swailable in aT of L shape, and either a plain or sellocking type, Grune 5-39. When jie pins are removed frequently, attach the pins to the tool body with @ ire $-40, REVIEW 1. Match the tool body type to the charac 21-Cast, #2. Welded, #3 - Builtsup QA. Fasiest to modify @B High strength and rity 3.€. Could warp during fabrication A.D. Requires a pattern Wien these and other accessories ai to the tool body, there is a much less chanee of loss or damage. The cab signing jigs and fixtures, Se d throughout the design portion text to illustrate proper applica’ teristic which best deseribes it: BALL LOCK LOCKING T PIN Fig. 540 Cables attaching pins to tool body specified long enough to prevent the part or from becoming tangled in the ditional the tool design eral necessories fr to assist78 Unit 5 Basie Construction Principles How long should a bushing t 4. Mow thick should the bushing wall be? How much space should thete be between the bushing and the work piece for extremely accurate drilling? 6. What is the standard distance between thé work and the bushing for jeneral applications! 7, What happens if the bushing is too close to the workpiece? 8. What happens if the bushing is too far from the workpiece? 4. What clearance must be considered when placing bushings close to the work surf two methods of using bushings in holes which are close together 11. What are set blocks «sed for? 12, What controls the use of set blocks? Tekvet @Uee 13. What additional tool must be used with set blocks? Why? est results? 03 1 At etched on the feeler 14, What size facler gauge should be used for th 16, Answer the following questions with “true” or “false” FA. Mescicad cap serews ane the most commonty used screws for fit and fixture work B. When possible, special bolts should be used to make the tool n of the sacket-head cap ©. Shoulder screws are a commor screw used for jig and fixture work. Interchangeable keys usually take more time to install than standard plain F, T bolts, slot nuts, and studs are used to hold jigs and fintures to machine tables, F. Jig pins are more accurate than plain dowels in aligning parts a G, Pull dowels ave intended for use in blind holes H.Th fn, tapered, pull, sprin five most common dowels are 1. Cables keep loose parts attached to the tool to prevent loss or damageunit 6: Design Economics OBJECTIVES After compicting this unit, the student will be able to: * identify and define the principles of design economy. + complete an economic analysis of a tool design. DESIGN ECONOMY ‘The demands of modern industry for maximum productivity at minimal cost are a challenge to the tool designer. In developing designs for efficient pd accurate Jivs and fixtures, the tool designer is re sponsible for finding ways to keep the cost of special (ools as low as posible, To do this, the Lool designer must know and upply design economy. Design economy begins with the tool designer’s ideas and is carried through the completion of the tool. Design details should be carefully studied to find ways to reduce costs and still maintain part quality, The tool designer is aided in this task by following the principles of economic design Simplicity 5 Simplicity is necessary in tool design, Design details should be made as basic and un- complicated as possible. Every detail should be considered for possible savings in time and materials, Overly elaborate jigs and fixtures only serve to inerease costs without adding significantly to accuracy or quality. Basic and simple designs minimize costs, labor, and confusion. All tool designs should be made as simple as the part design permits, Preformed Materials Preformed materials can greatly reduce tooling costs by eliminating many machining. operations, Wherever pr ctical, preformed materials, such as drill rods, structural sections, premachined bracket materials, tooling plate, and precision ground flat stock, ‘Standard Components Commercially available standard jig and fixture components can greatly improve tooling quality. They can also cause sizable savings in labor and materials, Standard com- ponents, such as clamps, locators, supports, drill bushings, pins, screws, bolts, nuts, and springs, should be planned into the design to seduce labor and material expenses. Secondary Operations Secondary operations, such as grind- ing, heat treating, and some machining, should be limited to areas necessary for efficient tool operation. Grinding. should ”LRA ar = isa 78. Unit 6 Design Economics only be performed on areas which contact either the part or 1 Hiardening operations should also be limited to areas which are subjected to wear, such as supports, locators, and Secondary machining of surfaces which do not directly affect the accuracy of the tool shoutd be eliminated moving parts. Tolerance and Allowanet Genesally, the Fixture should be eww tolerance of n 20 perce 50 percent ‘of the part. tolerance, aceural (and Overly © tooling is economically wastetl no more valuable than a tool within the re- quired tolerance, When the toleran spplied to a tool design is unnecessarily close, the only atfect on the part is higher cost Simplified Drawings Tool drawings are a sizable part of the total tooling cost. Any savings gained in the drawing, reduces the tool casts The Following, list is a xeneral guide to simplilying tool drawings: © Where pr Weal, words shoukl repkice drawn details = Eliminate unnecessary or redundant views, projections, or detaits = Who posible, replace drawn details with symbols. ‘¢ Use templates and guides to reduce drawing time, © Standard parts shouki only be drawn for clarity, not detail. Refer to these by part num! efs OF names. Be careful not to oversimplify a drawing As a tule, any shortcut which simplifies the drawing and still delivers the message is acceptable By applying the rules of design economy on the drawing board, the tool designer can realize substantial savings in time, labor, and materials. ‘These economic principles are apptied to all design examples and sug- gestions throughout the practical design units of this text ECONOMIC ANALYSIS ‘The (ol designer must furnish manage- ment witht an idea of how much tooling will cost, and how much the production method. Wes ober @ specific un, “This information is generally furnished in the form of a tooling estimate, A tooling estimate includes the estimated cost of the tool and projected savings over alternate methods, The estimate also includes any special conditions which may justify the cost of the tooling, such as close tolerinves or high-volume production, figure 6-1, For a valid estintate, the tool designer must accurately estimate the cost anil productivity of th in terms of materials, labor, and the number of parts per hour the tool will produce, desien, This is done Esti lating Tool Cost and Productivity The simplest and most direct way to determine the cost of a took design is to add casts of material and labor nétded This must be done carefully so no part or operation is forgotten, One method is to label cach part of the tool, figure 6-2, and list the materials in a separate parts list, Then, using a cost worksheet, list each part and calculate the material and tabor for each operation, figure 6-3. ‘The time allowed for each machining operation in- cludes time for the setup and breakdown, as well as the actual machining. The final expense added is the cost of designing the. tool. The nest step in estimating is caleu- lating the number of parts per hour the tool will produce, ‘The simplest method is to divide one hour by the single-part time, or the tot to fabricate the toolUnit 6 Design Economics 79 iG ESTIMATE pant_BRACKET BLOCK — part no 1542 7A 1 wor size _375 REPEAT ORDER~ ves wo_X. } TYPE OF OPERATION REQUIREO~ : TOOL! MILL 45°BEVEL ON ONE SIDE- Tow..t. COS ; | VISE HELD MILL FIXTURE } | corrs - #39.00_ | | ESTIMATED PRODUCTION RaTE- __75___ pants pew HOUR | esTiNaTy | | | ESTIMATED TOO! 6a. ESTIMATED COST PER PART — SAVINGS OVER ALTERNATE METHOO- __# 4 ALTERNATE TOOLING METHODS ~ TOOL ROOM OR PROTOTYPE DEPT. REMARKS / RECOMMENDATIONS - ‘TROL ROOM BR PROTOTYPE DEPT. T00 SLOW~ 25 PARTS PER HOUR, AND TOO COSTLY - #/,85 PER PART. RECOMMEND FIXTURE BE AUTHORIZED. Fig. 6-1 Tooting estimate the time it takes lo load, machine, and unload Fi each part. Expre ed as a formuta, this calcu- lation becomes ey 0221 | Pa = } | = 45.25 varts per hour | Where: Ph = Parts per hour The following chart can be used to con S. = Single-part time vert standard clock time from hours, minutes, and seconds into decim: r | Ee et rectiom wis Te ee ceed Dee Ie to | jig produce if the machining time is .0167_®#lulation | | hour and it takes 0027 hour to load the a oe fi ihour = 1Ohr bert and another 0027 hour to low OE Oke : WShour = 25 he p= 6min = thr 1 ymin O16Thr | By substitutifiy the known values, the formula isec = .000277hr becomes: jee80. Unit 6 Design Economics ory] __pescnipric 2 [bowen PN 1 | set/sroP PIN mos! eliminate eed) for skilled labor. Since special tooling transfers the required skill and accuracy front the operator to the tool, unskilled labor can produce accurate parts rate, To caleulate the at a reduced way cost of labors the formula is Sig ee [power ic wore 7 | 2 [sx cap scREW t ieee 14972 Fig. 62 Parts list Calculating Labor Expense Where: L = Cost of labor Labor is the single most expensive factor 1S = Lot size jn manufacturing. If labor expenses can be Dee tadper ote reduced, so ean overall production costs ceil, 80 can overall product 1 2 migente Jigs and fixtures reduce machining time in ey reduce or Example: Five thousand parts are to be milled using a fixture capable of producing. 60 parts per hour, What is the cost of Tabor if the machine operator earns 36.75 per hour? by substituting the known values, the formule becomes:\ | Unit 6 Design Economics 81 [\——= eee COST WORK SHEET | Lapor EXPENSE $27.40 vey REQUIRED OPERATIONS LABOR} MATL. 1 Py $3.75. Layout SHR DRILL AND REAM oa | oRILL AND TAP 40 2 $.70 DRWI AND CBORE 20 (DRILLED AND REAMED WITH BASE PLATE) 3 $6.50 4 | 2ea @.08 $46 | $10 GRIND ANGLE 40 6 | 2&a @ 045 | $.09 7 2EA. @ 05 | $10 | ASSEMBLY AND INSP. | DESIGN | 23HR @ $8.002$16.40 (rasrication) 1OHR @$900 $9.00 oEeien, LABOR MATERIALS TOTAL Fig. 6-3 Cost worksheet <000 5 = X $6.75 82.33 X $6.75 = $562.50 expense Calculating the Cost Per Part A comparison of tool costs or labor expenses cannot give the toot designer enongh information to determine the true economic potential of a design, For accuracy, the tool designer must calculate how much the design is worth in terms of total production and cost per part. The formula for finding this va Cp = TOLL82 Unit 6 Design Economics Where: Cp = Cost per part TC = ‘Tool cost L. = Cost of bor LS = Lot size Example: What is the vost per part of « mill- ing operation for 7000 parts when the fixt costs $55.00 and the laborexpense is $784.1 becomes 00 + 8784.12 7000 839.12 7000 = $.119 of $.12 per part Catculating Total Savings To determine the most economical production method, the tool designer must compare production alternatives. This calcu fation can be made in two forms, depending fon the situation regarding the tooling used, The first formula assumes that both altema- fe special (ool tives being consilered. req to produce the part, This formuia is TS = LS X (Cp#l - Cp: Where: TS = Total savings LS = Lot size Cp = Cost per part Example: A part requiring six holes is to be drilled using a jig. ‘The first too! can produce the parts for $.19 each, the second for $.12 each. What will be the savings over a pro- duction ran of 1000 parts by using the second (ool? TS = LS X (Cpe! - Cp By substituting the known values, the formula becomes: 1S = 1000 x ($.19 = 8.12) = 1000 X 8.07 370.00 total savings In the case of production altematives, where only one method requires special tooling, the formula used is: 1S = LS X (Cpe = Cp#2) ~ TC Where: TS = Total savings LS = Lot size Cp = Cost per part TC = Tool cost Example: A flange-plate adapter costs $.22 per part to drill without a jig and $.10 per part when a drill jig is used. Assuming the jig costs $110.00, how much will the jig. save over a production run of 1500 parts? TS = LS Xx (Cpal - Cp#2) - TC he known values, the formul By substituti becomes TS = 1500 X ($22 - $.10) - $110.00 = 1500 X $12 - $110.00 = $180.00 - $110.00 = $70.00 total savings Calculating the Break-Even Point The break-even point is the minimum humher of parts @ tool must produce in order to pay for itself, Any number less than point results in a loss of money. Any more (han the break-even point results in prolit. It is logical to assume that the lower the break-even point, the higher the profit potentialThe formula used to find the fre point is: al-even He oar Where: BP = Breakeven point TC = Tool cost Cp = Cost per part Example: A lathe fixture costs $150.00 to build and produces parts at a cost of §.20. How many parts must it produce in order to pay for itself when compared to an alternate method which requires no special tooling and is capable of making the parts at a cost of $.40 each? fs rc BP (chet - pad By substituting the known values, the formula becomes $150.00 (S40 a 3.20) Unit 6 Design Economics 93 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS the tool designer must consider and evaluate several options before making a tooling recommendation to management, By comparing each method, the tooling re- quirements, in terms of costs versus savings, Then, the method which re- tums the most for each dollar spent can be selected. When preparing this comparison, the tool designer must weigh all the economic can be seen, factors in relation to expenses and productivity. Example: Five hundred guide plates must be milled to receive a locating block. The tool fesigner has determined three possible alternatives: 1. Have 2 toolmaker, who earns $12.00 Per hour, mill the plates at a rate of 5 per hour, * 2. Use limited tooling which costs $35.00 production department. The machine operator in this department, who ears $7.00 per hour, can make @ part every one minute and twenty seconds. f COMPARISON WORKSHEET ie ECONOMIC & PRODUCTIVITY | ALTERNATIVES FACTORS L#t | #2 | #3 | | worse | 800 | 800 5 TOOL COST oO $35.00 |s0.00 PARTS PER HOUR 25 | | LABOR/HOUR $12.00 | $7.00 | $7.00 [eee | Fig. 6-4 Comparison Workshest ln een me aenee84 Unit 6 Design Economics 3. Use a more expensive tool costing $110.00, but capable of producing a part every twenty-four seconds. ‘This would be done in the production department where a machine operator carns $7.00 per hour. Which alternative should the toot designer select as the most efficient and economical? Before a decision can be made, the tool designer must organize this information. The simplest method is. shown in figure 64, This comparison structed by listing the alternatives across the economic and productivity worksheet is first con- top and the factors along the side. Then,.the known values as shown are filled in, The remaining alues are calculated from the economic and productivity. formulas and used (o- complet the worksheet Phe first values which shoukl be cu lated are the parts per hour that the tools in alternatives. will produce To do this, the for m=! For nt ne font ene Ph = | min 20 see ‘ 1 - = 167 + (20 X 000277) 1 02224 44.96 or 45 parts per hour for #2 For alternative #3 the formula and calcula- sions are: by = Lhour ee 4 sec . 1 X 000279) 1 006648 150.42 oF 150 parts per hour for #3 The next calculation computed is the cost of labor for the entire production run, The formula is: 1S x w ph * For alternative #1 the formula and caleu- lations a L 500 x §17 90 x $12.00 = $240.00 labor cost for #1 For alternative #2 the formula and caleu~ lations are 500 % 57 L= 50 x s7.00 = $77.78 labor cost for #2 For alternative #3 the formula and calcu- 00, L iso «$7.00 $23.33 labor cost for #3 Vhe tool designer now uses this infor caleulate the cost of each mation to native on a per part basis, Many decisions will be based on these figures. The formula used to determine the cost per part is: cp = T¢ a. E Vor alternative #1 the formula and ealeu- = 3240.00 500 $.48 cost per part for #1 Cp For alternative #2 the formula and caleu- lations are Cp = 835.004 $17.78. 500 = §.226 cost per part for #2 For alternative #3 the formula and calou- cp = SUL 00+ 500 = $.267 cost per part for #3[ECONOMIC & PRODUCTIVITY FACTORS LOT SIZE TOOL cost PARTS PER HOUR LABOR/HOUR LABOR/LOT € COST PER PART Unit 6 Design Economics 88 ~~ COMPARISON WORKSHEET ALTERNATIVES # #2 #3 500 500 500 © | $35.00 |$110.00 25 45 150 $12.00 | $7.00 | $7.00 $240.00 | $77.78 | $23.33 $4e | §.226 | $.267 Fig. 6S Comparing the alternatives The comph worksheet, figure 6-5, contains enough information for the tool designer to make recommendations ent. For the tool designer to je comparison to manage make the best possible choice, each alterna: fe must be evaluated in terms of plus and minus factors, In evaluating the information, in the comparison worksheet, Figure 6 the tol designer draws following conchusio T tooling, bul because of the slow production high labor cost, the savings are tost This method may be useful for a small run of ess than 50 parts or for experimental pro- duction purposes. When cast is the only factor, the first allerative is not suitable. The third alternative produces the parts at a higher production rate and lower labor cost than the other alternatives. ‘The savings are again offse It the production run. were greater, this method would be the least expensive, For the lot size specil first alternative saves the cost of rate an this time by the toot cost, the third alternative is too costly The second alternative tas the lowest cost per part of the three alternatives and will return the most for each dollar invested, For these reasons, the second alternative is the one the toot designer should select. How much is actually saved? How many Parts must this tool produce to pay for itself? These questions can be answered by caleu- lating the total savings and the break-even point, The formulas for calculating the total savings are: TS = LS X (Cp#l - Cp#2) TS = LS X (Cp#l - Cp#2) ~ TC ‘To calculate the total savings between altematives one and two, the second formula is used. TS = 500 X ($.48-$.226)- $35.00 = $92.00 saved by using #2 rather than #1 To calculate the total savings between alternatives two and three, the first formula is used: TS = S00 X (3.267 ~$.226) $20.50 saved by using #2 rather than #386 Unit 8 Design Economies To calculate the break-even point, the Yo calculate the break-even point be- formula is ween alternatives two and three, the formula 7 and calculations are BP = T “ pet nee ohn To calculate the breakeven point be- (8.267 - §.226) tween alternatives one and cal 138 par mula nd, two, the Fo oe 54 parts to iculations are. $35.00 ($.48—$.220) fo break event REVIEW 1 List and briefly describe the six principles of economic design. Using the listed alternatives, prepare a comparative analysis for the following tooling problem: Nine hundred and fifty flange plates re- quire four holes accurately drilled 90 degrees apart to mate with a connector valve. Which of the listed alternatives is the most econom- ically desirable A. Have a machinist, earning $10.00 per hour, lay out and drill each part at a rave of two minutes per part Bo Use a template jig, capable of producing 50 parts per hour and $18.00, in the production de nent where an operator costing earns $6.50 per hour. ©. Use a duplex jiz, which costs $37.50 and can produce a part every 26 sevonds, in the production departineat where an operutor cars $6.30 per hour. Assuming everything to be the same as in problem #2, which alterna- tive would be the most economical for 135 parts?unit 7; Developing the Initial Design OBJECTIVES After completing this unit, th * describe how the designs for jigs and fixtun tudent will be able to: are planned. * list the human factors involved in tool design: © list PREDESIGN ANALYSIS All tool design ideas begin in the mind of ihe tool designer. A great deal of planning, nd rescarch is needed to turn tooling ideas into practical hard ware first step in designing a tool is of ganizing all relative information. Part draw- ings and production plans are carefully studied to find exactly what tool is required Preliminary plans for the tool are developed. usually by means of sketches, The tool di signer must develop alternatives which are fective. Finally, tool drawings are made trom which tools can be pructical and cost built. ‘Overall Size and Shape of the Part Phe (001 designer must consider how the size and shape of the part influences the bulk and mass of the tool For example, the mating parts shown in figure 7-1 have the same hole patterns, 1e tool needed for the cendl cap, however, is much smatler and simpler than the tool required for the housing, In this + template jig could be used for the end cap and a table jig for the housing afety factors related to tool design : Type and Condition of Material The type and condition of part material directly influences how the tool is made. Parts from soft materials, such as aluminum, magnesium, or plastic, are easier and faster to cut than harder whaterials, Since cut forces are reduced for these materials, the design of the (ool is directly affected. Re- duced cutting forces allow fighter, less rigid Fig, 7-1 Parts having the same hole pattern may coquite different toolsa Bias TO : $DATE RIEL RT 88 Unit 7 Developing the Initial Design tools, but the higher production rate requires faster tool operation ‘The condition of the part material also affects how the part is held and located. Rolled or extruded bar-stock is more uniform in size than cast parts and is normally easier to locate. In addition, cast parts are some- es more fragile than solid sections, and clamping pressure must be reduced to prevent ing or cracking the casting. bre ‘Type of Machining Operation ‘The particular machining operation to be done specifies the type of tool to be made, fi some cases, multipurpose tools can be designed for more than one operation, such as the deill 2 Nonnally, single-purpose tools a jig/milling fixture, figure 7 preferred for high-speed production ‘The machining operation also determines how rigid the tool will be made, For ex- ample, 2 gang-milling fixture must be built stronger than a keyway Gxture. A drill jig for large holes must he made stronger than a nereased cute th and jig, for small holes, As a rule, Ling. forces require added tool stre rigidity, Degree of Accuracy Required The affect accuracy has on the desien is usually reflected in the tool tolerances, The general rule of tolerance is 20 percent to 50 percent of the part tolerance is applied to the COMPLETED PART Fiy. 7-2 Multipurpone tooling — tool. ‘The degtee of required accuracy deter mines this tolerance, Figure 7-3A shows a part which requires the slot to be within +001 inch of the .38¢inch dimension, This is 8 much closer tolerance than that shown in figure 7-3B, Here the tolerance is #.010 inch, The slot location is much more critical for the first part than for the second. Therefore, the toot must reflect this added precision, Number of Pieces to Be Made The number of pieces to be made has & direct bearing on how well the tool is made. For example, a production run of 1500 parts requires a jig. The jig must not cost more to make than it saves, Therefore, the jig must be made If, however, a run of 150,000 parts needed simple and cheaply as possible the sume jig, ey could be spent to make the tool sa rule, larger production runs justify more mo} more det nd expensive tooling than do smaller runs. This is because the toot will be and production speeds we longer ane generally higher alo require replaceable pi making the tool. Bushing jeft out of short-run tools, They are ine Longer production runs ts to be used in are sometimes cluded, along with liners and lock serews, in tools used in Jonger production runs. Detai stich as locators and clamps, are also affected by the size of production runs, _ DRILL [busninss , 8 | =| jigieitling fixtureFig. 78 The degroo of sce Locating and Clamping Surfaces The part drawing must be studied to find the best surfaces to locate and clamp the part. The order of prefei 1. Holes 2. Two machined surfaces which form a right angle One machined and one unmachined surface which form a right angle, 4. Two unmachined surfaces which form 1 Fight angle The prime requirement for @ locating The parts must be positioned identically, within the tolerance surface is repeatabitit limits Chunping surfaces must be ngid and sapable of holding the pi jout bending, Bending can distort the ation If the clamping surface could bend, it must be suppe Wa finish fo hold the part, the clamp should have a art after part. Honmar cap or pad to prevent damage to the finished surface, ‘Type and Size ef Machine Toot The process planning engineer normally selects the machine tool for each operation, However, if a better tool could be used, the tool designer st vl consul ie process engincer belpre beginning the design, For xampie, when drilling holes with a drill jig, a dill press should be used, Little is gained from using a vertical mitt or jig borer Unit 7 Developing the Initial Design 8. since the accuracy is built into the jig, not into the machine tool. Once the machine tool has been selected, the tool designer must know the size of machine elements and ranges of operation before beginning the design? This is required so the tool designer can position the details, such as clamps, locators, holddowns, slot keys and other parts, in places where they will not interfere with the operation of the tool, The machine reference sheet provided in the operator's for each machine contains this information, figure 7-4. Using this reference sheet saves many hours of measuring and checking each ine before designing & Look instruction or maintenance book ‘Type and Size of Cutters Normally, the type and size of cutters are specified by the process engineer Occasionally, the toot designer may choose the cutters, Before the tool designer selects the cutters, every detail about the tools being used must be known to insure the part is properly referenced to the tool, and that enough tool clearance is provided. Figure 7-5 shows a specifications chart. Each type and size of cutter is made to a standard size. Using this type of engineering data sheet again saves time, Another source of information is the industrial supplier, Suppliers know. their products and can anewer tooling questions90 Unit 7 Developing the Initiat Design DIMENSIONAL ORAWINGS Fig. 74 Machine reference shootMACHINE SPECIFICATIONS GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS. 2M UNIV, Unit 7 Developing the Initial Design 81 1 Table } Working surface | Size over-all j Teslots, number and size z Distance between T slots Swivels Range Longitudinal, Cross Vertical Centerline spindle io top of table Max man Spindte Spindle nose. Hole for drawn bolt Speeds | Number Range 295,38, 500, 680, 4%, 1160, 1500 rom. ‘Low range of spine spreds, 20 10 1200 rmin. or high range of siodle speeds, 35 10 2000 min, may be obtained atthe time the orders placed Feed ‘Number of feeds E Range | Longitudinal and cross » Vertical a | 1/114, 5/16, 7/16, 6/8, 7/0, 1 1/4,4 3/4, 2 3183 17404 472, 8118, 83/8, 19 1/2, 16, 22,30" per min, Vertical rate ae 1/2 the foregoing, ‘An optional lead rae ot 1/2" to 60” per minute an be sapoie! a the tr sr isplace, Longitudinal, ror, and weil fed sates 52 3/8" x 10” 52 3/4""x 10" Threo—11/16" 25/16" 45° Rand L No, 50 Sta. ie" 16 25-1500 ¢/min 16 114-30" fon, 1/8-45"/min, 547/16" x 10” 54 7/16" x 10" Three— 11/16" 25/16" 28" io 18.12" 181/72" a No, 50 Std, 11" 16 25-1500 r/min 16 1/4-30" sein, 1/B-AB"Imin, Power Rapid Travers Longitudinal and Cross 150/min 150"fnin Vertes | 78timin 75¢/min Dividing Head | ‘Sire {nominal sin) | jo" Man. lent of work between conters (cea Overarm (Oymapaive) | Underside to conterine of spindle | eve" Drive | a Spindle drive motor | Bhp Feed dre motor. | 1178hnp iano Floor space \ ‘Maximu sie, | 97" xe" 95 5/8" x 93 1/4" area : | Bias | Bratt Shipping data VAdprox.) | | Nevsveight. ce. 42001, | 4650 1b, Grows weight, domestic, 56005: | 5300 Ib, Gross weight, export 5900 Ib. 5600 Ib Shipping ease | Slee length x height x width | 770" 42" | 7am 70. 42" | vaBeu i Te. Fo amuee MIPLL i . MpiAL. _Auviomatic Table Cycles not aailgbie.on Universal Machines Fig, 7-4 (Continued) Nove Genera specification: for Pisin Machines with and without Automatic Table Cyan,82 Unit 7 Developing the Initial Design ENGINEERING SPECIFICATION MODIFICATION CHART ha NIAGARA CUTTER : ae a ncGeRED TOOTH OE MILLING CUTTERS (OWECK YOUR MILLING GUTTER PRINTS WITH EENGINEENING SPECIFICATION CHARTS A&B 10 ELIMINATE SPECIAL MILLING CUTTERS. Fig. 7-5 Engineering specifications for euttorsor furnish information relative to most tool design problems. Sequence of Operations Quite often the tool sign more than one toot for a part, When this is the case, the sequence of operations must be determined as well as which tool to design first, For example, if a drill jig for a part is designed first, then the holes provide an ex- celient location for the milling fixture which isneeded in the next operation DESIGNING AROUND THE HUMAN ELEMENT No matter how mechanized our society becomes, there will always bea need for people in the manufacturing industries, Before de- ciding on the final design, the tool designer ‘most consider the human fuctors in relation to the operation of the tool. Operators, setup Personnel, and inspectors are all involved with the proposed jig or fixture. They must be considered in designing the tool signer must de- Human Capabilities Human capabilities are almost limitless, It is human limitations, however, that the tool designer must keep in mind when design- ing a jig or fixture. The following list ine dicates some of the points to remember when planning a tool design. * Is the operation of the too! smooth and Thythmic ‘+ Can both hanils be used at the same time? + Do both hands start and stop together? © Are there as few required movements as to minimize fatigue? t be used to lessen hand and arm fatigue * Are cll controls and clamps located within easy reach of the operator? ® Are controls and clamps convenient for the operator to use? Unit 7 Developing the Initial Design 93 © Are all handles large enough to reduce hand and finger fatigue? * Is the {ool completely safe to operate? This is not a complete list. It is only intended to remind the student that a human being will operate the tool being designed, Safety As Related to Tool Design The first consideration in designing any tool must be safety. No matter how fast a tool works or how much money it saves, if the tool is not safe to operate, it is useless, Safety must be planned into every design detail. The tool designer must always remem- ber the person operating the tool, The fol- fowing checklist should be consulted during every step of the design to insure the tool is completely safe to operate. * Is the tool clear of the cutters during the loading and unloading operations? * Are all clamps and controls located so the operator does not have to reach over the tool, + Are any operator movements required close to a moving or revolving tool? ® Are chip guards needed to protect the operator and others nearby? * Are all sharp edges on the toot cham- fered? * Are attached accessories (pins, feeler gauges, wrenches, etc.) far enough away to prevent tangling in the tool? © Is the entire operation visible from the operator's position? + Could the part be pulled from the tool? * Is the tool body rigid enough to resist all cutting forces? + Could the clamping device loosen during the machining eycle? PREVIOUS MACHINING OPERATIONS ‘This phase of design is closely related to the sequence of operations. The tool designer must know what operations, if any, have been done prior to the operation being planned. In94 Unit 7 Developing the Initial Design this way, locators and clamps can be positioned to take advantage of the existing machined surfaces, ‘one person is designing tools for ‘This is important when more than ie same part, DEVELOPING TOOLING ALTERNATIVES Every tool design problem has an almost unlimited aumber of possible solutions, The tool designer must find the one which is the fastest, most economical, and accurate. When developing tooling alternatives, the tool designer must keep speed, accuracy, and economy in mind at all times, Often, while developing designs, better 10 work with than limiting the tool to only one possible design. For example, if a jig could be a template or plate-type design, both: a combination of ideas is should be incorporated into the final design, As outlined in Unit 1, the tool designer must answer the following questions before any design can be Should special tooling be used or exist- ing tooling modified ‘© Should multiple or single-spindle ma- chines be used? ® Should the too! be capable of more than one operation? ‘© How should each operation be checked? REVIEW ‘+ Should special gauges be made? ‘+ Will the savings justify the cost of the tool? Is there enough leverage provided on hand-held jigs to prevent spinning? + Hlas every possible detail been studied “to protect the operator? This general checklist should be used to evaluate the safety of each design. As a rule, if there is any doubt about the safety of using a tool, redesign the tool until it is considered safe to use NOTETAKING After studyin formation, the tool designer can begin the While working on the de- sign, all the necessary data is kept close at hand by taking notes. ‘The designer should record any particular point which might be useful later, For example, if during the analysis the designer thinks of a good way to hold the part, the idea should be jotted down. If notes are not taken, good ideas can be lost. No one can possibly remember every detail all the pretiminary in- actual too! design: without some sort of written reminder. It does not matter how a note is recorded, just get it down on paper before it is forgotten, 1. Briefly describe the principal factors which must be analyzed with re- gard to the following areas: Overall size and shape of the part Type and condition of material Type of machining operation Degree of accuracy required Numiber of pieces to be made Locating and clamping surfaces Type and size of machine tool Type and size of cutters Sequence of operations Previous machining operations List six human factors which must be consid List ten safety factors which must be considered during the design of any tool, sd when designing a tool,| | unit 8: Tool Drawings OBJECTIVES: After completing this unit, the student will be able to: * identily the types of tool drawings, * specily methods to simplify tool drawings. * identity dimensional forms * specily the rules of metric dimensioning, TOOL DRAWINGS VERSUS PRODUCTION DRAWINGS Toal drawings ave to transfer de tailed instructions trom the tool designer to the toolmaker.- The form and specifications ly. established within each company to meet particular needs. However, there are standards and eon- ventions which all companies follow Too! drawings differ from standard pro duction drawings in the amount of detail shown. Toolmakers are highly skilled tech- nicians. Therefore, they require less detailed information on drawin; the tool designer specifi pins to be located on 2.00-inch centers, the the hole standard toolmaking practices would automatically make the hole sma fit on the dowels. Lik of these drawin; For example, if two .25-inch dowel designer does not need! to spe size on a tool drawing, Following t to allow for a press ise, the tool designer jiminates much of the drawn details found on production drawings ané replaces th with word descriptions, Tool drawings fall into two general types, assembly and detail. Some tool draw- ings are made in the assembly form only because of the simplicity of the tool, How- ever, larger, more complex tools require detailed drawings to describe each part, Assembly Drawings Assembly tool drawings show the entire ils completed form with all parts in cir proper place, figure 8-1, This tool is simple enough to show every detail without making an individual drawing of each part Dataited Drawings Detailed tool drawings are used to show tools with many parts which must be draws separately to show true sizes and. shapes. Figure 8-2 shows a tool which is too com plex for an assembly drawing. Here, a detail must be used. in cithier case, an assembly drawing is first drawn in orthogeaphic of isometric 9596 Unit 8 Tool Drawings pin 87 75 Lons \ a le 1000-4 _—n-3750-f-2 zea @n-bon p/w 549t2-24 1REO Fig. 81 Assembly drawing form. If necessary, balloon references are of the parts for the used to identify ea detail drawings. Using assembly. drawings, gs, allows the took maker to sce how each part is located in the final tool. This also permits. much easier assembly, figure 8: along with detail drawii SIMPLIFIED DRAWINGS The simplified drawing practices out- lined in Unit 6 assist the designer by reducing the amount of time it takes to make a tool drawing. The following are points to remem- ber in making tool drawings: ‘© Where practical, words should replace drain details. © Elimina’ views, projections, or d all unnecessary or redundant ‘+ When applicable, symbols are used in details place of draw © When possible, templates and guides are used to reduce drawing time. * Standard. parts shoukl only be drawa for clarity, not detail. Refer to these arts by number and name. When using the simplified form of draw- ing, the designer must not oversimplify the drawing, As a rule, any shortcut whic simplifies a drawing and still delivers the in~ tended message is acceptable, Using Words on Drawings Words can save countless hours of draw- ing time, To be effective, however, they must clarify, not complicate a drawing, The bushingUnit 8 Too! Drawings 97 @.136 (#29) 10-32 unc 80 SLOT .93 DEEP FOR meoxnur.. | SCREWOR:VER 10-32 UNE I ie 1188 | CLAMP scREW | | 2 REO 32s Fivor SCREW Fig. 82 Detail drawing @.6242- 6250 FOR PRESS FIT ON BUSHINGS = | 280 | Nene i = o828 { =f z tr ae | 63 63 tart 63 4 jee 4. + j NOTE: WELD #2 ano 43 eerone DRILLING AND FITTING BUSHINGS, Fig. 8-3 Assembly and detail drawings used together86 Unit ® Toot Drawings DRILL 2f REAM TO SUIT 6001 BUSHING INSTALL BUSHING #P-5000 (4 PLaces) Fig, 84 Using words to identity size holes ig plate, figure 8-4, are identified This is quicker than making « drawing of the tual bushings Reducing the Number of Views Standard drafting practi ire (hree views of an object. s totally describe the ob shows how one drawn detail and a word Jescription, .63 inch thick, cam save drawing, The second and thind views When reducing the munber of views, the designer must mak sure none of the secessa mation is Symbols wi appropriate, symbols. § drawn details. Symbols, such as tho crew threads, shou ure 8 reads, Likewise, 27 Symbols contain more specific information lace the actual drawn welding symbols are used in figu than drawn details and take less time to draw Using Templates and Guides Templates saye hours of drawing time hy allowing the Wesigncr lo nice overa printed drawing of a tooling deta ponent Femplotes etal si es in Fig. 86 Screw thread symbols Fig. 87 Welding symbols of standard parts. Figure 8 lengths of jig feet and rest butions, The de shows availa igner selects the size d sired and draws only that portion of the template fe. The most common scales are the full one-hal Drawing guides are available in severai Yermplates are also available in nd one-quarter scale types and sizes, Common figures such as circles, hexagons, and si can be drawn accurately and quickly using these guides.Unit @ Tool Drawings 98 Fig. 8-8 Drawing templates400. Unit 8 Too! Drawings os ioe Pee aig OOOOOce00e« spasms AISGDEFGHIIRLMNOP

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