07.10.
2016
Chapter Objectives
Larry Brown
Tom Holme
Describe how chemistry and engineering helped transform
aluminum from a precious metal to an inexpensive structural
material.
[Link]/chemistry/brown
Explain the usefulness of the macroscopic, microscopic, and
symbolic perspectives in understanding chemical systems.
Chapter 1
Introduction to Chemistry
Draw pictures to illustrate simple chemical phenomena (like
the differences among solids, liquids, and gases) on the
molecular scale.
Jacqueline Bennett SUNY Oneonta
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Chapter Objectives
Aluminum
In the 19th century
aluminum was a rare and
precious metal.
Explain the difference between inductive and deductive
reasoning in your own words.
Use appropriate ratios to convert measurements from one
unit to another.
Pure aluminum never
occurs in nature
Found in bauxite, an ore
Express the results of calculations using the correct number
of significant figures.
The now common use of
aluminum is due to
collaboration between
chemistry and engineering.
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The Scientific Method
The Study of Chemistry
Chemists use the scientific method to solve problems.
The study of chemistry involves three levels of understanding,
or three perspectives.
Make observations of nature.
Macroscopic
Derive a hypothesis or build a model in response to
observations.
Microscopic
Construct experiments to bolster or refute hypothesis or
model.
Symbolic
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The Macroscopic Perspective
The Macroscopic Perspective
Matter is anything that has
mass and can be observed.
Matter is observed through
two types of changes.
Physical properties are variables of matter that we can
measure without changing the identity of the substance being
observed.
Physical changes
Aluminum metal is a highly malleable metal; it can
withstand large amounts of stress before it breaks or
crumbles.
Chemical changes
The density of an object is a ratio of its mass to its volume.
Other physical properties include: mass, color, viscosity,
hardness, and temperature.
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The Macroscopic Perspective
The Macroscopic Perspective
Chemical properties are determined only by observing how a
substance changes its identity in chemical reactions.
There are three phases of matter.
Solids are hard and do not change their shapes easily at
ordinary temperatures.
Pure aluminum metal reacts with acid, such as in soft
drinks, to form an aluminum salt and hydrogen gas
Liquids assume the shape of the portion of the container
they fill.
The ability of a compound to burn in oxygen, or
combustion, is another chemical property.
Gases expand to occupy the entire volume of their
containers.
The degradation of metals in the presence of air and
moisture, or corrosion, is another common chemical
property.
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The Microscopic Perspective
The Microscopic, or Particulate, Perspective
Matter is composed of unimaginably small particles called
atoms that retain the chemical identity of the element they
represent.
An element is composed of atoms with identical physical and
chemical properties.
Molecules are groups of atoms held together by attractive
forces whose properties are distinguishable from those of the
individual elements.
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Solid: particles maintain a regular ordered structure;
maintains size and shape.
Liquid: particles remain close but no longer ordered; takes
shape of container.
Gas: particles are widely separated and move independently
of one another; fills available volume of container.
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The Microscopic Perspective
The Microscopic Perspective
During a physical
change, chemical
composition does not
change.
Heating liquid water to
make gaseous water
(steam)
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Example Problem 1.1
During a chemical change, a chemical reaction occurs that
changes the chemical composition of the matter involved.
Using electricity to convert water into oxygen and
hydrogen molecules
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The Symbolic Representation
A candle suspended above boiling water could be used to test
a hypothesis about the chemical composition of the bubbles
that rise from boiling water. What would be observed if the
bubbles were composed of:
Element abbreviations are
used to represent:
pure aluminum, Al
aluminum oxide, Al2O3
water
hydrogen
oxygen
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The Symbolic Representation
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The Science of Chemistry: Observations and Models
Chemistry is an empirical science and is studied by:
Measuring physical properties and observing chemical
reactions.
Models are created to explain observations and organize
collected data.
Particulate level
representation for
aluminum oxide, Al2O3, in
bauxite.
Particulate level
representation for
pure aluminum, Al.
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Observations in Science
Observations in Science
Observations are recorded via measurements.
Measurements can have
poor precision and poor
accuracy.
Accuracy - how close the observed value is to the true
value.
Darts are scattered
evenly across the
board.
Precision - the spread in values obtained from
measurements; the reproducibility of values.
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Observations in Science
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Observations in Science
Measurements can have
good precision and poor
accuracy.
Measurements can have
good precision and good
accuracy.
Darts are clustered
together.
Darts are clustered
together, and
But darts are clustered
far from the bulls-eye.
darts are clustered
close to or on the
bulls-eye.
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Observations in Science
Interpreting Observations
Measurements contain one of two types of errors:
Inductive and deductive reasoning are used to interpret
collected data and observations.
Random Error - may make a measurement randomly too
high or too low. (e.g., variation associated with equipment
limitations)
Systematic Error - may make a measurement consistently
too high or too low. (e.g., the presence of an impurity)
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Inductive reasoning begins with a series of specific
observations and attempts to generalize to a larger,
more universal conclusion.
Deductive reasoning takes two or more statements or
assertions and combines them so that a clear and
irrefutable conclusion can be drawn.
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Models in Science
Numbers and Measurements in Chemistry
Models refer to a largely empirical description.
Chemists quantify data, expressing collected data with units
and significant figures.
Gas pressure is proportional to temperature.
Units - designate the type of quantity measured.
Theories are explanations grounded in some more
fundamental principle or assumption about the behavior of a
system.
Prefixes - provide scale to a base unit.
Significant Figures - indicate the amount of information
that is reliable when discussing a measurement.
Relationship between gas pressure and temperature
explained using kinetic energy.
Laws are sufficiently refined, well tested, and widely
accepted theories.
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Units
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Units
The base unit designates
the type of quantity being
measured.
SI units (from French
Systme International) are
the base units of science.
Some units comprise
combinations of these base
units and are termed
derived units
1 J = 1 kg m2 s-2
Prefixes are used with base units to report and understand
quantities of any size.
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SI Prefixes
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Temperature
Temperature is measured using the Fahrenheit, Celsius, and
Kelvin (absolute) temperature scales.
Prefixes are based on multiples of 10.
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Temperature Scale Conversions
o
F = (1.8 o C) + 32
C = ( o F -32)/1.8
Numbers and Significant Figures
Scientific notation is used to easily write very small and very
large numbers.
Factor out powers of ten
54,000 = 5.4 10 4
K = o C + 273.15
o
0.000042 = 4.2 10 5
C = K - 273.15
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Numbers and Significant Figures
Example Problem 1.2
All digits reported are considered significant except for certain types
of zeros.
When a zero establishes the decimal place, it is not significant.
51,300 m (3 significant figures)
0.043 g (2 significant figures)
An alloy contains 2.05% of some impurity. How many
significant figures are reported in this value?
A zero is significant when it follows a decimal point or when it
occurs between other significant figures.
4.30 mL (3 significant figures)
304.2 kg (4 significant figures)
All numbers are significant when written in correct scientific
notation.
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Numbers and Significant Figures
Example Problem 1.3
For calculated values, the number of significant figures should be
consistent with the data used in the calculation.
Report the result for the indicated arithmetic operations using
the correct number of significant figures. Assume all values
are measurements and not exact numbers.
For multiplication and division, the number of significant figures in a
result must be the same as the number of significant figures in the
factor with the fewest significant figures.
4.30 0.31
0.24 kg 4621 m = 1100 kg m or 1.1 10 3 kg m
4.033 + 88.1
For addition and subtraction, the number of significant figures are
determined from the position of the first uncertain digit.
5.6/17.32
4.882 m
+ 0.3 m
5.2 m
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Numbers and Significant Figures
Problem Solving in Chemistry and Engineering
When counting discrete objects, the result has no ambiguity.
Such measurements use exact numbers. They have infinite
significant figures.
There are several categories of problems:
Calculations involving ratios
two pennies would be 2.000000
Conceptual understanding of particulate level
Exactly defined terms, such as metric prefixes, are also
considered exact numbers.
Visualization of phenomena on different levels
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Using Ratios
Example Problem 1.4
Ratios represent the relationship between two quantities and
can be expressed two ways.
Suppose that your supermarket is offering 20-count shrimp for
$5.99 per pound. How much should you expect to pay for one
dozen shrimp?
Price =
$4.45
= $0.89 per pound
5.0 pounds
5.0 pounds
= 1.1 pounds per dollar
$4.45
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Ratios in Chemistry Calculations
Example Problem 1.5
Mass Density - ratio of an objects mass to its volume.
What is the wavelength, in meters, of orange light of
wavelength 615 nm?
Temperature- and compound-specific
Allows conversion between mass and volume.
346 L
1000 mL 0.975 g
= 3.37 x 10 5 g
1L
1 mL
Units of measurement can be used to determine how to
write the appropriate ratio by canceling out; called
dimensional analysis or the factor-label method.
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Example Problem 1.6
Conceptual Chemistry Problems
The density of water at 25C is 0.997 g per mL. A childs
swimming pool holds 346 L of water at this temperature. What
mass of water is in the pool?
Conceptual problems focus on the particulate
perspective of chemistry.
Depictions of atoms and molecules are used to
visualize molecular phenomena.
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Example Problem 1.7
Visualization in Chemistry
Draw a picture that shows what carbon dioxide
molecules might look like as a solid and as a gas.
Depictions of atoms and molecules provide one important tool
in the way chemistry is taught and learned.
Digestion of bauxite ore with aqueous caustic soda,
separating the alumina from silica in ore.
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Visualization in Chemistry
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Material Selection and Bicycle Frames
These particulate level
illustrations provide a
simplified view of the atomic
scale process involved in
smelting aluminum.
Elastic modulus (a substances tendency to be deformed in
a nonpermanent manner), yield strength (point at which
deformation becomes permanent), and density of some
materials used in bicycle frames.
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