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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes

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2008-4SUB-0189
PSA study on bonded flexible pipes
R. Hinderaker
PSA Norway
State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes
5662
05/03/2009
Rev 2
For information

Svein Are Ltveit

Jan Muren
Henning Christensen

4Subsea, Asker, P.O. Box 99, 1378 Norway

PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

I
1
2

7
8

Table of content
Introduction........................................................................................................................ 4
Background......................................................................................................................... 5
2.1
General ....................................................................................................................... 5
2.2
Incidents and oil spills ................................................................................................ 6
2.3
Sources of information ............................................................................................... 8
Bonded flexible pipe types ............................................................................................... 10
3.1
Bonded flexible risers ............................................................................................... 10
3.2
Loading hoses ........................................................................................................... 11
3.3
High pressure hoses used for exploration ............................................................... 12
Design And Applications................................................................................................... 14
4.1
Bonded hose design ................................................................................................. 14
4.1.1 Hose construction .............................................................................................. 14
4.1.2 End fitting design ................................................................................................ 16
4.2
Design standards ...................................................................................................... 18
4.3
Materials................................................................................................................... 20
4.4
Application ............................................................................................................... 21
4.4.1 Bonded flexible risers ......................................................................................... 21
4.4.2 Loading hoses ..................................................................................................... 22
4.4.3 High pressure hoses used for exploration ......................................................... 25
Failure mode review......................................................................................................... 26
5.1
General ..................................................................................................................... 26
5.2
Manufacturing, storage and transport .................................................................... 26
5.3
In-service and handling failure modes ..................................................................... 30
5.3.1 External damage and wear................................................................................. 30
5.3.2 Kinking and over-bending .................................................................................. 33
5.3.3 Handling and crushing ........................................................................................ 34
5.3.4 Fatigue of metallic parts..................................................................................... 34
5.3.5 Corrosion ............................................................................................................ 35
5.3.6 Excessive tension ................................................................................................ 36
5.3.7 Excessive pressure/pressure surge .................................................................... 36
5.3.8 Rapid gas decompression and elastomer degradation ...................................... 37
Integrity managment........................................................................................................ 43
6.1
General ..................................................................................................................... 43
6.2
Inspection, testing and monitoring .......................................................................... 44
6.3
Information handling................................................................................................ 46
6.4
Typical storage and operation recommendations for loading hoses ...................... 46
6.5
Exploration hoses ..................................................................................................... 48
Repair ............................................................................................................................... 49
Practical experience summary ......................................................................................... 50
8.1
General ..................................................................................................................... 50
8.2
High pressure flexible production hoses .................................................................. 50
8.3
Offloading hoses....................................................................................................... 52
8.4
Exploration hoses, including, mud, cement, kill and choke ..................................... 55
8.5
Seminars / forums / development of standards ...................................................... 55
References ........................................................................................................................ 56

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

II

Abbreviations

ACN

Acrylo-nitrile

API

American Petroleum Institute

FPSO

Floating Production Storage and Offloading unit

HSE

Health and Safety Executive (UK)

FSU

Floating Storage Unit

ITOPF

The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation

LPG

Liquefied Petroleum Gas

MBC

Marine Breakaway Coupling

MERL

Independent research consultants in polymer engineering and material

selection

MMS

Mineral Management Service (US)

NVC

Physical blends of NBR Rubbers with PVC Resin, plasticizers and

stabilizers

OCIMF

Oil Companies International Marine Forum

OGP

The international organisation of Oil and Gas Producers

PSA

Petroleum Safety Authority (Norway)

Tg

Glass transition temperature

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

1 INTRODUCTION
PSA ( Petroleum Safety Authority ) Norway has contracted 4 Subsea to prepare a state of the
art report for bonded flexible pipes. This report addresses areas of use, design, failure modes
and in-service experience. The report has been based on 4 Subsea knowledge and input
from various sources, however, the report is not necessary complete and should not be
interpreted as anything else than 4 Subsea view of the present state of the art for nonbonded flexible pipes.
Bonded flexible pipes consist of an elastomeric matrix reinforced with a number of
armouring layers to give the pipe the required strength. The armouring layers are bonded to
the elastomer material and the armouring is fully encapsulated by the elastomer. Detail
description in Section 3 and 4.

Figure 1.1 Typical bonded flexible pipe (courtesy of Contitech)

PSA has previously issued a report covering non-bonded flexible pipes / Ref. 1/. Non-bonded
flexible pipes are normally manufactured in very long lengths. Bonded pipes on the other
hand are often manufactured in limited lengths, on a mandrell and partly by hand.
Bonded flexible pipes are here defined as products covered by API17K and API16C. However,
similar products covered by OCI MF and API7K are included. The products covered will then
typically have diameter above 4 and high pressure rating. For moderate diameter the
pressure rating will typically be several hundred bar, decreasing with increasing diameter.
The following are the main areas of use for such pipes:
Production and injection hoses, mainly jumpers but also some flexible risers and
flexible flow-lines
Offshore loading of oil and LPG
Flexible hoses used for exploration such as drilling and similar high pressure
applications

Bonded pipes are in addition used in several other applications such as mining, bunkering,
low pressure pumping, fire water etc. However, these areas of use are covered by different
design standards and falls outside the scope of this study.

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

2 BACKGROUND
2.1 General
Bonded flexible pipes have several advantages, in particular where short lengths are
required, or the space to accommodate the line is tight:
Inherent flexibility of rubber, small bend radius
Short and reliable couplings
Short lengths are produced individually, special requirements can be considered, e.g.
special bending stiffness distribution within one section etc.
o Integral bend stiffener at the coupling, if needed extra reinforcement can be
added
o Additional layers for fire resistance or external armoring can be added when
manufactured
o Built in location collars for floaters or integral floatation can be incorporated
The disadvantages are the following:
Limited length per segment, long lengths will require joints.
Generally lower crush resistance than non-bonded flexibles
Generally lower axial (external) pulling force capability than non-bonded flexibles
The in-service experience with bonded flexible pipes used for production of hydrocarbons is
mainly related to topside jumpers, drag chain hoses for FPSO turrets and short length riser
systems. However, there are a few examples of relatively long length riser application in
relatively deep water.
Bonded flexible hoses are frequently used for offshore loading of hydrocarbons, such as
export oil and LPG. Large bore bonded flexible hoses are standard for offloading of oil,
typically 16 to 20. Short hose sections are joined to long lengths, up to several hundred
meters, either as floating hoses, submerged catenary hoses or suspended in air. Such hoses
are typically used once a week and stored in the period between.
High pressure bonded flexible hoses for exploration are used in the following applications:
- Kill and choke jumpers
- Rotary hoses used in the derrick of the drilling rig
- Cementing hoses
Such hoses are typically used periodically and inspected and pressure tested before use.
The hose pressure rating is the same as for the drilling equipments. Typically 5 ksi(345bar),
10 ksi(690bar) or 15 ksi(1034bar).
Experience with hoses used in other industries such as mining, fishing, automotive as well as
hoses for bunkering have only partly been considered in this evaluation. The number of
brands, the number of services and the often very dedicated functions for these hoses has
resulted in different types of challenges and the experience from other industries is only
included where it has relevance for bonded hoses for the offshore oil and gas industry.

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

2.2 Incidents and oil spills

HSE research report 47,Ref. 5 investigated the accident and incident statistics in the UK
Sector. The highest number of reported incidents for all installation types was the release of
petroleum hydrocarbon (37% of all dangerous occurrences).
In the period from 1996 to 2002 about 20% of the incidents were related to FPSO/FSU
systems not present on fixed installations. Of these:
33% were attributed to risers / swivels or turrets,
22% arise from offloading systems,
Note: The total structural incident rate of FPSOs is similar to that of other installations.
Bonded hoses are used as risers, turret jumpers, topside jumpers and in offloading systems.
The incidents with risers on FPSOs are mainly related to non-bonded flexible pipes, however,
some incidents with bonded hoses used on drag chain for FPSO turrets and topside jumpers
have been reported.
DnV has prepared a report for MMS related to oil spills from FPSOs, Ref. 2. The report
presents the number of oil spills and the volume of oil spills related to operation of FPSOs.
The following are observed:
- The probability of oil spills from a riser system is relatively low. The magnitude of the
spill will be significant.
- The probability of oils spills from a transfer hose leak (including offloading) is the
highest identified risk with a yearly probability of 49% per year. The spill magnitudes
are, however, small
- The main risk for oil spills are, however, related to tanker transport. The same
conclusion is found in an OGP report , Ref. 4 and in publications from ITOPF, Ref. 3.
Search in the PSA Codam incident database, updated per aug.2008, related to operation on
the Norwegian continental shelf identified many incidents with bunkering hoses, 8 incidents
with hoses used in exploration applications and 4 incidents with hoses for offloading
operations. One of the offloading incidents resulted in significant oil spill, Ref. 12.
The MMS reports are mainly related to bursted hoses when this has resulted in other
incidents such as personal injury, hence the number of reports are limited. Hoses used for
exploration applications are regularly inspected, tested and replaced. Further, a hose leak
during drilling will normally not result in oil spill or other incidents. The incident statistics
from exploration has hence only been used to supplement the experience from the industry.
The oil and gas industry has worked extensively with mitigating actions, however, incidents
are still reported. It is important to notice that many hoses have failed due to misuse or
improper maintenance. The following examples illustrate this:
- Hoses have bursted due to pressure surge (pressure hammering) several times higher
than the hose design pressure
- Hoses have failed due to cover damage resulting in corrosion and fatigue of
armouring
- Hoses have been used after handling defects such as crushing or excessive tension
- Hoses have been exposed to chemicals which they have not been designed for
- Leakage of hose joints
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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Figure 2.1 OGP reported spill in the North Sea , Ref.

4.

Figure 2.2 Spills attended by ITOPF staff, 1970 2006, Ref.

3.

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Figure 2.3 Spill distribution ITOPF, Ref.

3.

2.3 Sources of information

This study has been based on search in the PSA database, information on the internet and
direct contacts with selected companies and personnel who were known to have
information about bonded flexible pipes. The basis for selection of companies and
individuals has been in-house experience in 4Subsea, companies with API approval and
telephone meetings with PSA.
4Subsea are grateful for all the valuable information received when compiling this report.

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Table 2.1 Sources of information

Source
PSA Codam incident
database search with the
following key words:
- hose(slange)
- loading
- mud
- cement
- kill, choke
HSE research reports

MMS

Data
The following incidents related to bonded flexible
hoses were identified:
- 4 incidents with offshore loading hoses
- 1 incident with a drag chain hose for
production of hydrocarbons
- 8 incidents with HP-mud and rotary hoses
- 22 incidents with bunkering hoses (Not
covered by this study)
- MERL study of elastomers, Ref. 10
- Analysis of accident statistics for floating
monohull and fixed installations, Ref. 5
- Communication with HSE
Various publications on internet

ITOPF

Various publications on internet

Lloyds

Data on internet

Bonded flexible pipe

manufacturers and
trading houses
Oil company experts

4 bonded hose suppliers and 2 Norwegian trade

houses have supplied information

FPSO operators
Hose users
API 17K committee

3 Bonded Flexible pipe experts

1 Drilling expert
One FPSO operating company has been
contacted
Experience data and maintenance information
General info

Most information
found on HSE internet
pages
No direct
communication
No direct
communication
No direct
communication

Specifications and
guidelines

4Subsea In-house data

Comment
Incidents with the only
consequence that a
hose must be replaced
or hose replaced after
inspection will normally
not be reported to this
database.

- API 17K
- API 16C
- API 7K
- OCIMF
Experience from a previous bonded flexible
pipe supplier
Flexible pipe research, engineering and
verification
Failure investigations including dissections

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Contact with
committee chairman

PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

3 BONDED FLEXIBLE PIPE TYPES

The bonded flexible hoses considered in this document are summarised in the table below.
Sub-section headings in this
report
Bonded flexible risers

Specification

Hose types

API Spec 17K / ISO 13628-10,

Specification for Bonded
Flexible Pipe

Loading hoses

OCIMF, Guide to Purchasing,

Manufacturing and Testing of
Loading and Discharge Hoses
for Offshore Moorings
API Spec 7K/ISO 14693,
Specification for Drilling and
Well Servicing Equipment
API Spec 16C, Specification for
Choke and Kill Systems

Flexible risers
Production jumpers
Challenging oil export
applications
Offshore loading of oil

Hoses for exploration

Rotary hoses
Vibrator hoses
Cementing hoses
Kill and Choke hoses

3.1 Bonded flexible risers

Bonded flexible risers have in this document been defined as hoses designed and approved
according to API spec 17K, Ref. 6.

Figure 3.1 Bonded flexible pipe for gas service (Courtesy of Contitech)

The following manufacturers have such design:

- Contitech (Taurus)
- Dunlop Oil and Marine
- Trelleborg Kleber (oil export)
The API spec 17K approval includes 3rd party approval of design methodology where both
pipe capacities and long term integrity is included. In addition the actual approved products
are thoroughly tested.

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

The bonded flexible risers may be used in similar applications as the non-bonded flexible
pipes; however, the following differences should be noted:
Manufacturing in limited length. For long length, pipe joints are required. The
length limitations are product dependent and the large bore pipes, 16-24
diameter, are only available in standard lengths of typically 12m. For moderate
diameter, 4-10 the length limitation is typically less than 100m. This is short
compared to the length limitations for non-bonded flexible pipes which are
typically several km.
The bonded pipes use polymer material which bond to the armouring. The
polymer material will hence have large shear deformation during bending and
combined loads. Only elastomer materials have the required bonding and
mechanical properties.
The various elastomer materials have different mechanical, chemical and thermal
properties and in addition there is a relatively wide spread of additives used to
optimise the material. Each manufacturer has their own proprietary material
specifications.

3.2 Loading hoses

Loading hoses cover a wide range of hoses, however, as part of this document the range is
limited to hoses used in the oil and gas industry, with diameter above 4 and with pressure
rating of minimum 15bar. Figure 3.2 shows one typical loading hose design and Figure 3.3
shows termination design from another manufacturer.

Figure 3.2 Oil offloading hose (Courtesy of Trelleborg)

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Figure 3.3 Single Carcass FEM model. Courtesy of Dunlop Oil & Marine

The loading hoses used in the oil and gas industry are normally based on the OCIMF
specification, Ref. 9.
The OCIMF specification is only covering hoses for specific service:
-

Offshore loading of oil

Diameter in the range 150 to 600mm
Pressure rating of 15 bar
Crude oil or liquid petroleum products at temp -20oC to 82oC.

The OCIMF specification have specific test requirement which the product has to meet such
as pressure tests. However OCIMF requirements related to design methodology,
documentation of long term properties or manufacturing are more general than the specific
requirements and the 3rd party approval system adopted in API spec 17K. Two
manufacturers have offloading hoses approved according to API 17K.

3.3 High pressure hoses used for exploration

Bonded high pressure hoses are frequently used for exploration in the following services:
- Rotary hoses
- Kill
- Choke
- Mud
- Cement

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Figure 3.4 Kill, Choke and cementing hoses used in exploration, courtesy of Contitech

Both bonded and non-bonded flexible pipes are used in such applications. The products used
are normally designed and manufactured according to API 7K ,Ref. 8, or API 16C,Ref. 7.

Table 3.1 shows the hose manufacturers with approved flexible kill and choke hoses
according API 16C.
Table 3.1 Kill and choke flexibles approved according to API 16C, ref API homepage.

Company
Coflexip Flexible Products
Contitech Rubber
(Former Taurus)
Flexi France
Jingbo Petroleum Machinery
Company Ltd

Facility location
Duco Inc,
UK
Hungary

Comment
Bonded hoses

Le Trait, France
China

Non-bonded designs
Not contacted in this study

Bonded hoses

21 bonded pipe companies have approved hose products according API 7K, list of companies
may be found on the API homepage. (http://compositelist.api.org)

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

4 DESIGN AND APPLICATIONS

4.1 Bonded hose design

Figure 4.1 Main elements of bonded flexible hose, courtesy of Contitech

4.1.1 Hose construction

The bonded flexible hose types described in section 3 may have different layers dependent
on service.
The liner is for some designs supported by an internal carcass, called strip-wound tube as shown in

Figure 4.1, made of stainless steel. The main functions of the carcass are:
- Wear protection of liner
- Collapse resistance of hose
- Improved blistering performance of elastomer
The carcass is not leak proof

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Outside the carcass a leak proof liner is used. The liner will be in contact with the
transported fluid and the material must hence be compatible with the fluid. 3 different liners
are used in bonded hoses:
- Elastomeric liners which are an integral part of the bonded pipe
- H2S resistant synthetic polymer
- Corrugated steel tubes, see example in Figure 4.5
Elastomer liners are used for most bonded pipes, the type of elastomer used depends on
application.
Synthetic polymers are used in special applications in particular for sour service.
The corrugated liners are used to prevent that the elastomer is in direct contact with the
transported fluid.
Outside the liner we have all the reinforcement layers. The reinforcement may consist of
helical layers laid at 55 deg. angle only. Such designs will have no pressure induced
elongation, however, they will have limited tension capacity.
Alternatively the reinforcement layer consists of hoop spirals and helical layers where the
hoop spiral gives the pipe hoop strength and the helicals resist the pressure end cap forces
and the axial loads.
For bonded pipe the helicals are normally made from steel wire ropes or synthetic fibres.
The hoop layers are either steel spirals or composite spirals.
All the reinforcement layers are prepared with a suitable bonding agent. They are embedded
in and bonded to the elastomer in the pipe wall.
The reinforcement layers are not in direct contact with the transported fluid, however,
diffused fluids must be considered when selecting the material.
The outermost elastomer layer is the cover which protects the reinforcement.
In some designs fire protection and/or external carcass is used externally of the cover.
For offloading pipes buoyancy layers may be applied outside the elastomeric cover.
Most high pressure bonded flexible pipes are manufactured by winding rubber and
reinforcement outside a rigid cylinder, either a mandrel which is later removed or on a
carcass which becomes part of the hose. The hose is constructed by winding the layers one
by one. The end fitting mounting is an integrated part of this such that the hose and endfittings are manufactured into a one piece segments. The hose segment is vulcanised in
dedicated chambers with exactly controlled environment. In the vulcanisation process the
rubber cross links and bond to the reinforcement and the pipe-wall becomes a solid wall
with no voids. Due to the cross linking in the rubber, the pipe wall will not melt but start
burning in case of elevated temperature.

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

The reinforcement is fully bonded to the rubber material. The rubber material (elastomer)
used are selected for the actual service and each of the manufacturers have rubber qualities
qualified for their products. Each rubber material consists of a base material with a mix of
additives for processing and performance properties.

4.1.2 End fitting design

The end fitting design is an important part of a bonded hose. For most demanding
application the end-fitting /coupling is an integral part of the hose which is integrated into
the manufacturing process. All the built in couplings are designed stronger than the hose
and the hose shall burst before the end-fitting is blown off. For moderate pressure, swaged
on couplings are used, ref Figure 4.2.
Most couplings are patented by the manufacturers and are special designs for their product
range. Figure 4.2, Figure 4.3 and Figure 4.4 show some termination principles:
Helical reinforcement layers terminated inside of the end fitting, Figure 4.2:
When the pipe is pressurised the helicals are forced outwards and the grip becomes
better and better. Epoxy is used to glue the reinforcement and the end-fitting body
Armours terminated on the outside of the end fitting, Figure 4.3:
With this design the helical armours are bonded to the steel end fitting, often with a
stiffer and stronger elastomer than used in the flexible part of the hose. Hoop
wrapping is normally used outside the helicals to secure the grip.
Integrated terminal, Figure 4.4:
Here the steel part of the termination is integrated into the helical reinforcement.
With such a design the end termination have no stiff steel structure, this simplify
reeling of a jointed pipe length.

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Figure 4.2 Built in and swaged couplings, courtesy of Contitech

Figure 4.3 End fitting, courtesy Dunlop Oil & marine

Figure 4.4 End-fitting, courtesy Trelleborg

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

4.2 Design standards

Bonded high pressure flexible pipes have been manufactured in several decades. As an
example the bonded hoses from the Hungarian Contitech facility ( Taurus-Emerge) was the
standard rotary drilling hose in the Soviet Union, and several countries in Eastern Europe
and Asia, resulting in mass production of up to about 150 000 m, more than 10 000 pieces of
rotary vibrator and other high pressure hoses per year. The most common sizes in the 70s
and 80s were 3 30 MPa, 4 30 MPa for the Soviet Union, and 3 28MPa (Grade C) and 3,5
34,5 MPa (Grade D) for European and American markets. In addition choke and kill lines and
cement hoses up to 69 MPa, grade E (51.7 MPa) rotary hoses, 8 jetting hoses and other so
called special hoses were produced.
API 7K was introduced as a design standard already in this period, the specification has later
been revised. Bonded hoses based on API 7K are still sold in large numbers worldwide, both
for onshore and offshore applications.
In the 80s Taurus, Paguag and Dunlop developed new technologies, e.g. to manufacture
long-length hoses, hoses for hydrocarbon production and hoses for long term maintenance
free operation. This was important for development of bonded hose technology, however,
only parts of this resulted in commercial products. The Paguag bonded hose products and
the continuous long length Dunlop flexible are examples of products which are no longer
manufactured.
In 1993 API 16C was introduced as a basis for kill and choke lines and a few manufacturers
have obtained approval according to this standard.
Finally the introduction of API 17K related to bonded flexible pipes for long term operation
has driven the bonded hose technology further and after year 2000 three companies have
obtained approval for bonded hoses according to this standard.
Most hose design standards require that the hose is approved for a dedicated service. The
hose shall be clearly marked with the manufacturers name, the permissible working
pressure and the intended service or the reference standard to which the pipe is designed,
ref API 7K/Ref. 8/, API 16C/Ref. 7/ and OCIMF/Ref. 9/.
Most maintenance programs and manufacturers guidance notes to purchasers emphasize
that bonded pipe shall not be used outside the service for which they have been designed.
Many of the bonded pipes are used in applications where the hoses are relocated frequently
and partly considered as consumables. It is important that the hoses are only used for the
intended service.
The API 7K and API 16C requirements are dedicated for special service and specified
pressure rating; the basic requirement is related to the ratio burst pressure to working
pressure. Further the standards have requirements securing that the hoses are
manufactured according to acceptable quality standards and that the hoses are marked with
their intended service including, type of service, pressure rating and temperature rating.
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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Most offloading hoses are delivered according to the OCIMF standard. However, several of
the offloading hose suppliers contributed to the development of API 17K and two offloading
hose supplier has hose designs approved according to API 17K. The following compare
bonded flexible pipes approved according to API17K with OCIMF hoses:
-

Service life
o OCIMF hoses are considered as consumables with a service life of typically 5
years, critical locations may be replaced more often, yearly basis or based on
inspection. Service lifer is normally not addressed in detail.
o API 17K approved hoses are normally designed for the entire service life of
the system and service life documentation is an important part of the design,
including testing and documentation
Pressure rating
o API 17 K hoses are normally designed for higher pressure than 15bar and both
design and normal operation pressure are considered.
o OCIMF hoses are normally designed for 15bar pressure rating, the pressure
rating is defined as the maximum pressure to which the hose can be
subjected
Temperature and fluid
o OCIMF hoses are designed for a specific service with limitation on both
temperature range and fluid.
o API 17K hoses are designed for a service specified by the purchaser. Often
temperature and gas are limiting factors for use of such bonded flexible pipes.

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

4.3 Materials
Typical properties of the elastomer (rubber) material used in bonded hoses is presented in
Table 4.1, Data are mainly based on Contitech-rubber (Taurus) web page. Note that the
below table is included for description of typical use areas and should not be used as
guidance for selecting material for a given service.
Table 4.1 Most important elastomers used in bonded hoses

Butyl rubber

Chlorbutyl rubber
Chlorinated
polyethylene(CPE)
Ethylene propylene
rubber
(EPDM)
Hydrogenated
nitrile rubber
(HNBR)
Chlorosulfonated
polyethylene
Natural rubber
Polychloroprene
(Neoprene)
Acrylo-nitrile rubber
(Nitril, NBR)
NVC
(NBR/PVC)
Acrylate rubber
Styrene-butadiene
rubber
(SBR)
Silicone rubber

Fluorinated rubber
(Viton)

General properties
Excellent weather resistance, low air and gas permeability,
good acid and caustic resistance, good physical properties,
good heat and cold resistance, no resistance to mineral-oil-derived
liquids
Variant of butyl rubber
Excellent resistance to ozone and weather, medium resistance to oil
and aromatic compounds, excellent flame resistance
Excellent ozone, chemical, and ageing properties, low resistance to
oil-derived liquids, very good steam resistance, good cold and heat
resistance (-40oC to +175oC), good resistance to brake fluid based on
glycol
Good resistance to mineral oil-based fluids, vegetable and animal
fats, aliphatic hydrocarbons, diesel fuels, ozone, acid gas, diluted
acids and caustics, suitable for high temperatures
Excellent weather, ozone, and acid resistance, limited resistance to
mineral-oil-derived liquids
Excellent physical properties, high elasticity, flexibility, very good
abrasion resistance, limited resistance to acids, not resistant to oil
Excellent weather resistance, flame-retardant, medium oil
resistance, good physical properties, good abrasion resistance
Excellent oil resistance, limited resistance to aromatic compounds,
the resistance to fuel and flexibility to cold depends on ACN content
Excellent oil and weather resistance for both lining and cover,
not particularly resistant to cold
Excellent oil and tar resistance at high temperatures
Good physical properties, good abrasion resistance,
low resistance to mineral-oil-derived liquids
Very good hot-air resistance approximately up to +250oC for short
periods of time, good low temperature behaviour, ozone and
weather resistance, limited oil resistance, not resistant to petrol and
acids
Excellent high-temperature resistance up to +225oC and up to
+350oC for short periods of time especially in water and oil,
very good chemical resistance

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4.4 Application
4.4.1 Bonded flexible risers
Bonded flexible risers, designed according to API 17K are mainly delivered for top side
jumper applications covering hydrocarbon production, water injection, gas injection and
hydrocarbon export. Jointed hoses to make a long length API 17K approved design has also
been delivered occasionally, see Figure 4.6. Such long length designs have been used for
both dynamic production risers and for large bore oil export.
For high pressure hydrocarbon service the hoses may suffer from blistering in case of rapid
decompression. To avoid blistering two alternative designs have been used:
- A diffusion tight metallic liner, see example in Figure 4.5. To maintain the bending
flexibility the metallic liner is corrugated.
- Internal steel carcass which together with the reinforcement layer encapsulate the
rubber liner. Such designs have proven to have better blistering resistance than the
rubber material itself.
The service range for bonded flexible risers are summarised in the tables below:
Table 4.2 Product range for hydrocarbon production and gas service

Inside
Diameter
2 5

Design pressure(bar)

6 16

350 to 90 decreasing
with diameter

500

Operating
temperature
-30 oC to +90 oC

-30 oC to +90 oC

Comment
- Most designs available in 30m
lengths, some design available
longer lengths ~100m.
- 2 suppliers have API 17K approved
designs
- Max. Length ~30m
2 suppliers have API 17K approved
designs

Service considerations, valid for all above:

1) Limited aromatic content in fluid
2) Limited H2S in fluid
3) Restriction w.r.t. gas service for some designs
Table 4.3 Product range for oil export

Inside
Diameter
6 24

Design pressure(bar)
Normally 15bar, however 50-70
bar is achievable if required

Operating
temperature
-20 oC to +80 oC

Service considerations, valid for all above:

1) Sweet service
2) Stabilised crude oil

Page 21 of 56

Comment
- Max. Length 12.2m
- 1 suppliers have API
17K approved design

PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Figure 4.5 Steel lined hose for gas service, not API 17K approved, courtesy of Copperstate

4.4.2 Loading hoses

Most loading hoses are designed for moderate pressure, typically 15bar for the OCIMF
hoses.
The large bore hoses are typically made up by joining standard lengths, see pictures below.

Figure 4.6 20"Trelline joints assembled to long length hose, courtesy Trelleborg

Such hoses are typically supplied by:

- Trelleborg
- Dunlop Oil & Marine
- Manuli
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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

In benign areas such as West of Africa floating hoses are often used, Figure 4.7 and Figure
4.8. In harsh environment submerged catenary configuration are used during loading and
the hoses is stored on a reel or on deck between each loading, Figure 4.9.

Figure 4.7 Floating hose, courtesy Dunlop Oil & Marine

Figure 4.8 Double carcass floating hose, courtesy Manuli

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Hawser

Offloading hose

Figure 4.9 Hawser and submarine hose used for offloading, courtesy Sevan Marine

Most offloading hoses are delivered according to the OCIMF specification which is tailored
for offloading hoses.
OCIMF address single carcass designs and double carcass designs. The double carcass
designs have an additional reinforcement layer which has capacity to withstand the design
pressure in case the primary pipe starts to leak. In between the two reinforcement layers a
leak detection device is present. Figure 4.10 and Figure 4.11 shows examples of this from
Dunlop and Manuli.

Figure 4.10 Double Carcass 3D FEM model, courtesy Dunlop Oil & Marine.

Trelleborg has designed a dual carcass hose where no failure detection is incorporated but
the hose has additional reinforcement such that the probability of failure is reduced.
Both the double carcass and the dual carcass designs were developed to mitigate the poor
performance of offloading hoses in the 70s, where service lives between 6 months and 2
years were normal. The introduction of the OCIMF standard in 1974, and the work with the
API 17K specification has improved the offloading hose quality considerably.
Offloading in Norwegian water is normally performed with submerged hoses with single
carcass or dual carcass and no automatic leak detection.

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Figure 4.11 Failure alert device for double carcass hoses, courtesy Manuli

4.4.3 High pressure hoses used for exploration

Table 4.4 Product range for Rotary & Vibrator Hoses

Inside Diameter
2 6

Max working
pressure(bar)
517

Operating
temperature
-30oC to +100oC

Comment
- Many suppliers
- Length typically
30m

Considerations:
1) Normally designed based on API 7K
2) Only for special service e.g. mud, water injection
Table 4.5 Product range for Cementing Hoses

Inside Diameter
2 4

Max working
pressure(bar)
1035

Operating
temperature
-30oC to +100oC

Considerations:
1) Based on API 7K
2) Only for cement

Page 25 of 56

Comment
- Many suppliers
- Length typically
30m

PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Table 4.6 Product range for choke and kill Hoses

Inside Diameter
2 3

Max working
pressure(bar)
1035

Operating
temperature
-30oC to +120oC

690

-30oC to +120oC

Comment
- 3 suppliers
- Length typically
30m
- 3 suppliers
- Length typically
30m

Considerations:
1) Based on API 16C
2) Sour service and general choke and kill service
3) Smooth bore design and rough bore designs with internal carcass available

5 FAILURE MODE REVIEW

5.1 General
The failure modes for bonded flexible pipes may be grouped in two:
- Manufacturing, storage and transport
- In service, including handling
Installation which is important for permanent riser systems is here replaced by handling as
most of the bonded pipes are connected, disconnected, handled and inspected frequently
during their service life.

5.2 Manufacturing, storage and transport

Manufacturing of bonded flexible pipes is to a large extent reliant on good workmanship.
The manufacturing involves several operator controlled manufacturing steps covering:
- Elastomer compounding and quality checking
- Preparation of mandrel, liner and end-termination before winding
- Layer by layer construction of the pipe including fixation to the end-termination and
built in bend-stiffeners
- Vulcanisation

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Long length manufacturing is possible, however, this requires post-mounted endtermination, e.g. swaged on crimp fittings, and a stepwise vulcanisation or hardening
process for the elastomer. None of the manufacturers for large bore and high pressure
bonded flexible pipes offer this type of products anymore. Previous experience with
stepwise vulcanization and swaged on crimp fitting is that the manufacturing and
documentation of long term integrity are challenging.
Long length, moderate pressure hoses is supplied by one manufacturer.
Due to the handmade nature of fixed length bonded pipes the design specifications such as
API 17K and OCIMF specify strict quality control and documentation for each hose length
including a relatively extensive test program. Table 5.2 summarises relevant failure modes
during manufacturing. As shown the design specifications require dedicated tests for each of
these failure modes and normally hoses with manufacturing defects will be rejected. The
permissible repair of manufacturing defects is limited to minor surface damages. It is
important to observe that the experience is that hose lengths are rejected from time to
time. However the rejection rate is low, the defect rate based on the last 10 years in
Contitech Hungarian facility is shown in the table below.

Table 5.1 Manufacturing defect rate, courtesy Contitech

Defect types
Defect during FAT
Liner defect
Length problem
Jammed on mandrel
Esthetical problem

percent
0,33 %
0,06 %
0,004%
0,004%
0,20 %

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Table 5.2 Bonded hose failure modes during manufacturing

Failure mode
Bonding failure
of elastomer to
steel and
reinforcement
fabric

Description and experience

Bonded pipes rely on proper bonding of the
elastomer to both the end termination and the
reinforcement layers.

Comment
API 17K and OCIMF have
requirements to:
- Material documentation and
handling
Bonding failure has resulted in end fitting being
- Surface preparation and
blown off the hose during pressure testing.
bonding agents
Leakage and sweating has also caused rejection.
- Manufacturing details for
each hose length
Bonding failure between the armour layers will
- Adhesion testing for each
normally only be identified by dissection.
batch of material and
between every tenth hose
Rejection of pipes due to vacuum testing is only
length
relevant for hoses with elastomer liner.
- Hydrostatic pressure test of
each hose length
Kerosene tests and cyclic gas decompression tests - Vacuum test of each hose
for high pressure gas applications has resulted in
length
hose rejection due to blistering and/or de- Kerosene test if specified by
bonding.
purchaser for each hose
length
Liner leak
A leaking liner will result in pressure build up in
Example in Figure 5.2 below
the pipe wall.
Pressure testing will normally detect such defects.
Surface
Rejection of hose lengths occur from time to time OCIMF and API 17K specify
damages
requirements to surface
damages:
- Generally speaking liner
repair is not permitted.
- Minor repair of outer cover is
permitted with an approved
procedure
Example in Figure 5.3.
Damages due to All bonded hoses are delivered with storage,
General requirements in the
improper
maintenance and handling recommendations.
specifications is that the hose
handling or
Provided these are followed the experience is
shall be stored and handled
storage
that failure due to improper handling and storage according to manufacturers
is not a problem. On the other hand improper
specifications
handling has resulted in failures such as kinking
and crushing.

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Figure 5.1 Bonding defect near end fitting detected in pressure test, courtesy of Contitech

Figure 5.2 Pressure test with leaking liner, courtesy of Contitech

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Figure 5.3 Cover damage example, courtesy of Contitech

5.3 In-service and handling failure modes

5.3.1 External damage and wear
For loading hoses this is the most frequent failure mode.
-

Figure 5.4 shows an example of a propeller cut in a floating hose used for offloading.
Wear and over-bending of loading hoses is frequently reported where the hose is in
contact with the tanker, Figure 5.5. Dedicated hose sections are used in such areas and
these sections are inspected and replaced more frequently than the rest of a loading
hose.

Figure 5.4 Propeller cut in floating hose (courtesy of Trelleborg)

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

For bonded hoses used for exploration the experience seems to be that wear and surface
damages occur and that the hoses are replaced before the hose integrity is compromised.
One incident reported to MMS with a hose burst during restart of an operation may have
been related to reduced hose strength after long term use and wear.
Normally exploration hoses that are worn or damaged such that the armouring is exposed
are replaced, Ref. figure 5.7. However, bonded hoses are very tough and with proper use
long term service life is possible even in rough applications, figure 5.6.

Figure 5.5 Tanker rail hose, sequence of connection procedures. Courtesy Dunlop Oil & Marine

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Figure 5.6 Old rotary hose, manufactured 1994, photo 2003 , courtesy of Contitech

For production jumpers the bonded hoses are permanently connected and if properly
designed, wear and external damage should be controlled. However, in certain applications
wear and contact with other structures is unavoidable, e.g. drag chain jumpers used on
turret moored FPSOs. Drag chain systems with large bore and high pressure flexible pipes
have experienced problems and such designs are not that frequently used anymore.

Figure 5.7 Excessive cover damage, courtesy of Contitech

Several bonded hose suppliers offer designs with an external carcass protecting the hose,
Figure 5.8 shows an example.

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

5.3.2 Kinking and over-bending

Kinking, over-bending and crushing are normally related to improper handling.
Unfortunately such failures have occurred. For applications like offloading and exploration it
is important that adequate designs, procedures are established and followed. See figure 5.8.

Figure 5.8 Over-bending example of bonded hose with external carcass, courtesy of Contitech

Page 33 of 56

PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

5.3.3 Handling and crushing

Handling or misuse of bonded hose has resulted in severe damage of the hose, see example
below, in figure 5.9.

Figure 5.9 Crushing example, courtesy of Contitech

5.3.4 Fatigue of metallic parts

The following fatigue failure of bonded flexible are relevant:
- Fatigue in armouring, steel wire ropes or synthetic armours
- Fatigue in metallic liner
- Fatigue in end fitting including welding to piping
- Fatigue in polymer parts of pipe
All steel materials may fail due to fatigue, however for cold drawn wires the time for
initiation of a fatigue crack is normally long compared to the crack growth period. When a
crack has been initiated, it will hence normally grow rapidly to a full wire failure. To avoid
such type of fatigue failure, it is hence normal to keep the stresses in the wires at a
moderate level such that under normal use fatigue cracks are not initiated. For bonded
flexible pipes where the armours are not exposed to any aggressive fluids such as H2S, water
etc. fatigue failure is unlikely. However, diffused gas, cover damage, blistering and loss of
adhesion have resulted in fatigue failure of armour wires. The armour fatigue capacity is
then reduced due to exposure to the aggressive fluid and fatigue has been observed even at
moderate loads. In many applications rust deposit is a clear sign that fatigue failure may
develop. Repair of the polymer to prevent further exposure to the aggressive fluid may not
be sufficient mitigation as the wire may have significantly reduced capacity even after short
term exposure.

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Fatigue in metallic liners has been experienced. There are two different metallic liners used;
gas tight corrugated pipes (bellows) and open carcass. For corrugated pipes the following
fatigue failure modes has been observed:
- Fatigue in the weld connecting the corrugated liner to the end-fitting
- Torsional induced failure, unclear if the failure is fatigue or repeated yielding due to
torsional un-balance of the armouring
- Bending induced fatigue of the corrugated pipe has been observed in dynamic tests
For carcasses the consequence of a fatigue crack is normally insignificant as most reported
carcass fatigue crack has been observed in the circumferential direction. Such cracks will
normally not compromise the carcass function. However, combined with wear and or
corrosion the structural capacity of the carcass may be reduced and eventually the carcass
may fail in the hoop direction, probably as a collapse where fatigue may contribute.
Fatigue in end-fittings should not occur as the metal parts of the end-fittings should be
designed stronger and more fatigue resistant than the hose. However, the bending moment
in end terminations may become substantial and fatigue in the connection to piping may
occur. It is important that welded connections in such applications are designed for the
relevant dynamic loads.

5.3.5 Corrosion
The bonded pipes are normally designed for corrosion in the following manner:
- The liner is corrosion resistant, this includes metallic liners, elastomer liners and bore of
end-termination
- The armouring is embedded in elastomer and not exposed to fluids giving corrosion
- Cathodic protection of the end-termination
As discussed above
corrosion combined with
other effects is one of the
most critical failure
modes for bonded flexible
hoses and armour
corrosion is often used as
indicator for pipe
replacement. Corrosion
may be detected by rust
deposits, rusty water or
visible hose cover
damage, as illustrated in
figure 5.10, and 5.11
below.
Figure 5.10 Abrasion and corrosion example, courtesy of Contitech

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Figure 5.11 Corrosion induced failure, courtesy of Contitech

5.3.6 Excessive tension

Bonded flexible pipes are normally designed to carry their own weight only. A long length
hose may hence require strapping to a tension member.
Production jumpers and jumper hoses used in exploration applications will normally have
such tension limitations.
For submerged offloading hoses and bonded flexible risers pressure spirals are often used to
avoid the tension induced radial contraction.

5.3.7 Excessive pressure/pressure surge

Production jumpers, flexible risers, rotary hoses, kill and choke hoses are normally designed
for maximum possible pressure considering surge, accidental situations etc. The probability
for excessive pressure in such hoses is remote.

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Offloading hoses on the other hand are normally part of a system consisting of pumps and
valves which are designed to work together. Malfunction or mal-operation of the system has
in several events resulted in pressure surges higher than the burst capacity of the hose. This
effect caused the hose rupture on Statfjord, ref figure 5.12. In such events the weakest part
of the system will fail, normally this will either be the hose or the Marine Breakaway
Coupling.
Marine Breakaway Couplings are designed to part at a pressure lower than the burst
capacity of the hose and close the flow slowly such that the hose see no critical pressure
surge. Such Marine Breakaway Couplings has prevented oil spills in many locations all
around the world, however, un-intended parting has also been reported in some cases.

Failure

Figure 5.12 Ruptured offloading hose at Statfjord 2007, Ref. 12

5.3.8 Rapid gas decompression and elastomer degradation

HSE research report 320, prepared by MERL, summarises the failure modes and
deterioration for elastomers used for oil and gas service, Figure 5.13 illustrates important
modes.

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Figure 5.13 Possible deterioration modes for elastomers, Ref. 10

All deterioration modes indicated for O-rings may also occur in bonded hoses. The MERL
description of the various failure modes are shown in Table 5.3 below along with comments
and experience
Table 5.3 Description of various modes of deterioration, Ref. 10 and 4Subsea data

Failure mode
defined by MERL
Fracture/rapid
tearing

Description presented by MERL 4Subsea comments related to

experience etc.
The ultimate strength
Most relevant for external damages
properties of the elastomer are such as cutting into the pipe, see
exceeded. Should be
section 5.3.1
considered for extremes of
operational requirement
(pressure, elevated
temperature, load etc),
remembering that the strength
properties magnitudes may
reduce with time due to
thermal ageing and fluid
absorption.

Rapid gas
decompression
or
explosive
decompression

Gas dissolved in the elastomer

under high pressure conditions
comes out of solution and
forms bubbles in the material
when the external pressure is

Page 38 of 56

Has been experienced both during

testing and in service, O-ring blistering
example from MERL report below.

PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

(ED)

lost.
The bubbles may grow
sufficiently to cause fracture of
the material (e.g. seals) or of an
interface (e.g. between the
liner and adjacent layer in a
hose).

Stress relaxation

Reduction of force over time

under constant deformation
conditions resulting in loss of
ability to seal for un-energised
seals. Contributions from both
physical effects and chemical
ageing effects. It is usually the
latter that govern long-term
performance. For seals, the
effects are countered by
swelling due to
thermal expansion and
absorption of fluids.
Increase in deformation with
time under constant
force/pressure conditions.
Contributions from both
physical effects and chemical
ageing effects. It is usually the
later that governs long-term
performance. Associated with
extrusion failures in seals.

No known failure directly caused by

this. However, geometrical changes
such as elongation and twist have
been reported. There are indications
that such changes may reduce the
pipe capacity significantly.

Absorption of fluids over time

resulting in excessive stress if
constrained (e.g. seal) or
excessive deformation and
weakening of the elastomer if
unconstrained. Enhanced by
thermal expansion effects.
Governed by the compatibility
of the fluid with the material.
A small amount can be
beneficial, e.g. in low pressure
gas line seals, abandonment
permanent plugs.
Caused by reductions in
temperature which may also
result in hardening and
increased stress relaxation; the

Relevant in particular for high

pressure gas service where swelling
and/or explosive decompression has
resulted in collapse of the internal
carcass.

Creep

Swelling

Thermal
contraction

Page 39 of 56

Normally not critical for bonded

flexible pipes, however, comment to
stress relaxation above is relevant also
here.

For gas service there will be gas

absorption in the pipe wall. To control
the cover layer bonding it is required
to control the pressure in the wall by
either gas draining or reduced gas
permeation through liner, Figure 5.15.
Cracking of bonded flexible pipes may
occur at low temperatures, however
as long as the pipe is used within the
specified temperature range, this is

PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

combined effect may result in
loss of sealing force in seals at
low temperatures. Associated
with the Tg of the elastomer.
Chemical
degradation
(ageing)

UV and ozone
cracking

Fatigue crack
growth in
elastomer

Chemical changes due to attack

either by a constituent of the
contacting fluid, including
environmental oxygen (aerobic
ageing) or ongoing
vulcanisation
(anaerobic ageing). Resultant
changes in mechanical
properties might include
stiffness changes that may
affect functional performance,
e.g. an increase in stiffness
resulting from ageing may
result in excessive fatigue
forces being generated in
flexible joints.
Component surfaces exposed
to UV and ozone prior to
installation or during service
must be sufficiently resistant,
e.g. hose covers.

normally not a problem. Bonded

flexible hoses are frequently used for
LPG loading and adequate elastomer
are available for most services down
to about -50 deg C
Selection of adequate elastomer for a
given service is important. Example of
surface fracturing of HNBR in contact
with treatment chemical from MERL
below.

Provided manufacturer
recommendations are considered and
the pipe is inspected in adequate
intervals this will normally not result in
failure of a bonded hose

Crack growth under repeated

strain cycling in dynamically
loaded components (flexible
joints, hoses). Fatigue
resistance of elastomers may
be reduced by elevated
temperatures, ageing and
swelling by fluids.

Fatigue failures in corrugated liners

resulting in the elastomer being
exposed to an aggressive fluid have
also been reported.

Abrasion/erosion

Loss of material over time by

rubbing against another surface
or fluid flow with and abrasive
medium.

Bond failure

Hose end fittings and the metal

plates in flexible joints are
bonded to elastomer layers.
Appropriate bonding agents for
the type of elastomer and
metal should be used. The

Material loss of the pipe cover is only

critical if it leads to exposure of the
armouring. This is one of the most
frequent failure modes for bonded
flexible pipes
The experience with these type of
failure modes is addressed in Table
5.2

Page 40 of 56

Cracking of then external sheet has

also been experienced, see Figure 5.14

PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

bond is formed during the
curing (vulcanization) process.
Inadequate bond strength may
be a result of inadequate
manufacturing
conditions or degradation
caused by fluid ingress and
corrosion.
Overstressing or
degradation of
polymer in end
fitting

Several principles are used for

termination of the armouring in
the end-fitting.:
- Hard rubber with high shear
strength and efficient load
transfer from armours to
end termination
- Mechanical grip on the
wires either as swaging
directly on the armour
wires or be hoop wrapping
outside the armours to
force the armours to follow
a profiled nipple.
- Use of epoxy
- Combination
If cracking in the polymer occur
the hose will normally fail
either by leaking or bursting.
The polymers used in the endfitting are not exposed to the
same strain as the rubber in the
hose, however, the mechanical
load may be significant and
materials with adequate long
term strength has to be used.

Page 41 of 56

The pipe qualification process shall in

principle ensure that end termination
is stronger than the hose.
However, for combined loads like high
tension and pressure pull-off failures
for entire end-fittings has been
observed.
Further liner leaks due to e.g. fatigue
of corrugated pipes will often
propagate a crack through the endfitting polymer.

PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Figure 5.14 Cracking in outer cover, courtesy of Contitech

Figure 5.15 Bubble due to absorbed gas, pipe was not designed for gas service, courtesy of Contitech

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

INTEGRITY MANAGMENT

6.1 General
The integrity management of bonded flexible pipes should follow normal good practise as
for any subsea asset. The integrity management system and related information handling
should be fully integrated with the users other similar systems, and be aligned with
established work processes. This will ensure better experience transfer and easier system
upgrade and maintenance. A generic cycle for integrity management is shown below.

Initial information
acquisition,
inspection, testing
and status/risk
evaluation

Evaluate
information
and update risk
assessment

Perform system
improvements
and mitigations

Information
handling

Perform
monitoring,
inspections and
tests

Update
program for
inspection,
testing and
monitoring

Figure 6.1 Integrity management process

As explained earlier in this report the bonded flexible pipes often see rough handling and
tough operating conditions. Therefore the pipes in some applications are more or less seen
as consumables and hence replaced frequently. For some other applications, the pipes are
permanently installed, inspected, tested and maintained, and thereby able to operate safely
over the full field life time. Certainly, most cases will be found in-between these two
extremes.
In all these cases the user will gain from a properly designed and executed integrity
management programme. In some cases, operational safety will benefit largely from this
program, while in other cases the cost savings by reduced replacements will be the driving
factor. In most cases, both safety and economy will gain from a good integrity programme.
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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Inspections, testing and monitoring are all key elements for a successful integrity
management program. With a good system for information handling a cost effective
integrity management system may be established.
Details in what to do and how to do this will be different between pipe types and
recommendations may vary from the different vendors. For all applications the vendor
experiences and recommendations should be implemented in the established integrity
management program, see typical vendor recommendations below. Experiences gained
throughout the operational life should be basis for improvements, both within the users
organization and preferable also shared with a broader audience.

6.2 Inspection, testing and monitoring

Monitoring
One of the key activities in the integrity management program for bonded flexible pipes is
the monitoring of operational parameters. Typically this could be continuous time trace
monitoring of pressure and temperature, frequent sampling of fluid composition, H 2S, CO2,
and monitoring of dynamics and environmental parameters.
For bonded flexible pipes in gas applications, the pressure cycling or more precisely the large
pressure relief may be vital for the performance. Good operational routines and careful
monitoring of adherence to these routines could be important for successful operation of
these pipes.
Some bonded flexible pipes may be especially sensitive to torsion due to thin walled internal
steel liners. For some special applications of these type of bonded flexible pipes, monitoring
of vessel motions may be of special importance.
The use of any chemicals in injection or production lines should be closely monitored and
carefully checked against the relevant material compatibility charts.
The monitored parameters should be reviewed regularly and seen in relation to the other
inspection and testing activities. Early actions should be taken if the bonded flexible pipe is
operated outside or very close to established limits. Further such data are important for
extended life evaluations and possible premature failure investigations.
Inspection
General visual inspection is the most commonly used inspection technique for bonded
flexible pipes. If this inspection reveals any irregularities a closer investigation should be
performed. The close visual inspection could either be targeted at areas identified as critical
during the planning phase or be a result of findings in a general visual inspection.
All surface irregularities of the bonded flexible pipes and areas around the end fittings shall
be carefully documented by photos and measurements. Comparisons with known failure
modes and previous inspection records should form basis for further actions.

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PSA Norway State of the art Bonded Flexible Pipes, 5662,

Internal video inspection of bonded flexible pipes should be performed. The frequency of
the inspection may be adjusted according to vendor recommendations and relevant
experiences for similar pipes in similar applications. The pipe should preferably be carefully
flushed to enable an efficient internal visual inspection of good quality. The development of
new and efficient internal pipe inspection tools is ongoing and possibilities for identifying
actual failure modes using such tools should be reviewed regularly.

Figure 6.2 Internal inspection by Maintech of the Petrojarl 1 hose, courtesy Teekay Petrojarl

When performing internal or external visual inspections, previous inspection records for the
actual bonded flexible pipes should be available. This should form basis for target areas,
what to look for and level of detail for the inspection. Relevant previous findings from all
similar pipes and applications should form basis for the integrity program established and
maintained in correspondence with figure 6-1.
Testing
A pressure test is often seen as the last and final activity of a status evaluation of a bonded
flexible pipe. The importance of pressure testing for the bonded flexible pipe is based both

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the design codes typically used, the difficulties in revealing internal pipe wall failures, and
practical experiences.
The pressure tests may typically be planned to confirm leak tightness of the pipe and related
connections, or the test could be focused on confirming structural integrity of the pipe. The
leak tests could be performed at operating pressure, while pressure tests will typically be
performed at 1.2 to 1.5 times the design pressure.

6.3 Information handling

Efficient handling of information in a long term perspective is vital to successful integrity
management of bonded flexible pipes. To achieve this within an operational organization the
information handling routines, tools and databases have to be fully integrated with well
established work processes. This will enable the long term continuity needed for efficient
access to information, maintenance of historical data and analysis and assessments based on
all monitoring, inspection, testing and possible repair data.
The status reporting for the bonded flexible pipes should be integrated with the information
handling. The integrity management system should be highly interactive in order to maintain
a good overview of the present status, critical areas to improve, actions to follow up and
experiences to shear within own organization and with the industry.

6.4 Typical storage and operation recommendations for loading hoses

All the loading hose manufacturers deliver their hoses with dedicated recommendations for
their product.
The below example is based on the Trelleborg Kleline catalogue and may serve as an
example of how the manufacturers recommend to handle and operate the hoses. Please
note that the below text is only an example; the example is not complete and should never
be used for any specific hose.
Storage area
The storage area must provide an efficient
protection against:
excessive temperatures
ozone, keep away from any ozone source
sunlight
oils, solvents, corrosive vapours
insects and rodents
Regular inspections are necessary to ensure
that each crate, hose or stack is in good
condition. In order to facilitate the removal
operations the serial number and delivery
date should be written on the wooden
protective blanks; the hoses will then be sent

on site in their order of arrival sequence.

Finally each hose should be carefully
examined, internally and externally, and the
forecaste date for putting into service
registered.
It is essential to know the assembly site and its
environmental characteristics (storage area
distance, shore, quay, beach, tides, currents,
etc.), and the equipment at the disposal of the
operator; thus to optimize the place and
manner of connection of floating and
submarine lines.

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Assembly area
The assembly area may be: a beach, a quay, a
jetty, a deck. Choose a place from where it will
be easy to proceed to the launching with a
minimum of handling. Before using the
assembly area, make sure it is free of any
object likely to damage hoses.
Connections
According to the general arrangement
drawing, the hoses will be connected
together. Be careful of the identification of
hoses and their possible orientation on the
line; concerned hoses are:
specially end reinforced
extra reserve buoyancy
retaining collar arrangement, etc.
Make sure there is no prior damage. Each
hose serial number will be recorded in order
to know its position in the line and to be sure
to retrace it for the future operations.
Immediately before the connecting operation
remove the wooden flanges, clean with water
each integrated gasket.
Check that for no foreign body (sand, fabric,
wood, ...) remains inside the hose.
For submarine hose only, it is imperative at
assembling operations to align the
longitudinal white stripe situated on the
outside cover.
Use suitable studbolts, each equipped with
nuts and put all the studbolts in place before
beginning to tighten the flanges. The
tightening will be made on diametrically
opposed studbolts and checked by using a
dynamometric wrench.

Testing and inspection

After complete assembly, the line(s) will be
tested for leak detection. Pressure pump,
recorder, pressure gauge, plugs, etc., are
needed. The line will be filled with water and
drained carefully to remove all air before

raising pressure. Fluorescent agent can be

added to the water, specially when this test is
made with hoses afloat in sea water.
Pressure test must be carried out at least
every 6 months and will be done with the
line(s) full of water, at a pressure of 15 bars
and for at least 3 hours. The sea conditions
must be still, with minimum swell amplitude
and without current reversal so as to limit the
pressure variations.
The replacement of one line, a section of line
or a hose pursuant to damage or a retirement
will be carried out with the same care and
preparation as for the original installation of
the SPM.
The below onshore testing will be carried out :
at the terminal close down for maintenance
operations
after a damage to the terminal
after 4 years of service
Depending upon these test results a
reinstallation of the hoses can be decided.
Visual inspection
An internal and external examination of each
hose will be made to check for damage such
as cuts, tears, abrasion, deformation, blister,
corrosion, etc.
Hydrostatic test
Except for the 15 cycles in pressure, this test
will be made according to the OCIMF guide
and the elongation values will be recorded
and compared with the previous ones and
with the tests at factory when this same test
was originally done. The hoses, which under
this test will show a non acceptable
elongation, swelling, twisting or leak traces,
will be rejected.
Vacuum test
The inspection of the liner through translucent
flanges and with adequate lighting must not
show any delaminating of the liner or
collapsing of the hose.

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6.5 Exploration hoses

The following example is based on the Safety & Maintenance manual for Gates Rotary &
Vibrator Hoses. Please note that the below text is only an example; the example is not
complete and should never be used for any specific hose.

Operations
Care should be exercised during operation
to prevent crushing or kinking of hose.
Crushing or kinking can cause severe
damage to cable reinforcement. If this
occurs, remove hose from service and
test.
Working Temperature
Working temperature should not exceed
82oC. Temperatures encountered higher
than 82 oC will shorten the useful life of
the hose.
After Coolers
Compressors should always be equipped
with after coolers to lower the air or gas
temperatures within tolerable limits. If
after coolers are not used, air or gas
entering hose at excessively high
temperatures can accelerate the hose
aging rate, thus reducing the expected
service life.
Working Pressure
Working pressure includes the pressure
surges that occur in the system.
Oil Base Muds
The use of oil base muds having an
excessively high aromatic content will
cause hose inner liner to swell, resulting in
less abrasion resistance which can shorten
service life. It is recommended that oil
base muds be held to a minimum aniline
point of 66 oC.

Twisting
Hose should not be intentionally back
twisted. In order to prevent twisting, it is
suggested that a swivel be installed on the
gooseneck end of hose. Each length of
hose has a yellow longitudinal stripe. Use
this as a guide to ensure hose is installed
without any twist.
Safety Clamps
All rotary hoses and vibrator hoses are
marked with the notation Attach Safety
Clamp Here. Safety clamps must be
installed prior to placing hose into service.
The location for attaching these safety
clamps is shown by marks at each end of
the assembly. Do not use the safety clamp
or chain for lifting (see Figure 5).
The safety clamp should be tightened
securely, but not to such an extent as to
damage hose or reduce the inside bore
diameter.
Field Test Pressure
Hose assemblies subjected to abnormal
abuse such as severe end pull, flattening,
crushing, sharp kinking or excessive
pressurization must be immediately
inspected and hydro-statically tested at
1.25 times the rated working pressure.
Field testing of rotary hose, when required
for establishing periodic safety levels of
continued operation, should be
conducted.
If cable reinforcement is exposed and rust
or corrosion is evident, remove hose from
service.

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7 REPAIR
Generally speaking repair of the hose should be limited to minor damage of the outer cover.
All the bonded hose manufacturer specify that cover damage with exposure of the
armouring should not be repaired and the hose taken out of service.
All the manufacturers have repair kits for cover damage where adequate repair material,
glue and repair manual are included.
Internal liner repair, repair of a leaking hose, repair of hose where rust deposits from the
armours have been observed or repair of deformed hoses shall not be performed.

Figure 7.1 Left picture shows repairable damage, right picture is damage beyond repair, courtesy Contitech

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8 PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE SUMMARY

8.1 General
The experience reported here is based on communication with users of bonded hoses and
the manufacturers. This section is based on the information obtained during this study and
may be in-complete.
The following general recommendation applies:
1. Pressure testing of damaged hoses, hoses on the reel with un-known residual
tension or hoses that have been kinked or crushed should not be performed as
premature burst or end-fitting blow off may occur.
2. A bonded hose should only be used for the intended service
3. The manufacturer guidance on service limitation, storage, handling, inspection,
testing and maintenance should be followed
4. Premature failure of both bonded and non-bonded flexible pipes used on drag
chain and other demanding jumper applications has occurred and design of such
systems should be performed in close dialogue with hose manufacturer

8.2 High pressure flexible production hoses

This sub-section is based on experience with bonded flexible jumpers used topside for
hydrocarbon production and injection service. Contitech (Taurus) and Dunlop has API 17K
approved designs for such service.
The design limitations for these bonded flexible pipes have been:
- Temperature
- Gas leading to blistering or collapse
- Chemical ageing
- Tension
The experience is summarised below:

Temperature
Temperature limitations apply to all polymer materials. However, elastomer materials which
can be used for bonded flexible pipes and with adequate thermal properties for hydrocarbon
production exist. Provided the bonded flexible pipes are used within the design limitation
the experience with bonded flexible pipes used in service temperatures of 80oC 100oC is
good, max working temp is service dependent.
The actual thermal limitations for the elastomer materials used in such bonded pipes is
higher, up to 150oC for the most temperature resistant elastomers , however, such
temperatures are outside the experience range for bonded hoses.

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Gas Service
The elastomer materials may blister if used in gas service. Blistering is a result of gas
absorption when the material is exposed to high pressure gas. With a rapid decompression
the absorbed gas will expand and blistering occur. MERL, Ref. 10, has documented this
effect and generally speaking elastomer materials are not used in gas service for pressures
exceeding 150bar. However, in certain bonded flexible pipes a steel carcass is used inside
the elastomer. The carcass is a strip wound steel structure bonded to the elastomer, the
carcass is not leak proof. The elastomer is then partly shielded from gas exposure and partly
prevented from swelling due to gas absorption; the rubber is enclosed by the carcass on the
inside and the steel armouring on the outside. Experience has shown that bonded flexible
pipes may operate at higher gas pressure than the elastomer itself. This is verified by
comparing test results from elastomer O-rings with experience from bonded flexible pipes.
Successful long term operation with about 300bar gas at 60 degC has been experienced.
On the other hand collapse of the internal carcass or the transition to end-fitting due to
swelling of the elastomer has been experience both during service and in tests. Some
operators are hence not using bonded flexible pipes for high pressure gas service.
There exist bonded flexible pipe designs with a gas tight liner, ref Figure 4.5 . The experience
with such designs used in production service is limited offshore Norway. The only known
application offshore Norway suffered from fatigue of the corrugated steel tube used as liner
and the bonded hose started to leak after relative short period of operation. For such design
it is hence important that the corrugated liner is not welded in location where bending may
occur and further such pipes should not be twisted or exposed to high torque loads.
Chemical ageing
Normally the materials selected are based on exposure to the fluid transported through the
bonded flexible pipe. For most of the production jumpers a carcass is used and the
elastomer is hence partly shielded from the fluid. The carcass is not leak proof and locally
the elastomer will be exposed. Generally speaking it seem that the material selected based
on general material properties derived from testing of material samples are adequate
materials for bonded flexible pipes.

General ageing
Reduced pressure capacity of bonded flexible pipes after some time in operation has been
experienced. Neither the degradation rate nor the general ageing process is known in any
detail.
Tension
Standard bonded hoses are designed with a limited tension capacity. The manufacturer
guidance is normally to limit the tension to the weight of one hose segment. For topside

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jumpers this is normally not a governing criterion. For riser applications on the other hand,
tension capacity and additional reinforcement must be considered
Drag chain application
The following statements with relevance for bonded hoses have been copied from A
summary Report on FPSO, Lessons Learned, gathered from 5 Norwegian FPSOs, May 2002 20 September 2002, Prepared for the Norwegian Oil Industry Association, OLF, Ref. 11.
Drag Chains
2 out of 5 FPSOs have drag chains as an alternative to a swivel. Specific problems
experienced include hose and electric cable failure due to wear from bending, wear pads
worn out, difficulty of access, and damage caused by running into the end stops. In addition
the drag chain limits the free rotation of the vessel requiring thrusters to be serviceable at all
times.

8.3 Offloading hoses

General hose experience
Long service life from 10 to 20 years may be achieved for submarine application where
environmental limitations and loading method are properly established.
Long service life can also be achieved for floating hoses, but the occurrence of
unpredictable/accidental events (bad handling, ships crossing the line, wearing against
hawser, chains and other hoses) can shorten the service life.
OCIMF hoses have been designed to withstand the pressure/tension and bending loads
generated by most of the usual offloading application.
TRELLEBORG has an offloading hose design approved according to API 17K and they are able
to adapt the hose design for higher pressure and tension resistance. One example is the
hose provided to SHELL for the BONGA deep water field. The Oil Offloading Line is a 2200 m
long and suspended in submerged lazy wave configuration. The 2200 m length is based on
jointed 12m long hose sections, see Figure 4.6. This hose has been designed for a service life
of 20 years and has been designed for dynamic service in 300 m water depth full of oil.
Poor handling has often resulted in hose damage such as:
- damage the foam jacket for the floating hoses
- damage the outer cover and create direct contact between sea water and
reinforcement components
- can generate bending radius below the MBR and so create failure inside the structure
The use of a helix introduce an asymmetry in the structure and for the torsion loads in the
"unscrewing" direction of the helix, the inter-ply stresses are amplified and accelerate the
fatigue that can generate de-lamination. It is also to be noted that due to the presence of

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the helix, all dynamic axial loads are partially converted into torsion loads generating high
inter-ply stresses.
Offloading systems are designed with a moderate pressure rating governed by the offloading
pump capacity. Most offloading system are designed such that pressure surge will be
controlled. The most common way of doing this is to introduce a MBC (Marine Breakaway
Coupling). The MBC will part at a given pressure or tension and slowly close the hose ends
thereby limiting the leak to an absolute minimum and ensuring no critical surge pressure.
For North Sea tankers all valves are designed for slow closure. However, mal-functional
valves has resulted in excessive pressure surges and full parting of offloading hoses. It is
unlikely that the hose was weaker than expected in these events.
The oil spill rate from bunkering operations is high. It is expected that many of these are
related to improper hose management programs and improper procedures. The bunkering
hoses are outside the scope of this report and this is hence only an observation.
Reeling of long length hoses and in particular submerged hoses may require high axial
tension. Most bonded hoses have limited tension capacity and will elongate when
tensioned. Reeling of an elongated hose will result in hose tension and large radial forces
locked in the reeled hose. It is important that the hose and reel is designed for such tension.
Premature burst failure during testing of hoses reeled with high tension has been observed.
Hose operation experience
The following statement with relevance for offloading hoses has been copied from A
summary Report on FPSO, Lessons Learned, gathered from 5 Norwegian FPSOs, May 2002 20 September 2002, Prepared for the Norwegian Oil Industry Association, OLF, Ref. 11:
Shuttle tanker/offloading
FPSO/Shuttle tanker offloading has been very successful. Only two minor incidents
occurred out of approx. 1000 offloadings - one contact when some light structural
damage was sustained and one rope round the thruster. Missed loadings due to
weather have also been very few.
As indicated in section 2 there has been two recent failures with offloading systems offshore
Norway. To 4Subsea knowledge neither of these were related to malfunction of the hose.
However, both incidents seem to have been related to surge pressures exceeding the hose
capacity. Proper design of the system to either avoid such surge pressure or to be strong
enough to resist the surge pressure in any events should hence be performed. If the hose
shall be designed for such pressures it may be required to design the hose for pressure
ratings outside the OCIMF specification.
An OLF, Ref. 11, workgroup prepared a note related to lessons learned from FPSOs operated
offshore Norway including one part related to loading hose handling. This section is copied
below, as shown it is of utmost importance to have good procedures and experience
personnel for such operations. It seems that hose failures with properly operated and
maintained systems are very unlikely.

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Table 8.1 Loading hose handling section from OLF study, Ref. 11
Suspension and hose bridle wires are heavy
Operations.
and difficult to handle. Wire causes
FPSO
excessive wear on equipment.
marine.
Assemblies consisting of different sizes and
components with different diameters/shapes
result in difficult handling onboard the
shuttle tanker.

Should use ropes such as spectron, dextron or

similar synthetic ropes, including protective
sock.

Shackle between the lifting ring on the

hose termination piece and the suspension
line shackle jams hose from connecting
properly on shuttle tanker. (All seems well,
but minute gap between hose and coupling
prevents green light).
Existing offloading control stations do not
provide free view of hose and coupling. This
is particularly relevant where offloading
hose is stored in chute.
Problems in connecting hose when shuttle
tanker is not directly behind FPSO. The
problem is experienced where hawser is in
center of FPSO and loading hose is offcenter (to starboard or port)

Operations.
FPSO
marine.

Design/arrangement must avoid shackle

interference when making up the connection.
(S)

Concept
design.
Operations.

Free visibility/view of hose must be arranged

for operation/handling of loading hose. (F)

Operations.
FPSO
marine.

Correct positioning of shuttle tanker relative

to the FPSO hose position is important during
connection. This may be solved with optimal
position and method of storing the loading
hose. (By example at center of FPSO on a
reel.) (F)

If loading hose is too heavy and lowered too

deep into the sea, the valve may open and
allow sea water to enter hose which then
becomes very heavy for handling.

Operations.
FPSO
marine.

Loading hose must be displaced by

nitrogen/inert gas prior to being retrieved. (F)

Lacking access for maintenance of loading

hose.

Concept
design.
Operations.

Adequate access and work platforms must be

arranged to allow safe maintenance of all
equipment, including hose termination piece.
(F)

Auxiliary winch for Spectron rope to pull

hose must be fast enough to pay out and
recover rope.
Lacking crane on the stern (hawser and hose
handling area) of vessel.

Concept
design.
Operations.
Concept
design.
Operations.

Speed of winch should be twice as fast as the

hawser winch. ( 80 100 m/min) (F)

Not adequate or lacking floodlight on deck

/work area of FPSO and shuttle tanker.

Concept
design.
Operations.

Adequate floodlight must be provided in deck

area, however, arranged to avoid blinding
operational personnel both on the FPSO and
the shuttle tanker. (F)

Sometimes difficult to observe shuttle

tanker from control cabin.
Visibility in loading station control cabin
sometimes poor due to sunlight.

Concept
design.
Operations.

Important to have good visibility to the

shuttle tanker. Adequate curtains to be used
to provide sun blinds. (F)

The assemblies should be designed to be

handled on winches and sheaves. Better design
in opening for recovery of hose handling gear
and/or elimination of shackles. Standardized
use of shackles. (S/F)

Crane should be arranged / be available for

handling of hose/cardang onboard the FPSO.
(F)

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8.4 Exploration hoses, including, mud, cement, kill and choke

The general experience with bonded hoses in such applications is good. Hoses are inspected,
tested and replaced from time to time.
The hoses are used in an extremely demanding service and hose failures occur. The general
experience may be summarised as;
- Kill and choke jumpers on drilling rigs should have relatively high bending stiffness to
avoid excessive bending when the hose is in axial compression. Some operators
prefer the stiffer non-bonded jumpers in such applications.
- Rotary hoses, mud hoses and cement hoses are normally bonded hoses. In these
applications bonded hoses are preferred due their flexibility.
- Spill of oil based mud have been reported in a number of events offshore Norway. In
addition personal injury due to hose burst has been reported by MMS.
- The actual maintenance program followed by the users of such hoses is unclear to
4Subsea

8.5 Seminars / forums / development of standards

Several organisations and forums address bonded hoses and operations involving use of
such hoses.
The work performed by API and OCIMF has strongly contributed to improving the quality of
bonded hoses. The dialogue between the oil companies and the manufacturers during the
preparation of API 17K is a good example.
4Subsea is not aware of any ongoing projects which promote communication related to
bonded hose technology or revision of standards where both oil companies and the
manufacturers for high pressure bonded hoses contribute. The communication today is
hence mainly related to purchase or operation of bonded hoses.

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9 REFERENCES
Ref. 1 PSA-NORWAY, Flexible Pipes - Failure Modes, Inspection, testing and monitoring,
http://www.ptil.no/getfile.php/PDF/P5996RPT01REV02cSeaflex_JanMuren.pdf
Ref. 2 Frequency analysis of accidental oil releases from FPSO operations in the Gulf of
Mexico, MMS 1435-01-99-CT-3092, DnV January 2001
Ref. 3 The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Ltd, ITOPF, Handbook
2007/2008
Ref. 4 OGP publication 316, Input to the North Sea from the offshore oil & gas industry
1989 to 1998, report 2.82/316 feb. 2001
Ref. 5 HSE RESEARCH REPORT 047 ,Health & Safety Executive, Analysis of accident statistics
for floating mono-hull and fixed installations, Prepared by Martin Muncer 2003.
Ref. 6 API spec 17K Specification for Bonded Flexible Pipe
Ref. 7 API spec 16C, Specification for Choke and Kill Systems
Ref. 8 API spec 7K Specification for Drilling and Well Servicing Equipment
Ref. 9 OCIMF, "Guide to purchasing, manufacturing and testing of loading and discharge
hoses for offshore moorings", 4thn edition 1991
Ref. 10 Elastomers for fluid containment in offshore oil and gas production: Guidelines and
review, MERL Ltd for the Health and Safety Executive 2005
Ref. 11 A summary Report on FPSO, Lessons Learned, gathered from 5 Norwegian FPSOs,
May 2002 - 20 September 2002, Prepared for the Norwegian Oil Industry Association, OLF
Ref. 12 Granskings rapport: Oljeutslipp Statfjord OLS-A 12.12.2007
http://www.ptil.no/getfile.php/Presentasjoner/Sikkerhetsforum-referat%200108/Gransking-Statfjord-Ptil.pdf

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